1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 C—O Handout 4 Plastic Theory S.D.G., January 31, 2002126 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 4.1 Background and Introduction 4.1.1 History In the 1930's, experiments showed that elastic analysis was not suitable for estimating the col- lapse load of structures. A new method was developed that instead concentrated on the final failure mode — this method is known as plastic theory. Much of the work on plasticity theory was carried out in this Department by a team led by Lord Baker, and some of the Department's buildings are very early examples of the application of plasticity theory to design. Research on using plastic theory continues in the Department to the present day. 4.1.2 Material Model Plasticity theory was originally developed for the design of steel structures. Although it is rou- tinely applied to the analysis of structures made from other materials, we will initially consider a simple material model that is suitable for steel. Ina tension test, the stress strain curve for mild stee! is approximately: In simple plasticity theory, this is idealised as either rigid-perfectly plastic, or elastic-perfectly plasticHandout 4. Plastic Theory 127 rigid-perfectly plastic elastic-perfectly plastic The main assumptions are: 1. Neglect work-hardening; 2. The material is ductile; 3. The behaviour is identical in tension and compression. The rigid-perfectly plastic model is often used for simplicity. It neglects elastic deforma on, 4.1.3 Example: failure of a simply-supported beam ‘An experiment shows that as the load is increased, collapse occurs by the formation of a kink in the beam, known as a plastic hinge. Initially the behaviour is elastic: Eventually further curvature becomes concentrated under the load, at the plastic hinge:128 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 w To understand the collapse, we need to examine what happens on the cross section where the plastic hinge forms. 4.1.4 Stresses on a rectangular cross-section as a plastic hinge forms We make two assumptions about the behaviour of the beam: (1) Plane sections remain plane (the ‘railway track’ analogy). Even when the section becomes plastic this remains a good assumption. It implies that the strains on the cross-section must vary linearly with curvature. If y is the distance from the neutral axis, and x is the local curvature, the strain is given by The stresses are related to the strains by eSey For a simple rectangular section, this gives the behaviour shown below:Handout 4, Plastic Theory 129 cross-section strain stress comments (constant) aba & strain Ee stress (b) 2 z (c) @, . 4 We can calculate a moment-curvature relationship for each of the regimes (a)~(d): (a) Linear elastic range. From elastic bending theory (1A) where J = second moment of area of section 8 for a rectangular section1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 where ymax = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre d ‘ =$ fora rectangular section (b) At first yield (= M,) This is often written as My = Z,Gy, where Z, is the elastic section modulus, For a rectangular section, The curvature at this point is “EL Ey = 2 fora rectangular section (d) Fully plastic (M = M,) We wish to calculate the moment on the section when it becomes fully plastic (as the curvature becomes very large)Handout 4, Plastic Theory 131 cross-section strain stress equivalent (constant) forces rb g, The fully plastic moment My is in equilibrium with the resultant forces Phis is often written as My = Z,G,, where Zp is the plastic section modulus. For a rectangular section, (c) Partially plastic It can be shown that for a rectangular section in the partially plastic range 1-38) M=M,132 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Moment-Curvature plot ‘The results (a)-(d) can be plotted to show the formation of a plastic hinge in a rectangular cross- section: Moment (M4) Curvature (K) If we had instead assumed that the material was rigid-perfectly plastic, there would have been no deforation at all until the entire section was plastic, giving a moment-curvature plot: Moment (M) My Curvature (x) 4.1.5 Example: failure of a simply-supported beam revisited Now we know the moment-curvature relationship in the hinge, we can examine the collapse of the beam more carefully:Handout 4, Plastic Theory 133, Elastic- Rigid- perfectly perfectly plastic plastic >=——s =F? ~~ s If collapse occurs when W = Weaitapses Bending- Load moment diagram BM.134 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 4.2 Plastic section modulus This section will show how the calculation carried out to find the plastic moment of a rectangular beam can be generalised to almost any cross-section. The only assumption that we shall make is that there is an axis of symmetry of the cross-section in the direction of the applied loads. We shall again aim to write the plastic moment as M, = Zp), where Zp is the plastic section modulus, which only depends on the cross-section. cross-section stresses forces 5, iy a stress The total tensile force is given by The total compressive force is given by In the absence of any overall axial force (the usual assumption), these forces must balance ‘Thus the neutral axis for fully plastic bending is the equal-area axis. ‘The plastic moment is given by My yoydA + —oydA tensile [compressive =| plada and hence the plastic section modulus is given by Z, Tocnl?l#4Handout 4. Plastic Theory 135 In practice, sections can usually be split into a number of simple regions, and the formula for plastic section modulus reduces to Zy= Adel regions where: A, is the area of a region yielded fully in tension, or fully in compression; |jy| is the distance from the equal area axis to the centroid of A, For our example 4.2.1 Example Find Z, and My for the following section, given 6, = 250N/mm* 50 a 7 = fa All dimensions in mm alfa s | ss I Locate position of equal area axis X-X Divide the tension zone into simple shapes and identify their centroids w.rt. X-X axis. Repeat for the compression zone136 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Evaluate Zp = ZregionsArltrls Mp = Zp 4.2.2. Summary of plastic section modulus 1. 2 43 In the limit, the whole section is yielded either in tension of compression. . If there is no axial force, longitudinal equilibrium forces the neutral axis to be at the equal area axis, Note that this may not be the centroid of the section — when a beam yields in bending, the neutral axis may move. The plastic section modulus is given by Zp = freaion|)|4A. Note that this is not the first moment of area, as all of the beam makes a positive contribution. In practice, Z, is more easily calculated by splitting the beam into a number of simple regions which are fully yielded er tension or compression, and applying Zp = Sregions Ar|Vr|- Try Question 4, Examples Sheet 2/4 Plastic collapse for determinate beams An alternative way of calculating the collapse load of a beam is to consider an energy balance of the beam as it fails. The key idea is that during plastic collapse, the energy dissipated as the beam yields must balance the work done by the load. 4.3.1 Example 1 Consider our earlier simple example: fHandout 4. Plastic Theory 137 Neglecting elastic deformation (or assuming rigid-perfectly plastic material), during collapse the beam will look like: Compatibility Work done by external load Energy dissipated by plastic hinge Calculate plastic collapse load — equate work done and energy dissipated: Note that we have calculate the same collapse load as before without using any statement of equilibrium. 4.3.2 Example 2 Find the collapse load of the simply supported beam shown below. The plastic moment of the beam is Mp.138 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 _ if f. For this example, we might consider that two failure mechanisms were possible, either a pla tic hinge would form at B, or it would form at C. We will examine the effect of these assumptions on the estimate of collapse load. Mechanism (1): plastic hinge at C Collapse mechanism: Compatibility Work done by external load Energy dissipated by plastic hinge Calculate plastic collapse loadHandout 4. Plastic Theory 139 Mechanism (2): plastic hinge at B Collapse mechanism: Compatibility Work done by external load Energy dissipated by plastic hinge Calculate plastic collapse load140 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Choosing correct collapse mechanism As W increases from zero, the beam will collapse when W reaches W;, and the failure mechanism will be mechanism (1). The load will never reach W, and failure mechanism (2) will never occur. 4.3.3, Example 3 — Distributed loading In the previous examples it was clear that hinges would only form where a point load was applied. With distributed loading, it is not clear where the hinge will form. Consider the following beam, with plastic moment M, A G mnt length Initial estimate For simplicity, initially assume that the hinge forms in the centre. Collapse mechanism: Compatibility Work done by external load Energy dissipated by plastic hinge Calculate plastic collapse loadHandout 4. Plastic Theory 141 More careful analysis Consider a general collapse mechanism, where the hinge forms at some unknown position x. B x QI) Compatibility Work done by external load in HB in CH in total142 IB Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Energy dissipated by plastic hinge Calculate plastic collapse load Choose correct collapse mechanism — to find the actual collapse load, and the actual posi- tion of the hinge, we require the lowest possible value of wyyech. We can find the minimum by considering when dWmech/dx = 0. In this case, however, the expression for Wiech has all the terms involving x on the bottom, and hence it is easier to find the position of the maximum of 1/Wzcis (the same thing), by considering when d(1/wmecn) /dx = 0. Substitute back to give the critical load we Note the relatively small improvement in the estimated collapse load compared with the initial estimate, w1 = 36M)/9L?. oe Shoot Al Try Questions 5 and 6, Examples Sheet 2/4)Handout 4, Plastic Theory 143 4.4 Upper Bound Theorem of Plasticity An estimate of the plastic collapse load, Wmech, calculated for any| arbitrary compatible mechanism by equating the work done by the applied load, and the plastic energy dissipated, will either be greater: than, or equal to, the actual collapse load W. Winecn 2 We General methodology 1. Postulate compatible collapse mechanisms; 2. Evaluate Wmech for each; 3. Select the collapse mechanism that gives the lowest upper bound on W- Note that we have only used two of the three basic principles of structural analysis. We have to postulate a compatible collapse mechanism, and we use a material law to find the energy dissipated, but we have not considered equilibrium. Later, we shall also see the Lower Bound theorem of Plasticity, that considers only equilib- rium and a material law, but neglects compatibility. A formal proof of the bound theorems of plasticity will be given at the end of the lectures on plastic theory, 4.5 Plastic Collapse of Statically Indeterminate Beams ‘We saw in Handout 1 that an elastic analysis of a statically indeterminate structure is harder than the analysis of a determinate structure: it was necessary to simultaneously solve equations of equilibrium and compatibility. For a plastic collapse analysis, however, it is no more difficult to analyse an indeterminate structure than a determinate one. The only distinction is that failure must occur at more than one point. A statically determinate beam can collapse when one hinge forms. A statically indeterminate beam will require more than one hinge. 4.5.1 Example — Propped Cantilever |"144 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 For this example, two hinges are required for collapse to occur. It is evident that the only sensible places that they may occur are under the load or at the root, and hence we can be confident that our upper bound analysis in this case will give the correct collapse load. Collapse mechanism |" k—12 12 41 Compatibility Work done by external load Energy dissipated by plastic hinge Calculate plastic collapse load 4.5.2, Example — Multi-span Beam Find the collapse load W, of the following structure:Handout 4. Plastic Theory 145 Collapse mechanism 1 Collapse mechanism 2 These are the only two sensible mechanisms — for uniform structures subjected to point loads, hinges will only form at the load or support points. For instance, the third mechanism shown below has the same work done by the load, but more energy dissipated. Collapse mechanism 3146 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Ws Ws BNL ER Choose correct collapse mechanism By the upper-bound theorem, the actual collapse load will be the lowest collapse load for any collapse mechanism. Because there are no other sensible mechanisms, W> must be the actual collapse load. 8M, We = Wp Handout 4. Plastic Theory 153 202 | 302 _ Sway mechanism Combined mechanism Sway mechanism is most critical, and the load factor at collapse is 1.5.154 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Example - pitched roof portal frame Draw an interaction diagram for the following structure, which has uniform plastic moment. 8 9 = ‘The same mechanisms are possible for this structure as the normal portal frame, but now the beam mechanism has to push out one of the legs: J a A — a \’ ‘HH Hy Beam mechanism 1 coal — > J #2 Sway mechanism Combined mechanism Beam mechanism 2Handout 4. Plastic Theory Beam mechanism 1 Beam mechanism 2 155156 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 ‘Sway mechanism Combined mechanismHandout 4. Plastic Theory 157 Interaction Diagram SE | Try Questions 9 and 10, Examples Sheet 2/4 Le 4.7 Yield Line analysis of slabs and plates 4.7.1 Introduction So far, plasticity theory has been applied to ID elements such as beams and frames. In this sec- tion, we will extend the same ideas to 2D plate structures. An elastic analysis of these structures is very difficult, but a plastic analysis just follows the principles we have seen before. The main difficulty is to ensure that we use a compatible collapse mechanism.158 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Simple extension of beam example to plate Notation A Cc B Edges Yield lines Free edge Simply-supported edge Clamped edge Sagging Hogging A c B Axes of rotationHandout 4. Plastic Theory 159 Calculation of the plastic moment of a yield line Rectangular beam Section of plate For a plate made from e.g. steel, the moment capacity per unit length will therefore be m=So, Many plates are in fact made of reinforced concrete, and are then referred to as slabs. Con- crete slabs do fail by yield lines, but the energy absorbed is all in the steel reinforcement, and the above calculation for moment capacity is not valid, Calculating the plastic moment for re- inforced concrete beams and slabs will be covered later in the course. However, one important point is that, depending on the layout of the steel, the plastic moment capacity m can be different in sagging or hogging, and can also be different in different directions. The 1B course will always assume that the value of m is isotropic, apart from one examples paper question, Assumptions of yield line theory 1. Collapse is due to ductile flexural failure, and is not due to other modes such as shear failure, 2. In-plane forces are ignored. 3. The deformations are small compared to the overall dimensions of the structure.160 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 4.7.2. Compatible Yield Line Patterns An essential requirement of an upper-bound collapse analysis is that the failure mechanism is compatible. A few simple guidelines help to ensure that a chosen yield line pattern is compatible. 1. The yield lines divide the slab into several rigid regions, which must remain planar. Each region must have a unique axis about which it rotates. 2. The yield lines must be straight between intersections. 3. A yield line between two rigid regions must pass through the intersection of the axis of rotation of those regions If these rules are broken, the chosen collapse mechanism will be incompatible, for instance it may require some of the rigid regions to twist. A good way of visualising a collapse mechanism is to imagine it projected into 3D. Could you make a simple cardboard model of the collapsed structure? Example collapse mechanisms for uniformly distributed loading x, yete, are variable parametersHandout 4, Plastic Theory 161 e | column Example collapse mechanisms for point loads K 4 single point load skew bridge with axle loading (2 point loads) 4.7.3. Work equation An upper bound for the collapse load of a slab can be calculated in the same way as for beam structures, by assuming a compatible collapse mechanism, and equating the work done and the energy dissipated during collapse.162 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Energy dissipated: For a hinge between two rigid regions, i and j, the total plastic moment in the hinge will be Mp = mij where: m is the plastic moment per unit length of the slab; hy is the length of the hinge. ‘The energy dissipated in this hinge will therefore be: E.D. in one hinge = m1, 0; where: 03; is the rotation of the hinge between rigid regions i and j. The total energy dissipated will therefore be: toral ED.= Y mlyj6,; ai finges A principal difficulty with yield line analysis is finding a compatible set of hinge rotations, 6;;. However, because we assume that all rotations are small, the rotations of each rigid region can be plotted as vectors (using a right-hand screw-rule), and the difference between these vectors is the rotation along the hinges. Work done by loads: The work done by a point load W displacing a distance 6 is still W8. The work done by a uniform pressure appears to be much harder to calculate. Formally it could be written as W.D. = J p8(x,y) dA, where 8(x,y) is the displacement at a point on the slab. An alternative would be to find the centroid of each rigid region, as the average distance moved by the load on that region. A much simpler alternative, however, is to simplify the expression for work done to W.D = pV, where V = J'8(x,y) dA is the volume swept out by the collapsing slab. V can be easily calculated, as most collapse mechanisms can be split into roof sections, and pyramid sections. roof section pyramid sectionHandout 4, Plastic Theory 163 4.7.4 Example — Balcony Estimate the collapse load W to cause the collapse of the baleony shown below, which has a moment capacity per unit length m. Vector diagram of rotation164 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Energy dissipated Hinge 12 (hinge between rigid regions (1) and (2)) Hinge | (hinge between support and rigid region (1)) Total Work equation 4.7.5 Example — ply-supported slab Estimate the uniform pressure p required to cause the collapse of the simply-supported slab shown below, which has a moment capacity per unit length m. 2bHandout 4. Plastic Theory 165 Vector diagram of rotation Energy dissipated Work done166 1B Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Work equation Optimized analysis An optimized analysis using Dr Middleton’s “Cobras’ programmes, which allows the geometry of the collapse mechanism to vary, and also tries different collapse mechanisms, finds that the ‘true’ collapse load to be p = 14.1m/L?, for a collapse mechanism similar to the one we analyzed, but with the central hinge line slightly shorter. a — 7 [ty Questions 1,2 and 3, Examples Sheet 2/5 pencmneenis| 4.8 Slip plane analysis of continua 4.8.1 Introduction As a final example of an upper bound method, we will look at the failure of rigid-plastic blocks of material (a continuum), for example in the figure below:Handout 4. Plastic Theory 167 | force Fn length rigid-plastic continuum Applications Soil mechanics: Design of foundations, embankments etc. Metal-forming: Extrusion, indentation etc. Assumptions Rigid-plastic material We shall assume that the material will only fail in shear at a shearing stress k, and is otherwise rigid (This is an example of the Tresca yield criterion, which we will examine in more detail later in the course) rigid-plastic Small deformations ‘The usual assumption that the geometry remains essentially unchanged All the examples in this course will be 2D plane strain — we will take a unit depth into the page, and assume no deformation out of the plane, but the method is equally applicable to more complex geometries in 3D.168 IB Structural Mechanics 2001/2 Methodology ‘We will again use the upper-bound work method, where we postulate a compatible mechanism, and equate the work done by the loads (or possibly self-weight, for e.g. the collapse of an em- bankment), with the energy dissipated in the material during an incremental deformation. For slip plane mechanisms (and also for plastic hinges and yield lines), work methods are often written in books using velocities and equating rates of work, and rates of deformation. However we will continue to consider small deformations — our formulation is identical to a rate of work formulation where everything is multiplied by some small time 8. 4.8.2. Energy dissipated in shearing ‘The energy dis as shown below jpated in slip plane mechanisms is dissipated in narrow bands of intense shearing, Shear strain in the shear zone Engineering shear strain is measured as the change in an angle that was originally a right-angle in the material, the angle -y shown above. Stresses and strains will be discussed in more detail later in the course.