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Chapter 5
Introduction to DC/DC
Converters
KCL
I1
i2
in
X
ij = 0 (5.1)
34
35
1Z X
ij = 0
T T
X 1 Z
ij = 0
T T
X
< ij > = 0 (5.2)
conservation of charge).
KVL
V2
+
V1 +
+
Vn
X
Vk = 0 (5.3)
1Z X
Vk = 0
T T
X 1 Z
Vk = 0
T T
X
< Vk > = 0 (5.4)
36 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
P.S.S.
X
Average KCL < ij > = 0 (5.5)
X
Average KVL < Vk > = 0 (5.6)
diL
from < VL > = L < >
dt
diL
in P.S.S. < > = 0
dt
Inductor in P.S.S. < VL > = 0 (5.7)
dVL
from < iC > = C < >
dt
dVL
in P.S.S. < > = 0
dt
Capacitor in P.S.S. < iC > = 0 (5.8)
q(t)
iL Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
I1 q(t) = 1
I2 1
+
t
+ VL +
q(t) = 0 dT T T+dT 2T
Duty Ratio d
V1 + C1
Vx C2 V2 Vx(t)
V1
(V1>0)
<Vx> = dV1
t
dT T T+dT 2T
37
vC (t) VC (5.10)
iL (t) IL (5.11)
< VL > = 0
dV1 T V2 T = 0
V2 = dV1 (5.12)
Consider currents:
I1 = I2 (5.13)
I1 = dI2 (5.14)
Combining:
I1 = dI2
dV1 = V2
dV1 I1 = dI2 V2
V1 I1 = I2 V2 (5.15)
38 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
Note: Trick in this type of average analysis is to be careful when one can use
With the following type of external network and V1 , V2 > 0, power ows from
1 2.
V1 + C1 C2 V2
Type of direct converter because a DC path exists between input and output
Suppose we change the location of source and load: Rene switching function so
Similar analysis:
< VL > = 0
By conservation of power:
I2 = (1 d)I1 (5.17)
39
q(t)
iL t
I1 q(t) = 0 I2 dT T T+dT 2T
+ Vx(t)
+ - VL +
q(t) = 1 V2
V2 C1 Vx C2 + V1
-
t
- dT T T+dT 2T
-
VL
V1
dT T
V1-V2
In this case, energy ows from 2 1 and the P.S.S. output voltage (V2 ) is higher
V2 C1 C2 + V1
1. External network
2. Switch implementation
40 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
3. Control
The boost converter is often drawn with power owing left to right. However,
V1 + C2 C1 V2
truns o and this energy and additional energy from input is transferred to output.
Either the buck or boost can be seen as the appropriate connection of a canonical
The direct connection has B as the common node. The rest of operation is
Switch implementation: Dierent switches can carry current and block voltage
MOSFET can block positive V and can carry positive or negative i (see Figure 5.9).
D
G V
Body Diode
G
S
BJT (or darlington) is similar, but negative V blows up device (see Figure 5.10).
i i
+ Same for +
V V
IGBT
Combine elements:
1. Block positive V and carry positive and negative i (see Figure 5.11).
2. Block positive and negative V and carry positive i (see Figure 5.12).
42 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
i
+
3. Block positive and negative V and carry positive and negative i (see Fig
ure 5.13).
We can also construct indirect DC/DC converters. Store energy from input, trans
fer energy to output, never a DC path from input to output (see Figure 5.14).
A B
+ +
V1 V2
43
q(t) = 1 q(t) = 0
q(t)
+
V1 +
V2 1
t
dT T T+dT 2T
q(t) = 0 q(t) = 1
VL
+ V1
V1 + V2
C1 C2
dT T
V2
Split Capacitor
< VL > = 0
V2
f or 0 < d < 1 < <0 (5.19)
V1
I1 I2
+
V1 +
V2
V1 > 0
I1 > 0
V2 < 0
I2 > 0
V2
Given conversion range < V1
< 0, why not always use indirect vs. direct?
Look at averaged circuit variables (see Figure 5.17): Assume C, L are very large.
I L = I 1 + I2
By averaged KCL into dotted box: Maybe counter intuitive: I1 = average tran
VC
+
I1 I2 iq
I1+I2
+
+ iq
V1 IL V2 I1
dT T
VC = V1 V2
V1V2
+
I1 I2
D
Q +
V1 + I1+I2
V2
Indirect converter:
I2 I1
Buck + Vq Boost D
Q + + +
+
V1 + C D Vd V2 V1 + Q Vq C V2
Buck:
Boost:
Device voltage and current stresses are higher for indirect converters than for
direct converters with same power. Inductor current and capacitor voltage are also
higher.
Summary:
+ VC
I1 I2 iq
I1+I2
+
V1 +
iL V2 I1
dT T
+ + +
+
V1 + Vd V2 V1 + Vq V2
Now, selecting lter component sizes does depend on ripple, which we have previously
+ +
V1 + V2 id V2
id
Actual Waveform iD Including Ripple
I1
Id=<id>=(1-D)I1
t
DT T
DI1
t
DT T
(1D)I1
+
~ C R ~ ~
id V VC
VCpp
2
t
DT T
VCpp
2
to V2 .
dVC
i = C
dt
Z DT
1D
VC,pp = I1 dt
0 C
(1 D)DT
= I1 (5.32)
C
(1 D)DT
C I1 (5.33)
VC,pp
Now let us nd the capacitor voltage ripple (see Figure 5.25):
Zi
Vx
Actual Vx Including Ripple
Source Impedance +
+ V2
V1 + Vx C1 V2
<Vx>=(1D)V2
t
DT T
Replace Vx with equivalent source and eliminate DC quantities (see Figure 5.26).
~
Vx
DV2
t
DT T
(1D)V2
+
~ ~ ~
i1 Vx i1
ipp
2
t
DT T
ipp
2
1 Z DT
iL,pp = (1 D)V2 dt
L 0
D(1 D)T
= V2 (5.34)
L
5.1. RIPPLE COMPONENTS AND FILTER SIZING 51
Therefore, we need:
D(1 D)T
L V2 (5.35)
ipp
Energy storage is one metric for sizing Ls and Cs. Physical size may actually be
determined by one or more of: energy storage, losses, packing constraints, material
VC,pp
RC = (5.36)
2VC
iL,pp
RL = (5.37)
2I L
Xpk
Xpp
2
X
Xpp
2
Therefore:
VC,pk = VC (1 + RC ) (5.38)
iL,pk = IL (1 + RL ) (5.39)
52 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
(1 D)DT
C I1 (5.40)
2RC VC
D(1 D)T
L V2 (5.41)
2RL I1
The ripple ratios also determine passive component energy storage requirements
1
EC = CV 2
2 C,pk
1 (1 D)DT
= I1 VC2 (1 + RC )2
2 2RC VC
DI2 V2 (1 + RC )2
=
4fsw RC
DPo (1 + RC )2
= (5.42)
4fsw RC
1. Conversion ratio
2. Power level
(1 D)Po (1 + RL )2
EL = (5.43)
4fsw RL
It can be shown that direct converters always require lower energy storage than
indirect converters.
5.2. DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE 53
.
Switch Stress P arameter(SSP ) = Vsw,pk isw,pk (5.44)
= V2 (1 + RC )I1 (1 + RL )
Po
= (1 + RC )(1 + RL )
1D
V2
= Po (1 + RC )(1 + RL ) (5.45)
V1
Large power
Large ripple
q(t)
Switching Function for Diode
qD(t)
I1 t
DT T
VL
L R + V1
q(t) C t
V1 + V2
DT T
V1V2
iL
I1
t
DT T
V1 DT
iL,pp = (5.46)
L
IL = I1
V2
= (5.47)
R(1 D)
iL,pp
2
RL =
I1
V1 D(1 D)RT
=
2V2 L
D(1 D)2 RT
= (5.48)
2L
RL as R , L (5.49)
Eventually peak ripple becomes greater than DC current: both switch and diode
iL iL
As R Increases As L Decreases
t t
DT T DT T
D(1 D)2 RT
RL =
2L
RL > 1
2L
R (5.50)
D(1 D)2 T
At light load (big R and low power) we get DCM. Lighter load can be reached in
D(1 D)2 T R
L (5.51)
2
The minimum inductance for CCM operation is sometimes called the critical
inductance.
D(1 D)2 T R
LCRIT,BOOST = (5.52)
2
For some cases (e.g. we need to operate down to almost no load), this may be
unreasonably large.
Because of the new switch state, operating conditions are dierent (see Fig
ure 5.30).
56 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
q(t), qD(t)
DCM
t
DT (D+D2)T T
VL
V1
(D+D2)T t
DT T
V1-V2
t
DT (D+D2)T T
V1 DT + (V1 V2 )D2 T = 0
V1 (D + D2 ) = V2 D2
V2 D + D2
=
V1 D2
D
= 1+ (5.53)
D2
where D2 < 1 D.
V2 1
=
V1 1D
5.2. DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE 57
1D+D
=
1D
D
= 1+ (5.54)
1D
V2 D V2
Since V1
=1+ D2
and D2 < 1 D, V1
is bigger in DCM.
Therefore, conversion ratio depends on R, fsw , L, ... unlike CCM. This makes
control tricky, as all of our characteristics change for part of the load range.
How do we model DCM operation? Consider diode current (see Figure 5.31).
IL id
+ +
V1 + V2 id(t) V2
id
ipk
I2
t
DT (D+D2)T T
V1 DT
ipk =
L
D2 T = t
58 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO DC/DC CONVERTERS
i
= L
V
V1 DT
L
= L
V2 V1
V1 D
D2 = (5.56)
V2 V1
< iout > = < id >
1 1
= (D2 T )(ipk )
2 T
1 V1 V1 DT 1
= ( DT )( )
2 V2 V1 L T
V12 T D2
= (5.57)
2(V2 V1 )
Vx
Ideal L Rings with Parasitic Cs
V2
+ +
+ Vx V2 V1
V1
t
DT D2T T
Sometimes people design to always be in DCM. Inductor size becomes very small
di
and we can get fast dt
(see Figure 5.33).
5.2. DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE 59
CCM DCM
Desired i
V2
di
1. Very fast dt
capability.
1. Parasitic ringing
DCM is sometimes used when very fast response speed is needed (e.g. for voltage
is avoided, though one may have to operate in DCM under light-load conditions to