Professional Documents
Culture Documents
200-211
FIGS. 1-4, DECEMBER, 1952
W. C. KRUMBEIN
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
ABSTRACT
Facies maps based on numerical stratigraphic data (percentages, relative thicknesses, and
ratios of lithologic components) are relatively new in the literature. Many such maps represent
experiments in methodology, and the wide variety of patterns displayed on the maps presents
many problems of interpretation.
In part, interpretation of facies maps depends upon the scale of the map, the magnitude of
the stratigraphic interval, the geographic area involved, and the relative rate of change of the
facies in the map area. In general, two types of maps are recognized: regional *naps, which
show broad trends over large areas, and local maps, which show greater detail in smaller areas.
The distinction is partly on the basis of map scale, magnitude of stratigraphic unit, and density
of control.
The isopach map of the stratigraphic unit is used as a base for the facies map, and interpreta-
tion of the facies patterns is closely related to interpretation of the isopach lines. The concept
of "facies strike" and "isopach strike" are useful in map interpretation, inasmuch as they pro-
vide a basis for testing similarities or dix ergences between these two kinds of strike and the more
familiar structural strike of the rocks.
The present paper reviews some of the principles of facies map construction and attempts to
develop principles of nmp interpretation. These principles are based mainly on relations be-
tween the kinds of strike, on rates of change, and on an evaluation of the erosional modification
of the original patterns.
end members used. This uniform geomet- for thin units in which each lithology
ric derivation of the lines thus becomes plays an i m p o r t a n t map role. T h e geo-
a c o n s t a n t factor in facies m a p inter- graphic area involved in the study (plus
pretation. the thickness of the unit) largely deter-
The contour interval for ratio facies mines whether the map is to be regional
lines is c o m m o n l y geometric r a t h e r than or local, and thus in part establishes the
arithmetic, to bring out exponential facies map scale. The uniformity or heterogene-
trends, b u t this practice is not an essen- ity of the rock body influences the close-
tial part of the method. For certain rate ness of spacing. In m a n y parts of the
of change studies an a r i t h m e t i c interval craton the rates of facies change are
is preferable. In any" event, two sets of gradual, b u t as the margins of ortho-
ratin lines are commonb" shown on the geosynclinal belts are approached, they
same isopach base, which permits selec- may be relatively, rapid. Unequal spacing
tion of limiting values for defining gross of control points, with greatest density
lithologic groups. Each of these nlay then in areas of rapid facies change, is usually
be colored for easy visualization of the indicated. The geographic location of the
map patterns. I t is recognized t h a t the study area may limit the n u m b e r of
clastic ratio and sand-shale ratio yield control points by lack of exploratory
non-specific lithofacies maps in which holes, absence of good exposures, or
minor lithologies may be obscured. How- extensive erosion.
ever, there is an almost infinite n u m b e r of The writer is not aware t h a t a rational
specific end m e m b e r combinations which theory of control point spacing has been
can bring out any desired type of litholo- developed. For the most part the prac-
gy or lithologic characteristic. tical problem is solved by rule-of-thumb
methods. \Vhere control is scarce, it is
P R O B L E M OF S A M P L I N G T H R E E -
all used; where control is a b u n d a n t , some
D I M E N S I O N A L ROCK BODIES
choice may be made. T h e writer's ex-
The problem of spacing control points perience with regional mapping has led
on a facies map is essentially statistical, him to favor relatively open control, to
inasmuch as it involves the question of avoid the complexities brought in by
a d e q u a t e sampling of the stratigraphic local anomalies. Selection of the open
unit. It has been pointed out by m a n y control is influenced by several factors.
writers t h a t the volume of rock cut by a One is t h a t each control point should be
borehole is only an infinitesimal part of " t y p i c a l " of the section in t h a t area. Sub-
the total vohlme of the rock body, pene- surface workers or field workers with
trated. However, the sampling problem wide experience are usually" able to decide
is not so much one of relative volumes as quickly whether the section is regionally
of obtaining representative sections. As- sound. Even in literature compilation,
suming t h a t complete sections (wells or construction of rock correlation networks
outcrops) are available, the sampling and cross-sections with all available d a t a
problem ma F be approached in terms of permits reasonable selection of map con-
four factors which involve the n a t u r e of trol. Lowman (1949) describes a method
the stratigraphlc unit, the size and loca- for setting up a correlation network.
tion of the geographic area, the uniform- Assuming t h a t control is relatively
ity of the stratigraphic unit, and the a b u n d a n t , the problem of control point
scale of map to be used. spacing may be studied experimentally.
The magnitnde of the stratigraphic Maps may be prepared of the same area
unit is i m p o r t a n t in terms of its gross and stratigraphic interval with increas-
thickness and composition. For large ingly tighter control, to observe the suc-
time-rock units, in which most facies cessive changes in the facies patterns.
techniques result in average values, the Such experiments commonly show t h a t
sampling problem may differ from t h a t surprisingly open control affords maps
204 W. C. I K R U M B E I N
which are not much changed until the several field wells to obtain a character-
control becomes quite dense. For exam- istic regional value, which may be plotted
pie, regional systemic studies on a 1:2.5 at the center of the spread.
million base in the central states provide The interpretation of regional maps is
acceptable maps with only one control influenced by the spacing of the control
point per 2,000 square nliles. This is points, and in this paper it is assumed
about one well per two counties in mid- that the spacing lies between 1 and 2
western states, and the control points inches, which is perhaps slightly more
are spread about 1.5 inches apart. The open than the optimuin density.
patterns do not significantly change until
ISOPACHS AND FACIES LINES
the control is tightened to the order of
several wells per countv, whereupon the One of the conspicuous features of
broad facies trends begin to disintegrate facies maps is the relation between iso-
into more patchy patterns. In short, it pachs and facies contours. In some maps
appears that local variations begin to the sets of lines trend in the same direc-
dominate over the regional picture. tions, and in others the relations between
:\ ~econd approach is to consider the the two kinds of lines may be complex.
increasing difficulty of writing numbers The concept of "isopach strike" and
and drawing contours if the control "facies strike" are useftd in evaluating
points arc very closely spaced on a map. these relations. Isopach strike may be
Regardless of scale, spacings closer than defined as the compass direction of the
about 0.5 inch bec~nne inconvenient, and isopach lines. An isopach map is a two-
optimum ease is achieved with spacings dimensional projection of a three-dlmen-
from 1 to 2 inches. When the points fall sional solid with assumed horizontal flat
4 or more inches apart, it becomes diffi- top, and the isopach lines represent traces
cult to see the trends among the numbers. of horizontal planes along the edges of
This rather arbitrary rule provides the solid. On the other hand, facies lines
one basis of selecting map scales in ac- represent traces of vertical surfaces which
cordance with the detail desired in a cut the solid into blocks. Hence, facies
study. On a 1:1 m31ion base, one point strike may also be defined as the compass
per 8 townships (288 square miles) direction of the facies contours.
yields a base with points spread about an Many facies maps consist of two sets
inch apart. On a scale of 8 inches to the of facies contours snperimposed on the
nlile, one well per 10 acres yields a b o u t isopach base. In some instances one set of
the same spacing. The first density repre- facies may have the same strike as the
sents an optimum regional control and isopachs and the other may transect them
the second represents an extremely de- at some angle. In general, there seem to
tailed study. be at least six relations which can be dis-
Figure 1 shows three base maps on a cerned between any set of facies lines
1:1 million scale, with three densities of and the isopachs. These are illustrated
control points. The control point density in figure 2, where the solid lines represent
increases by a factor of 4 in successive isopachs and the dotted lines may be
maps, with average spacings of 1.5, taken as elastic ratio lines, sand-shale
0.75,, and 0.375 inches. In the writer's ratio lines, or some other lithologic repre-
opinion, the o p t i m u m density for most sentation. The six examples are not pre-
regional maps lies somewhere between sented as a formal classification, but
maps A and B. Map C obviously has too rather as suggestions for further stud3".
small a spacing for convenience. With The distinction between the linear and
this tight control the map scale should ovate patterns is partly one of map scale,
be increased. In this connection, individ- but the intention is to suggest degrees of
ual control points may be field wells, and similarity or difference in typical situa-
it is sometimes advantageous to average tions.
PRINCIPLES OF FACIES MAP INTERPRETATION 205
I
B '0 !
i
!
i
le D D
I
i I
D
I
I
Fro. 1.--Portion of 1 : 1 million base map, showing three densities of control spacing. A - - o n e
well per 0 townships; B one well per 3 townships; C - - o n e well per 0.7 townships.
'-.% ,.
J
CONCENTRIC DISCORDANT IRREGULAR
4P
OVATE OVATE SPOTTY
. " ,j
elastic sediments are spread over a sub- facilitated by drawing individual ratio
siding area in decreasing a m o u n t away maps, and studying the relations between
from the source, so t h a t the elastic ratio 1) elastic ratio and isopachs, 2) sand-shale
lines tend to decrease as the isopachs ratio a n d isopachs, and 3) clastic ratio
increase because of increasing lime de- and sand-shale ratio. By sorting out the
position. The curvilinear discordant pat- individual effects and checking them back
tern may arise when a local concentration to the original logs or measured sections,
of clastics is poured into a subsiding area, it is usually possible to infer the combi-
as in a delta. Here the clastic ratio lines nation of conditions which produced the
may project farther into the basin t h a n observed effect. Because of the similar
normally. The concentric ovate p a t t e r n geometric derivation of all lithologic
is characteristic of evaporites in an intra- ratios as mentioned earlier, the same
cratonic basin. The irregular spotty pat- reasoning applies to facies maps based
tern occurs near the deteriorating edges on any selection of end members.
of sheet sands, where the accumulation When color p a t t e r n s are superimposed
becomes p a t c h y or spotty. on the map in terms of limiting values of
When two sets of ratio lines accom- two lithologic ratios, the relation of the
pany the isopachs, the relations become color p a t t e r n s to the isopachs represents
even more complex. The elastic ratio a kind of average relation between facies
lines may parallel the isopachs a n d the p a t t e r n s and thickness. Two r a t h e r com-
sand-shale ratio lines m a y be curvilinear mon situations occur, as shown in figure
discordant; or one ratio may yield a 3. In one, the ruled p a t t e r n s are aligned
simple pattern and the other be irregular with the isopachs, indicating fairly close
spotty. Commonly, interpretation is relation between lithologic response and
PRINCIPLES OF F A C I E S MAP INTERPRETATION 207
FIG. 3.--Portions of two hypothetical facies maps showing parallelism and discordance among
isopachs and facies lines and patterns. The legend triangle applies to both maps.
208 W. C. K R U M B E I N
subsidence; and in the other the ratio ling conditions of sedimentation in terms
lines and ruled p a t t e r n s weave across the of the tectonic framework, the distribu-
isopachs, sometimes because the two tion of source areas, a n d in some instances
ratio lines are locally strongly discordant. the sedimentary e n v i r o n m e n t s which pre-
These latter p a t t e r n s are often a m o n g the v a i l e d Some of these features can be
most difficult to interpret, b u t they sug- discerned in part from the relations be-
gest t h a t while one ratio responds to tween isopach and facies lines.
general tectonic conditious, the other Figure 4 is a chart which a t t e m p t s to
ratio line may respond to local sources, show the response of map p a t t e r n s to the
currents, or other conditions. tectonic framework and source areas.
Post-depositional erosion greatly dis- T h e upper portion shows shelf and intra-
turbs the relations a m o n g facies and iso- cratonic basin conditions with three pos-
pachs. In the preceding discussion, it is tulated types of source area. T h e central
assumed t h a t the strat!graphie unit has portion of the figure lists the six isopaeh-
a conformable top; where this condition lithofaeies combinations of figure 2. The
does not hold, as along the edges of m a n y lines connecting the blocks suggest sever-
maps, the discordances in the p a t t e r n s al combinations of conditions which may
may be wholly erosional. It is not safe produce the map patterns. The relations
to assume, however, t h a t where the pat- are probably more complex than shown,
terns are irregular there must have been but the c h a r t suggests on the basis of
some erosion. Several criteria for helping present knowledge t h a t certain combi-
to distinguish between erosional and de- nations of tectonism and source tend to
positional zero isopach lines are given in produce characteristic map patterns.
Kruml)ein and Sloss (1951, p. 445). With The generalizations suggested by the
some modification, these same criteria upper half of figure 4 are t h a t shelf dep-
may be applied to analysis of the central osition tends to produce linear or spotty
portions of facies maps. patterns, and t h a t intraeratonic condi-
tions tend to produce ovate patterns.
T E C T O N I C AND E N V I R O N M E N T A L
In addition, the specific p a t t e r n s within
INTERPRETATION OF FACIES
each framework are partly influenced by
MAPS
the n a t u r e a n d location of the source
Facies maps are made for several pur- area. I t is recognized t h a t shelves and
poses, including reconstruction of geolo basins m a y be of variable size, so t h a t
gic history', i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of environ- the c h a r t refers mainly to rather broad
mental conditions, evaluation of the features on the craton. P a t t e r n s in linear
c o n t e m p o r a r y tectonic framework, and geosynclinal belts have not been studied
for a variety of economic uses. Regional extensively, b u t they also appear to in-
facies maps of thick time-rock units have clude both simple linear and complex
most value in the first three instances; discordant elements.
detailed exploration maps usually in- I t is to be recalled t h a t in all regional
volve thinner units and larger scales. maps of thick stratigraphic units, there
However, even the broader maps have may be a serious averaging process which
industrial application in setting a frame- of itself often introduces lack of p a t t e r n
work for more detailed studies. coincidence. Two radically different sec-
Regional maps of the kind considered tions, one with interbedded elastics and
here provide d a t a on three i m p o r t a n t non-elastics throughout, and the other
questions. T h e 3 show l) the present areal with basal elastics and higher non-elas-
distribution of the stratigraphic unit, 2) tics may show up in the same color pat-
the present variation in thickness of the tern. In some instances, such relations
unit, and 3) the over-all or gross lithology suggest t h a t the interval be divided into
of the unit. Such maps commonly afford two or more t h i n n e r parts for separate
a basis for evaluating the broad control- mapping. In other instances, proper selec-
PRINCIPLES OF F A C I E S :]IAP I N T E R P R E T A T I O N 209
CONTROLLING CONDITIONS
ISHELF DEPOSITION I IINTRACRATONIC BASIN DEPOSITION I
Neorby Orogenic Neorby I IOistonfl Neerby Orogenic Neorby I Dist"ont ]
Source Epe roger, c Source Source . Epe rogen c Source I Source I
ON FACIES PATTERNS
]E;](;. 4.--Relations between facies fines and isopachs in terms of tectonics and source areas.
Lower part of diagram suggests nature of environmental influence on patterns.
REFERENCES
KRUMBElX, W. C. (1948) Lithofacies maps and regional sedimentary-stratigraphlc analysis:
Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol. 23, pp. 1233-1261.
----and SIoss, L. L. (1951) Stratigraphy and sedimentation, San Francisco, Freeman and
Co.
Low, J. (1950) Subsurface maps and illustrations: Subsurface geologic methods, edited by L.
W. LeRoy, Golden, Colo., Colo. School of Mines.
LOWMAN, S. W. (1949) Sedimentary facies in gulf coast: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.,
vol. 33, p. 1965.
MOORE, R. C. (1949) Meaning of facies: Geol. Soc. America, Mere. 39, pp. 1-34.
SALISBURY, R. D., and ATWOOD, W. W. (1908) The interpretation of topographic maps: U. S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 60.