.

e:1

THE FUNCTIONS
OF THE EXECUTIVE
ay
CHESTERI EARN RD
Famvevy Pvgnun uy
m, .2
mm a Ttep/wu: Company

THIRTIETH ANNIVERSARX EDITION

wnh an Inuoducnon by
KENNETH R. ANDREWS
12mm; x uma Pvw: a! a] Emma; 4dmmmvtvtvrx
12mm.: {Znwertw

.
I

.
I
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

CHAPTER V
THE PRINCIPLES OF COOPERATIVE ACTION
HERE nn nn copcratlvc systems ln whlch physical, bio-
lugical, persnnal, and social elements or factors rc not all
present. ln this Chapin l shall m gv: fuur lllunznanlnnn af
lan, which wlll nlsn llluxuatc a number o he pnnnnnl.
nun: previously prcxcnted, m {ha Xcltmgs uf concrete nonpnn.
live sltuallom. wuh (has: llluxrrationx in hd, and nn hn
basl: of hn previous cbaptcrx, l shall then facu: hn nncntlon
2nd nally
upon n nw gcnclallzauon: th: Em mnportancc;
of
l shall (estate in Condensed form th: nnnnlnnl undustlndlngs
dcnved from Pm l wnh whlch wn unter, u. Par: ll, upon th:
Consuuctlun at a Lhcoxy of Drganlzallnnn
l eccts.
Oftell th: nzccssity of uperaung canuctcly wlth regard La
one flctor ur Mulher canccas fmm ux m oxdimxy zhnlnng
th: fact that all copcratlve action is a synthcsis of diverse
factors, physlcal, lnnloglnnl, and social, and aanza a nnznl
situation n whlnh them facmrs rc all presenl. T_o make} 11m
as nlnnn as posxlblc n th: purpoxc af
nhn following l Jxuarlons:
(a) The most universal form uf hunnnn toperaxian, 2nd
pcrhaps unn nnnn mmpcx, is spccch. spnnnh n a physlcal
evzr ltrcquires physlca cncrg canvertcd mio snund Waves,
transmiued in n nnnnnl medlcmy lnnunnl hy physical candi-
Lions of Lhe nny onmcnr. Spccch n also n hlnlnglcnl act,
something done by living hnlngs; i: rtquxes lungs, lnnynx.
also equlres
nusc, tongue, (ecth, lips, and a ncrvoux ayxtcm; n
can, etc, spnnnh l: alxu a sucia! phcnomellon; n can only hn
lnnnnnn hy sucia} contact. h hai nn use except in n mclal
simanon; words hzv: no mcamng exccpl n n anal usage,
FNNCIPLES OF COOFERATIVE ACTION 47
Spcech as a copcrative zctlvlty ceaxcs m nxnl if nny cnc al
han factors falls. l; ht wmd blnws (oo hard spctch cases.
If nannlynu, xcmaval of lnnynx, or death nnknn plnnn, spend-l
cemsts, Also. thu: n mu! deancl: speech canse; (zxczpt
fur spccnl methods) or th: capacl fox lpccch does rut de-
vclap. If han rlosoccilgoz thc conventional Ian .
gel:
no: known, thu: u no speech.
Th: nynnl {o whlch w: gw: th: name spccch u n event
havlng lnsepambl: components. phvslcal, blologicz, social.
Thn event takes nlnnn whether wn give n 1 nnmn
chlld doc: nm. IL u nn zvcnK a nng aut ui m wlthln nal-a
o:
a {ma}
(han physlcal, hlnluglnnl,
sltuanon n ml. And wn know u
a: an cVcnL nm hardy became wn nuy hear i: hun also bccausc
a: produce:
rcactmns, changes ln ha zuml sxluatlcn, Sac what
yuu zr: dolng" pmduccx nnlnn. l: nhnngns physical hmary,
blalagzcal history, social hlnnn. Non: af these components
can be abxtractzd fram the evcnt clthcr lu orgn, ir: pmccss,
or ln 2nd still lcav: hn cven h u a whnln syylcm.
XL
lncludcs many pam 11m 2K: unknown and tar [hat - san
not campnhcnded n zh: nnlnn wn gw: it. [t s posslbk hat
all of lts phynlnnl compantnts
are nat known; n ccrun that
n
nll af
n; blalogical components al: nat known, n l: still more
nnnnn, that nu nf :5 social components le nat known. En:
n takes plnnn ncvtlthcless, and nhn conduc: of men u acczcd
thczcby. Tha: can hn ubscrvcd.
Th: zharacier of events callcd speech mn b: nlsnnnn by n
puslve eon. This n nnw done on an (laborar: 2nd complex
scale, hu: ir s: nnnn only hy opcrationx
el: the compoltns.
Th: only way nu acct (Il: whole l: by effort appllcd [a the
pan. We may change the physlcal cnndtons. wn muy remove
nn bring ncaler the communizantx, wn may introduce zlcctncal
wavcs and clccuczl apyaxalus. wn may speak Ioudcr, or
me. Axthur p. lanlulny, Echar/lor Knawfelge Fed (Th: Fnnclpa Prns,
unn, 193 *, un n45 H.
48 COOPEMTXVE SYSTEMS PRINClPLES DF COOPRATIVE ACTION 49
SDfIC.
W: may ahvdhp {RW hhhhhahgh 711W whhdh Saciany. hhyzh, Cmfo; the kmd O chhhhhg whhh, my hzhhh
UK
a: m
Thtlc al: OPCHIDES hhzhhhhd [0 DVEYEUmC hhhhxahhh lmpsCd han chhdhihhh, including chhphhhhhh m bmldjlg hha co
by one hh: o acln h; nohtl. Skmlav, e wc WXh [D cpetatt apllm! h USE. n l: mpsslblt to ha h hhuhh I hh S h whole
0D h hhn 1.1 h gavhh 11x Un wc Can uhuhzzy hhsy uh s0 by hh S mi h Xullant hr ha:
[hat ittls. I ' hhhpuhhzhxh tu JCPBHXE
Opalmn On some pu: ue
1:.
we hem the whole {hrugh um. Bu: X l! hhzy pois: ' {a Chang! the whhxh by Dpeauns
the pan. hh hhh ltm i! h
z

(b) India h Country ulhabitcd by mhhy mamuhh of per- u) A mhhuh1 thcyhnc which Wllthbcard S hh Ssicmbllgc hi
X

sohh zh h Stkty rallc up h; huhhhhhuh (Opcrlivt ysiems h:

hhyhhchx umugh hlhhuhhhu farces
whhhh hhh mhh hhhhnhhh al! shmhnhh. Th: hhhvaduhh IC
ma!
hhhhhhha. Thu JBCXS O
ha {o bc
chhhhhhhzhhahh. hh lpcclC
many h.
bmloghcal uhhh hhqhhshg food. Thhy XC SU cnnsmtcd mhz cncrttt farm, hwnvd, h llkLWlSt dttlrmlncd by ms! hha
hhhy C30 dlgts! [ha mcat of Cattlc. The lhhd hhd the hhmhh hhhhghchl JCtDrS. The hhzhhchmmhhichuuh whhhh h [S [HSM]
IEC exprmed
pcrmll he hhhshhg of Clttlc. Bu: then: is h mm
fm CXSlCnC: 15 h hhchhl suhhhhh.
SDEJ
h; size h ttclmlcd by he
h; h Conlwulng venian m (he hhhshg h: meat. Tha (Kien! ht (he mdtiy md ht cxtcn: h: Commnhlton hha
hh mpannt dcgrcc the mom/el. htnce m.
{ohhh CIS h hhvhhhh (diu social HCCDH. k5 hau 1.1 hhhvhhihhhuy limited by

duc, X ng hhhh hxhlhghhh1 ne<ds. This haha; h: Chllclt! hhhnhgschu [E6011 m 10,500 llncs. Du: S uh lo m: anatomlcil
hr th: (UHVIIUH h; hhh mi and [IEYCOXC th: chalctel hs th: ehh: [hai (h! ltngth O women's
arms h 1hhxhha. s ahhh hhm
[Dpgrlphhcal hhvhhhmhhh. k hhhy CVCZ) hem hhh Climate. Wcrc S zhhg S mhhhhyh- (relailvlly) (ht S12: h; th: much.
sphhhhh cllmalC Sand ohh hhh hhm :u be h Dlhcr pzhchh h hhhhu
ud htncc (h: hhhhhhh hs hhhh hhuxa b: ldgcl, OY ir S
[5311! ht hochhl CDOPCIRUOII>E mcteaxc he hhahihn h Auh the hhhhh hr (ht OFCIIOI whxch 1am; h hugI-r TEL: llmll-
hhhh
(mln, zh: lwmg h; [cmpcrtuc h. wmxcr in chhhgih hhhh, hwcvcl.
ahh CYSIS s the iaki (devices mr mhmihhhhg
the Clnlzabn of Alhhnh. {clcphonc Clrculls h Swlchblrd!) of h certain 5511. u
l!
1h hdhh k is eVldtnl (hat bath (h: phyxcal hha th: biolug- hhhy
Wu: much hmhzlh. (JS {hly hhum h: hha haVc hhhh, m
ul hem (hsh hha dtaih IS nccled by rhmhhs) XC n- chphhhhghh hh cxamplt) the huhhhhh of ITIES Could hh in.
hhhhhhhzy hhvoaveh h h hhhh: shhhh. u hhh Snuallan hh h chhhshd. TU do ahis, howevcr, hhuh rhh rcncmtntl. Such
ho
whole s {o hh hhhhhha h whuhx 565m m {equrc hcuhh al lcmcnf: hvhhh hahxhghhhx dcutks ur Wkmcn. hhm,
ICSPECIS {hai facm. whhch obviously hvhzvh mca ECXOIE. mah; Cmltmently m, E

m A hout h hhhhmh asstmblag:

O mhhmhih
h
h h hhh. puist (hzhh Cnltzkd) ln terms he
money C051. Thh dtslgn h
hhc form. k chhhhuheh hhyhhh: mhhhhihls hha EDYCC:
hha hhh hahaha h Some details by h: hahzhghhh1 fact ahh: mas!
whhds,
(CHECK: phyncal chhdhshhh such IS
women Ir: nnt ahhh hhha. su (hat chzhrhh ahghh highhzh Lan hh
ihu

lllnpcfaurc, CIC.
hwevzl, (ha! they do 110K produce housts hha hhha, hhh by the EaCL ha! Womcn ah nui hhvh cytiight IE good
h i: hh OUS,
[bit h ma: Vancly hr hMSEX Can b: EDnCCVCd Which cmbOdy 23 hhgzhh art hhsa (a havv SO (ha: highhlh, jhhhh, And humhhhx
ICHCCIS hhh1hgach1 fact!
mc sam: IEKOIS. Thh Specic hhuhh dhszghhcahhh mus! hh lhhgh ahhh Would OKIWSE hh
ncttiiary.
lhc x21: h: hlt las! hr humhh hhahgh, {ht (paclty [D Work Th: uzh h, (crm: he length h hhh HEECE by th: fic! (ha!
s. Th: hhhhh hhh rcect: shhh1 shmhwhuhhhhs Lhcr: HI5 hmizs m (h! spttd of hihlhghhhx XEZCIXOHS hi
whmhh

W
 5m COOPERATIVE SYSTEMS PRlNCIPLEs OF COOPERATIVE ACTION
5x
er swnchboards tu rhe smuli ee lights and sounds, ami that rhe erhee, Lhc dzftct
they ar: eehjecr la e biologwal ttndcncy m faliguc. If hey may prevhroheuy he eserrhea to lack uf
xeuehress; her
could work Lwxcc 2X fan. swxichbcaxds could he reueh smener, he sxatcmenl may he made properly Lhal not-
heareeg s xpecxcally du: to th: chharuehr uf rhe rrredrum
although (Im would no! affect rhe rrrrrrrher uf hrrer. The speed (air), D! of vezee, er ez car, or of es Kancc,
ha skill nf epererers, hhwever, ere merersrsly Jcctcd by or af social factor:
as govcmmg dzsuncc: cr er govcr. dculy of under-
ummng Ind meme. These re social factan. And su an almusl h;
standing. A change in any erre es rhese f:
inzknxtcly. Any eerrerere phyucal mechanism tallcd a rwhcxr. nrs mxgh: change
errher luudncss 0| th: need of sr. Sxmxlarly, rr is
board r in fat: without exmencc cxccpt her couccz to
a; i: embodies hhye say that certain candituns m hehe are uuscd by ccxtam sacial
res1, bxologiczl, 2nd sucml seerers. r
never WOHH have heeh eemenraerrr relative to {cua}. This
may he rhe OKY espeer re.
essemhtea cxccpz for all these reerers, and l could not b: urea gaxdcd ss ruhjeer to delibtrat: attack.
Ncvcrzhclcsr, r physical
or useful f rr were not designed wrrhm the 1mm: imposed cnndniom rueh s climate aaszerem,
sindy by en thu: facton. hs design 2x a who1e can nnly he were cr rhe me: popua-
[mn were less, dins: eerneezer resehs gh! eee occur and
changc, hawtver, by opclanm en cnc ser uf factors at dmc. rhrs factor would rose its rrgeracerree?
a
zr evolvcd hr fact pxccstly by (ha:
proc=ssa ereeese (hat Wax
itself social, biological, and physical.
n
Although due hmlmion is a aim ecct of all th: rsererr,
II
from the point of vxcw of eneek tu
Th< presehr srghsheerrce of rhe preeeer-rg gcncmzaxiam sem: 1 purpast r may he
esershea re one factar. This han heeeeees rhe xxatcgic eeerer,
and dlustrations res m their application re fcux
tapia: (r) the zhc bcaxing of which On rhe exccuzvc
preeesser w111 he ere
rresure af the aint larrrxreraehr on coipcmxxan "u-npused" hy 91mm se Chapter xxv. we may say that rhe lack of
physical, hialagiczl, ha seerel factors: (n) rhe
preeesser of euaeeer rr speezh r duz tu eer of
avzrmnng (has: Iumtananx m puxpoxwe conduct; (m) their cummu. una, misundcr-
rrerrqihg of rhe loudness rcquirzd, and dzszancc, bm
bearng on cccnvcncxx af cucperanvc curt; (N) rhcu heerreg wc pick out
erre tactur er another fur change er
e means of seeurrrrg the
en th: emerehey of cnpcrativ: ecn. Apprapriate result. Thix change
m eee facto:
Es
nor rhe causa
af zhc corrccuon, cxctpt L) 2,1 mmcdatc xtrategc
rerrse; rhe
1

[n vay szrnph circumsranccs rhe xpcc nc Ixmitatcns of co- cunccuun s due to th: Chang: m rhe tota; muauun. At en
e
zlmcs 1: rs rhe
eperme eeeempxhhmeer may often eehsehaerray he shared 13 m1 nf all facors, recogeazea
tha: dcrtrmnes rhe te]: onships
rising srdeperraehrh mm esrher the physreez, rhe bxologica], er the eeed: ers; rhe object
e: emm is a change a total sizuanon evoubly by ehenge
er rhe social zeererr, m th: sense that snack on a hmtaticn may
he dirccted re erre m e park.
ar anuLhu of rhese. But h s more eerreer In rhe initial stage of 2 codpcrativ:
tu srere rher she hmitadon erher fmm rhe total srrueheh or rhe sysrere th: choicc: (hat
rerhhrherxerr of factors, For examplc, s a communcadon cr. es ta urrr eeehe: vmreee verere, seereteere Gnnle (Plm:
gg Paya,
cannot adcquztely he made heeeuse one pcuon cannot hsal rw, m, m, s 194m L] Herraersee. Puma: Gnrrmlouiofy
(Haruhi Umvzmty Press. sk Nerer e mi e. hegrrrhs-
un p 7..
5; coovERATiVE SYSTEMS PRINCIPLES OF COOFERATIVE ACTION 53
is ssumcd rhnr the individual sccmiv, s pmccss pmvides mor: rccrni m: actions. Bu:
ar: exerciren rc personal. ir
situation of cneh af thus: coopcrang will
"nc
mpmvcd. rhnr in Lhc couxsc ai r. c building ir
appear: tha: some i; can-
eihei r because: nrnr cai: wll he more nnr bc don: without Additional man power. Acta: Jgly, n
n, ir mi
nc
marc
cactivz. The prmaxy appnnu ries for erecrnenerc li=_i ncnni man is mductd rc Join luz gmup. Th s an
e
zh: S pcnoiily ci are group pcwcrs over ind. rc al ninihgreni ampl: ot a soclnl "cil-md of xecux 1g biolagica power :3
social envircnnrener. For ex- mcst n phvsiczl inrirnncn under th: cundilions. As rlic work
powcrs cnacr r.c physical and
nnrpic, Five nren cupcrat: dcfcnse against xtrangers who
foi prnceecr ir soon ppcau (ha: lack of appropriate cenrci: erinn
may he enernree by maintzming 2 cuntinuuus watch r {wa
nf cort rtsuk g m mcccuvcncxx. The Lansideiaxian of mie
n
poms of nhrerwinn. I: is unpossiblc to de (his ringiy. Not: g 2 particular member as rhe ienaer
[hat sie nneure ot rhe phvxicql tczmin is a sncenr n making foi roordna and he assg nenr of ixidividuah [:2
points of absuvation dcsinblc. The preeeu o doing
this m
sitio
eerrnre mi:
various enrrcznrec taskx. This 2m cxamplc of rhe invention of
s
duces ncw social aczursthc formation cr the eccnernnvc a rcerei method or evadmg bolugiml
Jn. anahi in nn attack
system. TIYJS he physical fzctnn remain cnnrrnnr, e bialag phyneni sccrcrr.
e
an
cal acmrs remain constant. hur th: men) Eaczor changes. fine This rzi-irrrnncn servcs ni show rhee rhe opcmtiun nf a co-
Chang: in the tam! muauon mucLcs rhe fut es a brnicgreni apcrativc systtm requixes altcrnatioit: of ahieczives. Th: uul-
factor. when rhn diange her heen neenmpiirhed, 2 purpose n icerion of biological incecrc and social factczs s required {a
'n pocas O accomplishmcnr. A certain tgrc: nf rnceenreci vpemtc nn physical facton. of phyneni and social factors on
szcumy emuts. The eiheiency f rire vwrpris: lies in the iaer hrningieni recrnrr, of physical nnci hiczogreai inernri an sucia!
mnrmernnzaercnerca idualxmvalvedar: nroresrnn factmrxr Thc upezaunx, always directcd ar
pa: cular actora al
sufcicnt {n incince rherr c. There ans: from the
cunpcrauon a means o changing a total situation m which all ibas: types of
inereeseci security, rhe enci wught; and rhe 3ra.. caxion in facturs ar: componmtx, hay: fur their ziltimat: ends the rnnrrne,
rncini sntcxcouise whirh was not sought but now heccenei rien af individual motiva; "nui rhcir
dcsixable.
me; consequezicc: axe
cithcr rr) me immedizt: sxisfnction af rhcre motivts. cr (ei
Now it appcars (o he genereiiy true rhnr sucia! saxactiuns rhe sncharion of ennhcr caupexnton.
of em ny crhcr (han nrere personal in th: ruenrnni nerione ne a eeeinererive svsxcm these rwn
equ re som: ubjzctiv:
eniis fm enanercri :- nenvny, cc. cierres of comcqucnccs
pro .mily. Grcganousncsx ar: instparablc, ani! rher, ere rzquentlv
apcrnrjun requiree something tn do. in this nccd lies th: he. no: distinguishnblc obectivcs al specic ams. sc: occaszona y
qJcny observar! oxigin of purpuscs D accion whcrc rhe mon s (hev 2:: cn ngnirhnhic. l: is cnnvenie: tc abszact xhtm as
sacitf i I
m sat. incnnni ar: described a: distingmshzblc purpose: ln dic analysis of en pcratve ac n
in th: lustration nn gzven, he immcdiztc dangcr being re. a: a whcic far :hc present cxpmitan. we say, then, im: we
secuzty by
ireveci,
n ls cierernrineci :0 obtain mor: permanent muy upcmlc nn ha physical cnvitanmen: eizlier (ri rc sacure
building 2 fort. This is a change m ehe tam! situation by a physical rnererini cr forces fur immediate satisfa ens or 1;)
change of une phvsicnl envircnnrenr. h: rcniir will he nrnre o make punible copuativc action nat othcnvise sennhie. wc
de einnec .n Chzptzr ix, m; mng may oyente on biological lacmn enhcr (I) rhreeriy m inercnrc
mr A! er Pi w
 54 COOPERATWE SYSTEMS PRINCIPLES OF
coopmurnva ACTION 55
"producan" u: again (2) [D faczhtarc cecziv: cooperation. PE
thu gcncral mcthad of cxpand
VF:
ahy apunte On socxal factor uthcr u) m give Lnctcascd s wxdely ng coperanv: possibi. es
apprccmrcd, and its ccunomc aspectx have received
mcal sllsfkckxons, o:
(a m {ac orm:mnsumpzmn
capentian. 1h (Jxrtnl great ha rzntively zxccssiv: attenrcu a dmrrpmehr.
amm terms w: muy praduc: rmhsurrrrrr shall ducuss t further only ncdzntnyu a w:
goodr) or w: may produce for grormhrrhh (ploducuun gaus). (b) operanghs on th: bxologc factors
For the plcscnt we may pm amd: obennvu O Capcra e ax: cumman ha
Si: Indnpensanx: ro much rhmphr ctdpcratxan. They take
Han mttndcd h: th: mans hr tuning ndwldual sazlsfacxion w c Ian-us chxcy h: cducatrun 3nd [mm
and resmct our aitention to ohvcczivcs mtmded hay m hash. g nd the Xpcdla.
Igfmi
' apparzunxty tn develop personal sk Is, Also, pubhc
iatc th: cnperarxvc xystzm s an immtdatc and m rrsru. Such
a
prggrhmr ha much mzdxcal and rehabilitation whrk
cxorii axe dxrutcd to
m phynca], (b) bxuogcal,
wnasam

or m social
factors. m(c)opcmnans o: rms character, emm directly cr maidenrallv.
(a) Operations on
we have un rcfcrred tu whhr might be cafled bncy
h: phyrml factors for the purpos: in-
a the procesar; of aczlitazmg coperatxav. by
external develop-
crcasmg the possxbxli t} U mpcration uk: h cipzlly the ment). But the other. evcn mu): important,
.
form o puxpcstfu change o th: natural cnvlmnmcnt. pmtcss. rhar hs
W: are opcrahg On the socmI factors, u rr a cms cmal and m,
1

nat atcusiamcd tu think of (han; g (ha: Cn/xnmcnt h; a 301m th: rhcr nVCnlln of Remus mchads Df
DE
mclhd making cooperation pam h. but a vcry large part human {e12-
nanshups. Thzs praccxs .1 spccial
tcchnml eld ha: hardly
of ou: constructiva effort ncvcrthelcx: i: for this puxposc. Bath a:
bccnrccognlzed untrcctnly and {houghmfzct
transpananan systzms and communcznon systams Iargcly scxv: hhads of qumer.
pugna: endeavor r ha: bccn rhrahrerr he mrens:
thu dixect purposc. 1h the)! more simple md primitiva form: zrazlcd Cnr xt ha: reccwtd hrrxc
saennc
ton]! often axe mad: for his puxposc. For txamplc, th: hiring.
cal hmmtiaxxx of hamauars make imponible th:
pcrhaps, m the stage hs 1m renemcnts, rr mu cxccpt,
what 6m 011:
power nenas- cnllcd scientic management"
do u! u: ruch systcmatic techmcal
sary tu ctrun wnrk; cmpclntlon i: xcquund, but Lhc pmccsses a. accounrlzg.
Condiin .1: rcsptcts sync: ar: such (ha! severzl mm cannot
work dzxcctly un th: obuctivns. A {ever n made or pracurcd
m
m ptlmt thu. Th: making D! procunng hr a lcvcr r a Chang: Whgt hv cHe<!ivncss"
An tbc phvsruz w: mear: of copcratan i: the
environment to makc mptratfon puniblc. corhphrhmenr of the rccugmztd ubicar/ex ac.
n Iszwzdcnt h; capexativ:
m; much hs the nccumulanon of cnpxtal, th:
mvcwxuh of mcchanizal, ckcmca], apnea}. audnmy, Hd chem-
2mm). The degree of accomphshmcnt ndkn! the gres nf
tccnvcntss.
ica! machine: ha pructssc: whxch transccnd ordmaxy human
1arhrurahhr,
n sfpparclnt rm ln Dharma of mpcmtion g,

hm
m he combxnatcn hr both capxtal ha "lvcnxmn,
hr thcu pXu-naly rcxuh advance: YI zh:
power hr u
prrrhhh, that t
vshalc. It
s
al) un
ghnowr rhax ha
ha syskcm h: codptralun
UL
a: n m,
opcratian. They enormausly expand cadpcrav: ryrrrrhr bath
dcnman h: ticcliventss h
hy
rpaual, (ha: h, nvcr great nun me u also [o b: detcrmmed rr mm: wav by mr co-
uan, ha umphrhlzy, han 1x, opcmuvc system as a wh le. The bm: of his detumnaun
through lung uma, even many gCnaDnS. The technique w111 be
whclhcr (ha mah taken th: abjccnvc rcsu! szcuxcd
m
 COOPERATIVE SYSTEMS PRINCIPL a1- CQOPERATIVE ACTION 57
55

pmv: xucicnr m
acquixc (or th: systcm of E pen-mon the m: system u zh: resultan! cf th: h; hEs, 'es of {l}; mdjyjdug
suppicx or fuma: or material! nzccsslry IU satlsfy personal ijxhmg u:
Tgmmcrx eorts, that a: viewed by than.
action he
V
h; m; :1: 81153.3 m3.ve1 bemg
v. s "
seusncd by wmt
-

mom/cs. m either mdivxdual amen ox caopcxarwc

- .5
sansfactions may bc sccurcd cvcn though th: end i: nat dm komh Frcrr; uumwase h: don: nat.
u pemm
at

h (h: I; h? {mm th: cucpcmnvc system

zaxhhhhu: h: aiianment o som: end, and bclic b
u
fatal
. l! s11
s amm
hkzl sad uE tzzmng ir, appears nzccssay (o th: continua-Acc my c :0 u. me mm rc rcquzxtd mc" zh: ma wonhan
of coordmntcd action. Thus, even though
Lhc nttainmcnl of h]? nu sauacnun capcrazmg, hxs zonmbu ' n
En
b:
(amm wnold
a - -

or wxhdraw ha scxvxces, m
.
necessary to keep
11
fur "sex, z Ls amet: .

a gxven End s nuL Jetsaly

m: thc cocpuaton. Eeczwcncss from zhu paint
of mw h
m
b:
d" mi mn wouh b dcxzrovtd. Ifhc Consxdcr: h ca
._

ha mmimum ecczwcncss that can b: micmzed. Hencc

a: can
tam
(Www. zunnnuca. bus, the 65063:}! ot 2 copcm.
zfapdaaly .5 nuuntazn ma; by the mdwldual
bc seen han [ha aucmpl m do what can not be
m must .
E; .5 u l, sgrhh may b:
m...

rcsult m dx: dcstrucdn or Eail of copcraon. h. . .themx;

hahaha;
una u; of
amm
o eqL
a burdcn: bv sauxfa uns ww,
v
num,
k remains (o nula her: ha! the ccmvmess of copcm.
e

xcsuks m conunuanct. '
action mplits ecctwcncss, m a special same, cohmmeh:
E. CEWC
vhrhq mhhhh
' u
indivxduap actxons Wim-n xhc cuperaxivc xystcm. 15 vc
men
12
ah bc Jecuxcd ber by Changing
monvt: u: ndmduals (ar xecurg xub-txtute
_

dwxdua}; a ,-
pushmg a sume, ha cmt of Each nmdual h a cen- .. .
u: appxopuatc mmm/cs), whmh a upmahh m :1 han
_ _ >

xutucnt acuon: u has ha: zndcpcndcnt hmma emm: exm. hy n: pradruzy: result: which navmhauor mm
ix
a function
of the m1 acuon. The can bc dzstnbutcd tu
cncc; ts thcnvenzss bath:
1m pruehc: le rexuhx axe [ha
cectwuness of en: man can ahh, h; appraiszd cn m: ass-agp. ma; cr socxal, or
As m mm: mdmduals
don Lhal {ha othtr action: remain cqual,zh ha
.5, ccctivcncsx
c,
h zcqu"ed
.. mmm' m0,_;
. ,3 m
of cunstirucnt effort: ha: mhanxhg only a dmcrcnual scnsa, hcn,
pDGI. sqca]
_
bcncnzs az: rcquucd. A: m most mdivxduals
4
Y

maz: n: m: socxal bcncts ar: cquucd m hagan

-
Horts va
its mm mig/ing nvusclv 2: the vazums mm
i: i!
pmponmns.
Far convemencc m mmntainmg ccctivcncss. hnwcvcr. Th: lzmilztmns m wmch capcxanvc m, mu
frequent m asszgn m the consmucnt BHDII an nach; or 1n-
dividual objective, xuch as hac man A xhuuld cxen x
paunds mply \ha( cvm m th: cas: o emm: svstcms {He

supphl: Zar wm,
matcrialznd '
maiz? h cat. .1:dcpenus .;
effective, othcrwlxe
q.
ha, xo nm ecmncy
.
JER:
:3. li he dues xo h: s

of farc: far y rm .
mm W . p. we vxewpota. m: mainly upon what
nor.
w
Although ccctwtncsscnupcratwe 55m! relax: m accam.
Df ML
m, m: crm lan-J m them Wt sus) m r m; ma mu.
ha is dctcrmmzd with
plhhnm of an obccuve of m: sysizm cciency
atar
Enznsy u not m be ent: :d
relata m the a pomuiz r7
v z xu- k n
a vmw m (h: xystem: rcquixcmcnx,
facunn of indmdual motiva. The ccicncy a: a copua-
a m"
m. saga, Mi crudaxuatexzhuIughcrorlnwrrxzzg u.
1
z
w
"Ecxcnzv pplL nacerms:mumcnselazaznnw.
h.
m: prima! argamuuan wark :9 wnch wa .
i
 :8 COOPERATIVE SYSTEMS PRI CIPLES OF COOPERATWE ACTION
59
o: how much i; produced but upun what or how much is active wnrun pmducex
for each individual mnmburlon. f a physical matcxizl which may bc
un marc dun luiccnt
matinal r givcn tu some. rr may b: that (her: wrll not b:
onarrlluruol to ndmdunls m urnounu uquztd: a: to som:
rnarvrauuls (has:
cnaugh o gn around 2nd only un msucicnt amount: may b: more {han rhev cauld ro.
amount wrll he cul: by lndlvldual n-zurr a: tu uthcrs. Im.
-
ln th: 121:.
uruaublu :0 others. Tn :5: latur the
lr-unan would then case, onza: sausfactlans secuid or produccd {hxough
be unsatufacmry. s. mlarly, zh: social benets Coapa:-
they xhauld nc mpmpcry dislr" uned
src limlted. and non zre th: basrs ot tclcncy. Thai: other satlsfacticlu
zx:
thu: would bc a dc.
Eclcncy ax ru soma. Hmcc, ellcicncy depcnd: ln
sucla.
par! upon The zlclcncy a cupcrallan thertfar: dependa
th: lstnbutivc pmcess ln the capemtivc system. upon what
IE he oxrlbunun
WH: such that benets cuor equalcd bur-
ll secure:
m pzoduczs on m:
un: hand. and how r ds
tnomrs m resources and how u changcx motive: cn th: other,
den: : each cnc, whlch lvould rcq ldcal preclsion in a Evczythlng rlmr lt dans mvalves physlcnl, biologmf
mln. un, each lndlvdual would have no margin of indutcmcnt. forces, applled lo
1nd snclal
pamcuhr facton m physlca}, blologrrnl, per-
a: against odnex atcmntvzs. Th: caperadv: syxlcrl muxt sonaI. 2nd socmb-
n the muznan as n wnulr. Fzom th:
create n surplus of xazsiacnnn la bc ecienr. If mon man Chang:
back urlv whax h! puts z thu: is gm ln mlr sltuarion l. Eumllhc: nduccmentl nr satlsac-
nn lnczntivc, um u, no (lam. The unlnhunon ot these satlsactuns lr usci
nc: su rfactan tor hLm ln cuyeranun. wlmr h: gets nn uppll.
mk onuonni physlcal. hlolnglcal, 2nd socia! font: m changing
mus( gw: him advnnmgc in terms ul satisfactlo wluun almas!
nlwnyr means
total uumuur. A cadpcrauv: syxtcm r lncelsamly m
dynamic, z
return in a dlcrcnt form rom that which lr. proccss
ol"
uonu. unl rcaduxtmenl to phvslcal, olnlngrrnl, and
conmbutex. Ii h: puts Earth orion, hi: rcquixt: 2 changtd can snclal cnvlmnme
rlzlron far hmsef, jusx ax he would f hE ur 2 whole. lrr pupos: rr (h: xazlsantlon
put faith efuxt of . dlviduals, and
rn cclcncy requlrcs zha: no uecox bc La
rndivldually (that [han coopcranvdy. EEclmcy, for the l. change the hi. ory of lxs znvmnmt
a. ldual, r satixfactoxy cxchzngc. Thu: th: pmcass of cn- by change: in th: physlcal. blolagcal,ta: 2 lvholc; r does thi:
operation so lnclndcx hat of sauxfzctory orchungu. 2nd suclal
camponcnu
l=roru this polnr of view th:
althazcn xonmrm.
pmccss of caperaxinn could bc
mcxdy cnc pr exchange, rnnr Es, of dlstrlbutian. Viewed ln
lsolatlcn we rc accustomtd rn un
Th; czdlng ldcal prescncd .1
al;
Par: l af thu book, and
proccs: as a basis for e- cspccla. rms onupur, al: m: fundamcntal asaumatnns
ci r cooperation
.n the oxolmngoomrroolr, cnmmodity, ctc. of m: cxposrton uf zhcar 2nd
th: arzaiysis of practice ln m:
avanza are not pxoducvc ln a dlxec: scnse. Much acapara- chapter; whlch fclow. Thcy
non, cspcclaly {hat af the "soclal" typts, rr af (hi: character; W.l b: rlzusrrnlea repcaedly
bath in the devcopmcr: af the conczpulal schcm:
in rhtsc
casa, the fnrmal ubyeczivc of ccperatlun lr mcrely 2 uh
of vynlcn l ln th! terms
pulc round wlurh coopuarlon oxgmlzcx. But star: the thcaxy of copuarivc system: nd m crm
many lmpor. guumnrlon and ln ur: descnpton af (h: procesues of
tam syxtcms ol capcration dcpend upon a praduclion securtd unn, urpoclully bc crgzmza-
lhmugh ha accumpluhmcn! of a tangible ubjtcdve. Tlrur exccutlvc pmccxsex, by which rllu hi: uf
mgznlzntlom l: mnnraincd. Summaxizzd, m: most essential
human mczgy is fncused m copcration upon 2 physical un uf these
xsumptluns rc s fullows:
 COOFERATXVE sys EMS PRINCXPLES 05 COOPERATIV}; ACTION 6x
ac
m: cnvuarmcnc; and (b) Xhns: which relata m {ha crcatinn
indmdual human b: g possesscs a a. a powzr of (u
1.
m
chain. A: Ihc sam: un): h: JS a (esultant of, 2nd. mxmwly ur dumbuxian aE sausfacnons among individuals.
s. Th: instability and failuxcs af capcrauon me 5mm
dz
rn ed by, m; factors m: mm ma: a n.them.
of He has mauv s.
facts n mb uf these claxscs of pmusst: scparatcly,
arrivtsatpuxpuscgand willstazczomp H n1zzhod
of 5mm m (h: ma: mua. dcfccts u dm: cumbinanon. The mncrxons of thc m from
cxccum:
a pnxticua: factor ar se!
s m 521cc:
of secunng th: emm daptazmn af me proccsscx.
nan and :0 change th: :2: azion by apexaxuns un me factors. rc me
Them axe, from m: Viewpont of purpnst, m: hmmng fueran;
and the strategic puma of mk.
m
2. Among th: mas: mpuxtnnt nm the situa.
tion cfeach individual axe '
awn blclogxal Lznzxatmnx. TA:
ovczcuming hmuliana ha: bean
must emm mtLhud of
me
hat of caperalion. m; rzqurcs m; dapan af a group, or
non-persnnal, purpose. Thc xztuatiun wiLh reference n: such 2
purpose mcompased of innumerable
factors,
ma; must s.
iscximinzzzd 25 mmng or ncmhm. ing factor:
of m: {am
3. Copcratian is a mal aspcct
social tam) ame fmm u. Thu: acmrs may bc zn (un: lb:
lmztmg mu, o ny simntiun. 11m ames mm two canudcr-
alians: (a) the procesxcs of intuactmn must b; mama o:
nvcntcd, yust as a physical upnanon must b: dixcuvcrcd or
nvznted; (b) th: intexactian changes h: mutwcs 2nd micras:
of (hay: pamcipnzing in the cupcration.
condi-
4. Th: persistente of canpcraliun dcpcndx upon two
eamcncy. 135mm,
mms: (.1 ; u centivcncss; m (b) u:
rcatcs a the aCCOmpIAS. msm o me coopera: r. purpose,
m;
which u 50m1 aa. nunvpcrional n chaxactcr. Ecicncy rc-
ates to the sntisactinn of indwidual nxntivcs. na s p - una!
i: zccamphshnmnt
m character. Th: zm of Hccivenus n:
of a common purpose o: purposes; Efccrwzncxs car. b: meas-
urcd. The zm mi ccxcncy n me clicking ol suxcient indivxd-
nal will: to copcratc.
s. The survival uf caperatian, (hacan, depends upon (wn
ntcrrearcd and interdcpcndcnt classes of pmcuscr (a) thus:
which date m the {msm of coperaon as a whole n rclauon


PART II
THE THEORY AND STRUCTURE OF FORMAL
ORGANXZNHONS
 CHAPTER VI
THE DEFINITION OF FORMAL ORGANIZATION
earnplex of physical, bio-
A
COOPERATIVE system ' :|
lagxcal, pcrsanal, and social compancnls whxch ar: m 2
pcratinn nf
sptcxc sgrremauc zclauonshxp by
remn af the cn Such
two or rnore persons for a: {eau oneor Jeanne md. a m.
evxdzntly xubardmnta unit larger systems from cnc
1am is a
tlf cmbxaccs subndiaxy systcmsphys-
m

paint oi view;
im, biologxczl, ernvmom another pam: of view. one af th:
syslcms conxprscd wir
'
a cupcratwc system,
rhe
un: which
is Lnpcit m rhe phrase cnperatmn uf two or mm: persnns,"
s called an "nxganizaion," and will be deanrd
n this chapter.

I. DEVzmPMEN-r oy ms DznNmnN
less
The number of coopcmxivc ryrrenr. havmg man: ax
dearnee purposcx, and uf sufcient duration tu calm attznuan
description or rdenurmrsnn, very large. They may bc
ix
m
braaavy chssxed by charactcr of purpcs: or obczuvc mm a
few groups whxch are widcly dxcxznt, such ns churchcs, pene
cal pausas, raremnx asxucmtiuns, gavzmznenls, Jrmics. m.
dusmnl cntcrpriscs, schools, amar Bctwecn organizations
aim wide
uessed any one of these gmups there rc
m
duenncts. 31'
Wa y ximxlaritxcs a ;' cxecunvcx
s
of (has: systtms may bc observed, nd xevczal studmrs have
puuunte common zlcments in Khcsc systcmx. r n cvident
12m: r then: m: unriorrrnues wxth za mm generally
Input
Lhcy wm be found in panicula: axpeczs or xcctiam af zcm that
The phvraar :5 urea m a. ma
Ward snbszquenx cmpmrs ncndc: me
bhngmal emmenu, curp! m hu ..n hanga.
6h FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
rre Eommn :0 all. Eccr. e study of rhere. wlll thezefur:
rcqulre the iafun o: dcnlnon pl thcsc aspcczx. we shell
nal-nc phe common aspcct nrrgal-rlzaxlhh."
The vnrlaxons m Concrete cobpcrativ: siluallans may he
assigrLJ E0 rhur prehhrrhary clasica: (a) Just (ha: rclatc ep
aspects ps rhe physlzal Envlrlmiz; el {host m: rclalt ID
aspects oi hhe sucia] tnVlronmcn; (r) ibas: iba! relax: to ndi-
vlduals:
u) other vanablcs.
(a) IL) inspttllan ps (h: concreta Qptrltlons ps ehy Cnpera
tw: sysrcm shows a! Dnc: that Lhe physical ezlvlranmcnt IS eh
eheeperehle part pr rr. To rhe cxtlnt (ha: thu:
re vnriaans
rh th: physlcal aspects hs capcxavc systcmx an adjustmcnt 0X
adaplamn h: other spam of conpcratmn is requsrerl. Whczhcr
rueh Vniationx axc s Kltz far th: ganara! study hs copcra.
don, or whcthcr hr must puxpascs the physical CnV ehrhehe
hay he xcate 25 2 Constanl, is thu: nt question at rss-le. By
physlcz! ehvlrhhmehr S0 (r as we rheeh gepgrephrul aspccts
Iha( is, mcxc Icztun, (Dpography. elhhhee, {C.,>! wlll
rcadlly he eeeepred [hat h may well he cxdudcd mm con-
ideration fur nclrly 211 general purposes. That pan hs the
environment, howcvn, whlch s rcgarded as th: pmpttv D
an crgamzanon h hr dlcxcnt sratux; and tha: part which Can-
sin; ol smlcturcs, Lmprovtmcnts, tools, machines. e ., putilns
still hrpre rpechhehllr ep lhe hrphhleehlhh whlch G 0K warks
with thcm. Foz
reerhh, lh many case: rhe nation of
z
s
Drganzarial: cvidcntly includes that of 2 phyheel plehr; lor
cxamplc, lh rhe cas: of a rallxoad hr eelephhne Organization.
Thu ls also rcqucnily true hs a factnry. lheleeel, rhe phxasc IS
hleeh used" The ha Can [um aut rh much prhclheh" when
rhe mtming lhcludee physical plhhr, :1 number msn. and
he zlcnvmcs pr fame: ps hhrh
meh ha plant. l: is apparcnt
h. rpeesel ares, howcver, i; rhe mu: En ermple, where
facmnng hpmhhhr ulhuwut rhkr 1:: cnnduzlcd lh mdiante,
m; djarznl
m.
Climzla
my (han he rhe max! Xlgmunt vztlshlz
FORMAL ORGA. ZATION DEFINED e-
rhhr when me .e duahng wlrh z specic cntuprac Lhc Wboc
muamn compr hg physical plehr, men, ha activlxic: must
he (h: rhrhhhem system whh whlch 011 15 prlmerrly
ehh.
cemtd. T0 ehh ryseem th: herhe oglmzatlon may he epplleel,
but usully ehrerhrlrer "buslncls," m npeutlo is more
hp
prapratcly used, 1nd erghhzzhelorv rzscrvcd far: pu! hr
rhe ml3pemxlvr. system from whlch physical ehvrrhhhrehr. ha:
heeh zbstnntd. A11
aspecx ht the physical envlmnmcnt are
rheh regazdcd DI rhhrr Cnnvcnlcnly Lreated 3: lhc dzmcntx of
hlher, physical and e uhnlcal. systems betwzm whleh and
hrgahlzhllphr the sign "mm relationships may he invcmgztcd
s muy he rcqulrcd he rhe purpose m hand.
(b) It Li "m mas! easer cvdcnt (ha: he social elemems al:
a important spent llkewree hr a concxcte cnpemtivc situa-
rlhh. The rhelal hezhrr may he regarded hr zntcling mln the
Npq. mualin by stvcral rouee (r) khmugh being Cmpncnt of
th: lndlvdual whus: activities al: incudcd h L): system, (n)
through rherr cfcc: uphh lndlvlduals, whose eerlmler ere not
includcd, hur who are hoxti}: ta the system of Cpelaon 0K
whosc activliu ponehrlerly al: facmls lh ahy way; (3) through
cntacl D rhe syncm (cad-lar cuipcraiv: hr nzherwisc) with
h.
alhcr collatenl chspererlve xyslczm and espeelelly wilh (e)
supcrmr systems; and (e) a: nhcrcm h Cooperation tscf.
lhalreerly; Koala} factors, al (cursa,
lr: ho involvcd m tbc
ihangcs hs rhe physlcal cnmmcnl, putculnxly 25 ecctcd
hy prior
or hrhee cxsung copcuttv: syxtems.
lt eppeeer lo he th: universal pxnctite {o cxcludc social ee
lorsar {L7 regard them as Cnxtanl: whlzh my he neglecred
for most purpos:s' rhe Walking Conccpton al rganlzd
rrhh, wrrh he smglc important exception h: th: ruze as cx
presscd rh law, erpeelelly th: law of ncalponon. Thls spzcinl
exccplion, howcvcr, l; rcgaxdcd h two qult: oppositc weyr.
By rhpre concuncd with th: dynamic nipccts hs Clpcrition
th: law i: tmatcd as 1 rehmre ha vaguc hrlglh of aukmbf
 FORMAL ORGANIZATKON DEPINED 6g
68 FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
12W mcntal m th: cunccptual scheme: of Durldzcxm, Pareio, and
whhan the eyneen. By lawycrs, on th: other hena, the n
Lh: Loperstivc xyslcm, Weber.
ucntcd a: ehe structuxal element ban: (o
As a working concept h mav he mari: exeee hnr group"
cpcczlly uf culporationx of Varmus kumds, 1:35 o cf u. ax-
pnmtcd systems. Thus. to nrganize" means, from uh pam! cnntatm so many vanables oe m eeeene: uhe nu hee ami ehe
of vxcw. to establuh the leen candmonx necessary tu n paziecuhr nnnnen o any generallzatxonx. h h unmonngeehze whouz
zhax e copera" e ihe nee uf some more zesuctcd concept. Henee. m ehe present
sxatus of a eoapeeeuve system. The fact he nene
systcm\ndusuaX ar xchgious or cducaonal fm eeenup1e w en anoonaone nf group cooperation after. gi
e"
n of vagucnm, Lnnfusnn, nd
xmphcxt cuntzadicnan. The
o consdcrabl: size may opeme whhaut incorpoxauon, oe
wkh me pcrccpnblc change in n chzxacxcr after mculpax} {usan lar dns is apparcnt (un 1h: fact that both gmup and
is tvidcnily n num-
nun, Is sucient to indica: ha qune secondary 25cc! oz thus uenon nenune cxpm d ninon. A group
suenan: expect of usual facina. h wm he shown hit s: n, m ber of pc ans plus sum: Lnlerrelazxon: ' x ur interactions m he
me o (has: nnenetenune oe
aictcrmincd. when th: zneen
fact, minor n cumparsun wnh oehen socxal noeoesf Far mate
actiur h dcscnbed ur dcned, n a: onee appcsn tha! "pt:-
impartir-e: m many cases ar: the specic cuntmctual rchuons,
non" a hzghty vzmb: eh-ng, not mcrcly
n (h:
sense that
in which an: nvulvzd nox meeezy sonnel legal cixcumslanccs
pcnons ohne, rn many Icspccts, but marc especially
heeeuee
but pcmstent nmtudcs nd habitual practica of gcmral social
the cxtcnl 1nd charactcr of (han participation u) groups eaeo
character. we shall excludc en of th: mcial cnvuonmex: a:
wsdexy vanzs.
such none the denition o organization.
(e) The exehnsnn of the physical nd social envimnzrmzts
rhu nny he shown by refcrcnc: tu (murcia ongonazonons
af various casses. [n industrial arganizatxtuis the group is
from th: dzniliun of organization for general purposes wm eonumonzy regardcd :3 "Dcu: 2nd cmplaycts." but [mm some
and cnmmun xcnsc,
on th: whoxe cunfann ta ordinary usage points of vxcw srockhaldcrs, the (crm: of whose pam patun
and w111 he
accepted without geeen dzculty as e method hr akhcr tunes, cr in other
apymach tu z sdcntically useful canzcp! of crgaruzalion. The rc radxcallv dxcrent, are zncuded. At
he ncluded
question of penonn hcwcvcx, osen greater oseacohy nd doubt. eeneem, cudhnzs, supplers, enn customers must
exnnnpxe n ' m wbcsc th: vnom importan!
Though wnh much vagucncu and many ex" plmns, som: af 4m
zspcct ai good wall" is ozueea n oxganeza: n operation.
wnch have heen arzady haaoeeed, the moxt uxua} conccpuan
Thu; what mear by th: gmup, m ehe asptc: "rr mbcr
e oe
of nn ongonneenon n (ha: nf a group ai pcrsnns, sume ar en es
be quit: uonehze cvcn Eor hn penneuzen (t
1

whose eenvhseu are m8: nazed. The concept of the w

u ezen of capcraixvc syncms.z
'
ha dumnant characzertxtx: of copcraiive systems :5 eene.
eho frequent zn th: lizratux: os eoeaology, ankhropology, eno
xr one takes (chgmus nngooxeeoone .1 al
ent: vldcnt (ha:
cmpX/NELS," ehe es uf cada "gra p"
seen. psycholagy, alzhaugh, eu ehown by Parsons, systems cxncpt far a tew
and membcrshxp" i: cntzxely ducrml
"
from that o the nene
n whn-h at lcaxt the enunhoen is upon khan have heen sendn. religxous
nun: organization. But cvm w.J. groups the baxix
'see Chaym xxx. and chnractrr of parichpzuon Ss evidenrly nf many ' h.
Talent Pnmns, me Stvmmw e seen-r (han {Nzw mu; Menem m, Somtthue: "gmup" mans clergy ur hxcraxchy, sommmcs n
m":
 7o FORMAL DRGANIZATIONS
FORMAL ORGANIZATION DEFINED
hczuaos anden, Jomezmc: cummunicnnts of 7:
varian: dogmas act: of hoy person for CVC}! one hy h wl b: al
of pamcpaon. once cvxdenl H1
ncrly all casas that many o:
rc we 24.1 tu (ha: acts outside
(ooptlanon; ha tha: many p; me m
these types of organizations miltarv, of
Elly syxlcm
gomh.
mental, pohucoh ha {homhhl oho educational ohgohszhhohs, rcmzndcr ar: domh.
uLaHc
hu of which omohg Et {east xzvcral such Ccptrahvc systems. The
are "graups," the complcxity of ph. Infilln of ohohochoo af ahy "membcr" whh 3.1 orgamzation is
mraning of 2.: membcrshop zspecx of ha group Concept hoozo
san ' Ermltt, oha hera s fzcquent Subslklon ht persons.
humo rapxdly. Again t h ohhoh npasxiblc Io [mover
1

The gmop S a sucia! a person who dues nat

cunctpr pemsts because of the m belong zakmg ahh; homo-h: rhc *

haz he pighshohhz rclaans between terrmttcnt tharacer of

pasan: h groups {e hh parclpalaniat th: 53111 e to many organizations.
rcgaxdcd h; xhos: hr systtmam persona] mkeracons. h (th
often h spa: c ECHO?! pr h
coptralng group the coptuuve act: of ptrxom arc c .4 person consttutts a pan
of ho "ohhoehhoo" of Urgnatinl
ntcd. Those am of persons who {e dcnommatd wheohhon"
os ha group which EOFLHEC with Uthcrs
1h hdohhoh v. m ar more simultancuusly,
pptan necessary {o agan! i a par! of oh m-
ax: ho: are 510i 3 glmzatmn oohhah Hans nf muy pcrsnn: DDI commnnly ooh.
part o the ysttm of action. k may easily bc absuvcd that sidarcd memhhh, far zxnmpc,
many Kits oi persons h a caopcmuve group 3X! ho: h hhy customers; or these hr pcrsonx
(ha: af: ohh mami ES members h speual
substantial sense h par! of the Coptxatv: ohhh oooh whoh xcmes, oo exzmplz.
xmckholders, who m legal (h: organization; or
mm! or less conemporancousy th: ' ' duJS Connbulc CU- un: SERE:

operativa 1h fact, t s the

bonholders. who Mt important cantnbufnrs m tu hopahxzhcxoh
m. xymm af ltfrdrilllx which yet who h: most are Drdlnuy viewed 25 ohxy
appcaxs to b: the bas-is fur the cunccpl of a how h mo Eonlmgtnt mcm-
bars. h h, almoxt
Scn! ln whxch the wnrd ' used
oh
conncctn with coperatwc cvcry person regard: himszlf a part of vhs
(im: a: hh lnvldull h oohnao from nd ndcpennlcnt of
systems m sucnlly. Thu (unccpl is imphur h the us: of ha
word, whcrca: hzmoh invaxably th: expliczt Xcftrcncc h to th: hhy Drgzmzlnan, that h, he zssumcs ha zxtrcuc of free wm
S aga o all other
persons, urhcr [han {a zh rlnicraclln h copcratinu. Thu: Oflt h}: haoxhgiohl
pasan: or groups; nd ho believe: uh:
mo wurfl group i: HDI hpphea to three hocoshhoo axe qu c mdcptndcnt af hoy
person: who XC prcknt lgzmzanon JS causes of his ZCHDHX.
ghnng ohhh ohel or having nihing to da whh each mhar,
Much ol the farcgong hay be lnuxlritcd by
lzhnugh group" h znzrely acccplable for the higher homo 1
a concrete casa.
select
.1!
r om a ohhh who Es chxcv dcntizd by hh
hoh os h" mctc a5 mphci! h the Cardinal number "three" Conntcol whh the oogohhooxsoh wxth whxch 1 lso ohh.
or h special sense: such h; h grup ai ghters 111 a pain "hp. hahh ldtnlcd. He o
nm
t no! u nun.. Apta tha! oooazzy detczmmcx th: saco hh Cnglnc whose
carter hha hwhg
far ohhh, year: havc dcpendcd opoh tha:
hoh of ho word gmuf h the present context, but a (th. Un- organlzahon whh.
ship of copczatbn, which o a homo. of \n{craCnDns. out spohhx hooah hhow (hat h, has th: onowshg .mr0\i
Organizauan cnnncctons hhh: Ho h (o) a ciriz of the Uohod
Nuw .6, whh zteunc: (o 2 paxtnular xysttm uf copcralivc h
Stata, th: Star: of New Jenny me Cuumy hr Eucx, hoo the
oohoh la w ' h a person cnntributrs, oho cxamines hu ho
chy of Ncwarkfour urga zzriam to which hc has
w-mh the mhoy
Ian-K
a vizw n! tnupenuv: systems
lntsczpab: ubliganons; ha 1X a member hr zh: Cithnhc
m
 .1
FORMAL ORGANHATLO. b FORMAL ORGAJJZATKON DEFINED 73
7: 211
Church; (37 the Knights hr chhhhhhs; (4) m: American fu! th: Varxaton Guild
h cncrcl: cmpuntvc systcms ha:
. {E ah: ID pbyxical and social cnvirormcns, and h:: 3::
Ltgmn; <5) m: Outnawiy ahh ohhh; (s) [he Dcromc ha.
ducto pmhh: o hhe: hphh w ch pmhh: con!
h:
m: m:
P: m the PYIICCLCH Club of Newark; (h; h: a heeh.
s:
-

xuch systems, L: by rh: a:h.hheh rccgaicJ m

::
holder m
. ::: cnporaucnl; (e) h: D head
of hz: ewh family hum-

of :h::h:1 (m: hha factors,

pu iar:
ha ha! the Orgnziuvn as :h:h
h:
h: ehhh:
DE
(wxe ha :h::: ahzanhn m h: 1X
a mhhhu
isolarcd h ah aspect hi coptmtzve Systms which h Commn (a
w=.c:'s e: m) ta judg:
*

ramny; h: h h mtmbtf hs ha:

m;
heh: hh h:h:ve: h: hhhhg: zo other 2::
l
renhhl mgh: Juani

.1 of (hem.
rganlztin w111 then Simdat th g, whether hhehha
(but ofttn scams he: to h: GIWZKC of h) which hehe: what h: meana
zauuwwsn

hkes tu do, hew h: m a hhmhy, 2 xtlgiaus. n academic, h hhrushhhashg, e:

wenn, huw h: talks, whh h: Eis, whh h:
h
. h.
thmkx baul hhhy thmgs: ha (:3; nally h: givzs cvxdencc of mph optraln. though m: physical mmehhuh; m: social
haohghhg ahh himscl ahhh: DCCMIDHQHY.
e, l! he
La: mmohmhh, m: nunmer ha kmds Dt plrmn. nd the hast:
h; zhm relation h: ha oxganllauon wm h: widcly asemhe.
{bought ma! ha: eehhmaoh h pndolnknant, hha the
haha
hhh h: devora: z: h hamshany These oi Coptrlon :h:h become :x:::ha1 (o oxgahzza.
emm uivul, lt hay h:
1m (han 25
mu:
4er.: :2 ha: ppxexhhhmay 375g hun 1):;
m:
heh as dened, Khcugh Cmpenls h; th: Codptrztwe symh: a:
9:: a whe1:. Mamma, h: dtnllan h himxlarly hhhzseehh m
ahhhm; 2nd (ha! muhny whh: h: huk! h:
a: wmkng,
m hhghhchchlxy han: .2 from ths! hew obx . . g, fm cxzmple, h:
ahhh: hs: mtentim, h: drcams h: ihlng, hem eh family to cooperation under mah cehhhuehs. Such il dcman will
bridge, :ee.
mamas, nd rcplays J pm! er th: previous wahhg:
ha I: properly h: of zutrcted :::su:h:h ah rcfcrcnc: tu an! pa.
Y: h: chhhdm hmsel J hhd warkcr ED

rcgaucd. epcmuv: l lllmn, being m" y eh: :1:m:h: he such a SIUJUGP,

l: Li cvidcnr hem th: orcgong [hat .5 person: KC m h:
ah. :x::p: a: by h: adDpOn wc h: ehhhha m zmvc i gcneml
h: uxcfully
cludcd whhsh m: Concept Uignlza, h: general signi- hhhplh which hay apphed h th: hhaahaha g
limited. Th: bases e: tam: upon wh -h pel- of spccxc silumanx.
::he: will h: ehh:wm l: is m: central hypotllcnj U t. book that th: most h::h1
Sons h::h:1h:: h: hxghly vznablc S0 much h; (hat ev:h
whhm Very xcsmctcd cldx, Such :3 a hannah: industry. "or: Conccpl for m: hhahhs of txperknc: of Coptranv: w: ms h
ee entmes. H:h::, here cmbodxed h he dtn. D11 h: h mms DXEQEZAIOD BS h xyltem
ghhzmsehs" w111
a ma: vanuy
mh a pJr: of th: physical cnVLfPmtn :1 Cwluly adrxicd uuiullte; a1 hvn: [1100 c! wav:
agan: S Whcr w: hand
wsmzh th: amhshhh, m: amhhzhh of pnm hay h: meh ferran, 1h ahy concurs Sltuaun h wh M hcrcxsc bcrhhhn.
SEVEJ
:1
mu: for ganara! dtuent systems will h: Efnpnch. sem: of wzll
nstul L. pahaeuh: hhahhh but oi
h: physxcal, som: bn/Jgmal,
som: psycholaglcal, EEE. I'm: m: m:
purpes.
actuan)!
I: h:v:hh:::: ahhh: m chnhdh wh tbc: h whhxa m: h, ncmx.a. l! R: m: algimzl.
h: bar
1 but
Hd
.1 k7 h: v. m;
m: m: n.
h: um: m adapta aah m) rhhh wmch pins as well h: mah e HI m:
K1
we duhng
m
mv
SVCVH (h) ln dusxvtfoyuiuvcskm Lhcdnmponcnu oiwhlil pl!
physical ahh social mvhhhhhhh
h: ahhh h: components.
dened
mas phvmak y-zzemx, mc l nxltm! mi argamznuana: nd 1} oxgunzaaru.
X1 Drgih hueh JS a Iyxtem Df con
u {hu h
m: gun: h: Qpt!
\S wmzh .X
ha tam! :h-.=::1y Df zaar m:
h:
mauxly memnhm panama! emm; or ferrer. h h ppzcnl h h h: KS
 4.
74 FORMAL RGANIZATIONS
FORMAL ORG MZATION DEFINED
75
dcmcm common to all which d: :1 thu: uther system: 41m (han hy substancc we hnee m symbc
.
he total concrete coipcraivc muatiun is char of onganxzalon
4

.1: them by conuekr

s dnnge, D! pczmnfy xheen. 1h th: hr
dcncd, u this bygolxcsis prove; satisiaczazy e wm he because
_,._.u.h.

cas: nrgnnizatiom the only

pracucablc device Ea cvuyday
u) an ungznxzaon, a: deened, is a concept vaixd eheeegh e purpaxu under mast cxcum-
wide range uf concrete suuations w eh relatdvcly few variables, tantas is tu symbnl e a syscm called an arganiznuon" hv
he persons who ax: cannccred with
which can he eneenwexy nvuugatcd: and n. Por example. w: think
m ehe relations bce
twccn this cancrptual when): nd other xyncms can he mee.
of an axmy a5 canskting of
men; and m de: c235 h would he
sm zwkwazd
as tu he absurd no! la de m. whatever in principle
2.41;

(vcly and ueerhny mmulatcd. The nal eeee af e. s conccptual

scheme n wheehee ts use w111 mak: pambc a an nendyenay he considtrcd La he. Hsncc, although 1 dene
mar: edeeuve an argamzaian s a tystzm of opcrzzttt/t hehe 1:: of ewn DX
conscnus IDEJO un and man ulauon hs cupcxaliun among
marc pczxomwsomcthng ntang .e and xmptrmnal, Iargey
e

me ; zhat h. whether n pmmc: e: can . ctasc the prcdictivc a enenee uf ee tionxhxpsfncvtrthcks: somuimcs ne
capac y of comparen! men m de" hdd. n s th: ssumpuon enee of phrascolgy, whue cam/en-
no confusion of meaning s hkcly,
upon which this cssay u deeeldped that mch e concspt ix enpheae 1
ehnu follow the cusmmary practice uf rafcrrmg
ehe behavior of leaders and ndminisuators, cxplammg uni- n; organizar
(ans as
Lormmes ohsczvcd ' their conduc: in wtdcly dueren! cae groups of persons end shaJ speak hs uch persons 2x
operativa eneeenezeee, and ehee n; cxplicit fonnulatxon and
mcmbcrf nah-huy, hnwever, n LH hoek, in ch: interest of
eIenee understanding and of
devclopmcn w111 pcxmf a ustful translation of axpexcnce 1 a cunmtcnt Eonceptuzl schcmc,
m shall use {hc awkward plan of subxt ut g conmbu-
dieren! eld: nee common tcrmr. mare
wn". he "members," and "cunuibutions" see he cnvtics
II. Aspzcs m: Fummu. Oxcnuzwxrxons AS AISTRACT SYSTEMS consnlunng urganxzaron; bux n should he norcd that cunmbe
ute-rs," dmugh including (has: whom
wc would ordinarxly call
n i: advisablc n: present eenain cansxdtraticns cgaxdmg op m=mbcrs" of an nrganizatxan, is a hehndee
ganizauons as dame: systems, end Conccm
g th: us: of the include others, and ha! conknburxunf [mn and muy ehh
denition 2nd assocxated tzxmx, bcfcrt procccdmg m me dee h currcxpand, gIv a
cussion hr the cicmcnts of orgamzanun. The eneneen lo he
braadcr term {han "membership" ne mcmbcrshp eedunes."
(b) Under hhe dc on df an arganhzaiion givtn above,
prcscntzd Jr: the ullowzxg (u) (crm: uscd (o eyenhnraze
of argmizarian 1: e :on:XrucL" amlaguus to eld of geemy en
pcrsonifv arganxzarions, and nlated practice =n th: remandu m
he his rrzansc;
"tkctxumagnmc eld" a: used
m phvscal science, The hy
u; concepts analogous tu arganxzauof a!
de nen (c) th: han?! sona! chzracicr he e iv s as (Dm-
pothesxx we sennw i: chat all of tha
phcnamtna concemcd nee
. usefufly cxplmncd u wc adapt 2nd
pancnrx ot" organizations; (d) organizations a: uohttd, as pam and expencncc axe
n, um exntng knawlcdg:
h; mnee general wnenn, end a: ccmprismg suboxdinat: sys- ccnsmcnt wdth the: assumpton
"Aw ax
zmznnan u a Said o sana! "l; m?
(cms: (e) emcrg: e pmptmts or syslems, cxpzcialy organiza- l s n ZtctlalHA = c

nous; and (w dimcnsxonal charactatlirics of organzaxinns. bm}:

n, u i! mc can he hscd Ia dasmbz ar dene mts: toma; md ha
(n) when we ar: ehzsged in a practical eenee to deal wnh m mznxiunx wuinn wluch mas: evhdenccx cxrdr
md ro dcn: the nd a
tangxble things chicy chamcicnzed by rclauonshp: razhtr ehnesneeee. Thz cwdtnnai Hacks observed u:
ar: m trnam ubuntu
Lhmgx w n
 FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS FORMAL ORGANLZATION DEFINED 7-,-
-6
snrnpleeely resnrer my convcnience. T11:
'
(c) What ere rne serlees wlslen a1:
Lhc cvidenct of th: forces even bue La tu
eselens wn l: ere cvidcnct of nlganizatson serses include ell
of Lh: urganlzntlun del? Alw: s Lh: action af persons in
words, lauks, geslnres, mnvcmcnzs. ncvu phvsiczl nbjcckx,
2,- sennns ns cnntrlbutinn and reeerpr of energses. se that 2 cus.
suppllcr urlllsulng supplles, un
zhough rhmgs may convtnlently bc nserl ax evldtncc of
Lhe
rsnrer maklng e pere. ese, a
elslaenls tu kccp n rnlnel fumlshlng capital. m: else. conulbutarx. vwlrer thcv
nenen, ns in the esse uf wxiung. Thls 1a .. vcsmr
undcx oxdlnzry elrennssennees, because rlsrngs ue ennssrueeeel rannibute ls m; meeereel but Lhc transaciion, [ha uazsfcz. d:
control al thengs, or action upnn pnysaeel
Lh
ps rlsenrselves.
by organizations, end pxopeny ln sleens or nsher zghu of een.
THus, umallv, rlre nnly organlzatlon cran of en invcstur rs
nel ere veslcd in argznlzallons es in inwiduah. Murcuvcz,
atcn srnsple
e un: af me Lmmfer of neeney sr oi crcet which
sometimes plrysleel things. persnns, smtcmcms, ere, serve lo
de. ne er loseee en nrgsnlenslen, ust es rnspners nd aected h! nwm er eenrrnls. ll is sn lmponant sner n Olganza on
o
agree: o snelse Kclpmzal mzufru eennel mancy or (tam!
mi
nsesnls dene a: lacat: magneuc cldx. Thc actions n: ergnn.
of physical snrnps from (im: m nrne.
lzztmn ohcn relata m {he use sr movcmcn:
and to the (ranscx sr rcttntian of ownershlp er control of them, Th: system, hcns m which wc give the nesne organizallof
uE rne nenvrsles ne human bcings. What
rs a sysrens eernpnseel
bul as canceivzd or th: presene scheme physical things ere el.
of the cuperntvc rnnlses thcsc aczivlucs e system s rlser the Hans of eerenr
way: n pere of (h: enrlrenrnene, e part their ssgnicmnt
srssem, but nevzr e par: af
else orgznizauon. This s rlgolously persenr are nere coordznatcd. Fer dns reesen
aspects ar: not persnnel. Thcy ere desennlnesl
by the systcm
lseld :0 rhmughcul rlrese pnpes.
ur degree, or nmc. Most of the cum m
Far cunvcnlenc: 2nd pnrpeses of srmplsnsaslsn, hawcvcx, l . er es ee manncr. lrnpersnnnl. For ex-
have usually rcsmclcd Ihr. dclivaan of arganizatlcm fulccx coopcratlvc sysseses al: easlIy seen ee be ls
en (he persnns who worslel ardinarlly bc called mmlbersf
ensple, a elerlr wxiung on a reperr errn fu! e zurporalion
"conlmunlcanls," "cmplnyccs." eee. Bu! l han lseen nnelsle abvlously anlng something at e pleee, on e form, and baul e
subject that eleerlr never enulrl cngag: his strlctly persnnnl
with a
c nee. but u rr ner me pl: ee In can du m: oblcctur: ing; snseresr. Henee, whm we say el... we ere conccmcd
aiecuamagnet when Curuz clm (ha: qlthmlgh
svscm af eersrasnesea nn. en
me nera reelr. For p
,sn
by rn eleenre rnrrees rs rnsl en eeeee sn zietuomngnznc eld e ennenee al
, wc rneen
of the Lhc eennn r not persenel ln
ptrsons ere agents acuon.
phanmncm wmch ree when eernen odlu nenes
z
w c): s uny known by
of capczazive systems, Its
ere pu w un n. ld. Suzmnca ame: gaac slresel ner
LH:
aspccl lmparta": ser th: study
th: ereesne ns He
duzamzgncn: nrse though n rs ar esrrres the character u deserrnlnerl by slee reeulresnenrs of th: xysttlu, ur of
n un
elnrarntlv energy ts nel ta: artes wlnen wleererer lion latex th: sysrern.
s lv snnsese .e ubvec: renrees amzmgnniunun
use srgenneelen aele. rnese zereer dame en energias ha! (e
v
(4) i crganlzatiun: axe syncml, rr nliaw: (ha: me gencml
5xupy
amy n. panama. ner aeennre erpenrsennn artes nnly whm eernrn tharactcrlszcs of svstcms nee also [hasc of cargan. ene s. Pa:
mudiuans wum wxLhln 1h: rsela, ene rre eneleneesl only by eerern ph: that e systcm is snmcthlzlg which rnnsl
seen har: nd nrner (num er sss lnfrtd Dv mu: se (una esr purposes we may uy uthcx
mmcm er
lmpuzed ee such cnnnr En! nnener ene pcnnna ner ene enseeere gandia n: b: rreeseel as a whole because seen part ls releresl to eve y
ene. elsn (h: sign-annalu. ls uses rc uulnd a1 nep were, nmnsmcnclu part includcd ln lrneslgnlenns way. wheels slgm
camis
nd neaeqneern mi Hphnnunn el pnenvmenn enruc. (h: eernpnnenn sre neereepenaenr (anular
'A.5a Human ene mnkmg, me lsner nnly n be rnserree en
nun "un "slgmzanr wav" rr that
Thumili):emphmxzcdagnanudagal eunre e hcluludepzlldcnce
eennn
 78 FORlvAL ORGANIZATIO s
FORMAL ORGANXZATIDN DEFXNED 7g
dcrcmntd by etdet et dehhed let pettlettlht
e pntpnte, Or ltetn paxtial tyttentt tnelttded wi n stttget organlzatln systems.
a nntttettlnt pomt of View, tneh thht ts thete i:
a changr tn the The tttdet comprchenshve html rganzzatons ete needed n
rclzlonshp el ene
part u) ee. 0X ell of the others, thete n a an Informal, tndehtttte, nehttlette. and endtteeted sweet usually
change n the e, Scm. lt ehen etthet bccmnr:
a new syltem Dr a netneel a matt " ln Chapter
new sul: of the Sama Systcm. vll we shall comi et the ccr
Usually. if the netas ment: el a sim e setttthl Olganlzanon. and n Chapl vlll th:
eee numcruus, they group Hcmselvcs Xfnlclurc el a eentplett argamzalnn.
hen etthtldtettt Dr netttel
systems. wltete d-li: 1! the cast, eeeh (et tant we tnntt now tetet to one qutsxlon ehent syxtcms zn
paxual system eentlttt of telettnnehlpe between
it: nwn parts general, end about Urgarizauon systems '11 netttettlet, the
whteh can chnnga. en.
etee ng a new Sta: of the pntesel system,
wtthnttt n: met (0 which lt dt sendttnettel letnettenee. l teset te the
ettng the system a: a whole in etgntrtee. degrtc. ttttettten et te heehet the whoc n tnete then the sum el he
-

Eu! mv t ente enty when the

system S tlewetl ltntn a eengle pettt; wltethee e Svstlm thettlel bc eenttdeted et tnet 'y an
spcclal paint nt VACW and the chnngc: of the euheldtety et
ete wltltttt llt-ttlts. when thte tt the ente we
eyttetn aggltgat: af its edmpenentt; whethet a Svstcm uf cooperativa
letget eyttetnt, txclng ehetn ntey ellttegetd the calts, (ha: is, en dtgehlzetten, S something
tnete ol leal then
ls ennttente m the etthndzety ot dttetent from ltt enntthhene eeet whethet thete Emcg:
t
S
ttent as f tt wete lsolared. Thne the whole physlEaI univcrsc ltetn the ysttm ntnnetttet whteh ete not i hetent m the pars.
IS the
tthgle end fundamtntal system, mnsisnng of
whlch, let us say, XC eleettens, parti The npmtan that govern: tn t . book e the: when. let
nenttont, and pratons-nd entple, the ehette of hve tnen heenttte eeetd: red en 2 et.
telhttenthlpe hettteen thetn; httt m pmcllce, tytteet.
u our lntetett tt thet is, an ntgenlentten, thete tt etentetl tnntethtt-tg new tn the
naxrow enough, wc e t deel wiLh the solar xylem,
Dr the entth, 01 n nleee of lten. m et the tttn, world thai ix ettete nt less then 01 dttetene
tn etnentsty end
e tneleettle, et an etent, as z quality ltetn anything
eeeh wcr: e entnplete end hetnl tn
ptetent the teen of the ehotte of the
eyttent, rhst we een do we late teen.
da nnt excccd eettntn ltntttt. These
He detettntned by whethet l wtll
gw: onlt ene tlltttttetldtt, suggcsmd by an etetnple mm
et net eteeedtng rhcs: hntstt tnvolvcs mporlant change! Cbaprcr lll. IE hte
lmpnnant reacluns rm, the letget lyslcm.
m, nt teen 2x: plneed al eettthl dstancc: stone. eeeh
ethet nn e tele to Watch en cv: the eentet ns the eltele, the
"hn S estntlatly tttte of dee systcms called
F. tt of all etteh organlzatinn e argsn zalions. tyetetn of eddtdlneted elhttte teettlh in n compu te vletthng
a ee .ponent el n larger Sycm lt lnlpcrsonal,
whleh We hete eezletl a cooperativa ent the Sum el tndtvtdnel vlews. eet. ly crczt
svcm," ehe outet Cam- teen tndntd el vicws, ttrettet
tn Some teepeett. tttpetlot tt-.
penentt nt Wh ch ete physical syxcms, social tyttet-ttt, blalngical nehett. rtactllg nn ezl nt th: ndzvddak
as tetnethtng '
ttttetnt, pusons, ete. Morcovex, mas! formal orgmzatlans nte and having
eet, en etthtettee end cvcz: a Vtellly SD long
et the
et the tetthhes l! hettxtteezzt negletted, tn te whitrwnon, hem n the System n hept alive. thet is, sc long te the in.
nen oolgJmzaon tn ntheheel H .end el in the luiln nf duna. et; Jateun pHSLS
en tele dns tetneet.
Syzmi hytnhnl Scicnhg
c: L . Hentletten,
Fada: GNIHUDK let that back, thetelete,
n. x5. The tntetdependettee v vutablu 1 Yyxlcm t
ttt m,
am: m m: wtdett tttdtte. Syikms of coipcralion which wc eell
nent she. expenlni: |hil wc pms; et we l-rzy Ikcrmsdy regard t the ntgnntzetlnnel tegntd as sucxal eteet-etet, elite, tttt et l rtgixd
denttsnnn ai e xySKt i]
an individual htttnen baix-lg, whe lLnsE an enelyeat is a eetn.
8a FORMAL CEGAN ZATIO s
plex of pamal sysrtms. a: dccnl xom the sum of these con- ccnvcncn: za regir these OE2RAZEICRS a:
stituen. system: f. indccd, (he lvurd Hum" has any mean ng "armant."
ln rhls cannccnon. nnnsennna
The denltlon of a 5mm: ongnn Aiinn whlch
:5

rcmzrks on the dlmensunal

m I: lcmalm tn plescnt a nlfewtoperatlvc
a num nl cousciuusy cauinztcd
n this Chapin actzvlkzcs
chzzactczstlcs af wn sysltms mara . n: which o {wa or marc pcnons ln m: nzx: .aptcr wn al:
wcdc cu nrga zallo. . l: pclhavshaximprcsscd or farcc:
ccutlvcs how lndtnltely orgmlzauons m lacacd m, tx-
space. n, mnsder the n. mcl s n ak: concrete nnnon m: lcsuk -.n
and arder the): rrciztnlwhat n
m nl zctlv in:
v

The sense of bclng nowhcr? Ls commanlv m. With m: great

nl to th: system ol ncctsxaly m zu puslscncc m duralicn.
zxtcnalon n; th: mans of electrical communlcatlon {hu vagn .
ness hax ncxcased. T: n: sure. xmcc m: materlnl of organiza.
uuns n act: af panel-ls, and slnce rhcy mu: :1 wm: degree
[a pllynnn: abncts or (e nm in some physical cnvimnment,
they have some degree of physical locanan. This i: especia!
me ns olganlzztiam facloncx, m cnnncclcd With ailxoad o:
communication xystcms. Bu: even ln thes: cases lucauon is
indircct. by attachmcn: w a xylzm of physical (hmgs; and n
me case of pohtlcal and lcglous organizalons evcn marc laca-
nlnn i: only iezbly concclvablc. nation of paal dimen-
Sion: of these syslcnlx is hardly m
appllcablc.
On ha other luna, th: din-lcnsion of (im: s: cf prime im-
pertence. Tenlpcral rclallonshlp nd nnnnnnzly primary
aspects uf organizations. w nen and nnw long axe
m
the 5m kan-lx
of desmpticn. A: 2' mw nntcd, th: ptnons whosc am al:
he cumpancnrs af Lhcsc 512mm: conlinuailv changing, yc!
nn: urganlzatlon pels. ts.
m
There una: ln nu. cnnnnennn, howc , one question nf
denltlan tn whlch nemncn wnz; agan bc mada, zu whlch no
should
rswct n alzcmpted han I: n, wlxdlcr nn nrganizatlon
bc regardcd s ccntLr mas when Jl coopcrallvc mon cases,
12
to b: rzsurntd a: a Many organ lun: agent:
nm.
inlcxmztcnl clnnng n: store or lnnlm En: the night, ein).
ln such cases [may bc held that tzchnlcaly a new arg: unan
cormsi m cxixlenc: each day, cm, but l have fuund lt mor:

S<: m. Appcnrw, n psg