The co-operative principle

This incorporates four maxims which contribute to co-operation in

conversation. As a result of these maxims, as native-speakers, we co-
operate in conversation so that we say neither too much nor too little and
we try to say it clearly. Thus, it is imperative that we help students identify
how much silence or thinking time, or how long a turn, is (generally)
acceptable.

The creation of meaning:

This is how context and the relationship between participants in a

conversation influence what is said. For example, The phone's ringing can
be interpreted in different ways. It might be a simple observation as in Oh,
listen. That public phone is ringing. How strange, a request that someone,
probably a friend, partner, sibling answer it, or an excuse for not doing
something else. Students need help with identifying the speaker's intention
beyond the meaning of the words themselves.

Adjacency
This has to do with spoken discourse. It refers to two utterances, one
following the other, where the second is clearly related to the first.
Adjacency pairs may be predictable as in Bye! See you Yes, take care;
they may also be less predictable as in Have you got any money? Yes, I've
been to the bank. Many of the more predictable pairs are incorporated
into functional work, but the less predictable ones are rarely covered.
Turn-taking
This has to do with who speaks, when and for how long. Conversational
participants need to be aware of when someone is finishing their turn and
how to join an on-going conversation or build on what someone else has
said, all without undue hesitation.
Openings and closings
These are the expressions or ways we use to either initiate or end a
conversation, and again they are not necessarily obvious to students.
Topic

There are some topics which are appropriate for conversation and others
that are not; further there are some topics that are more likely to come up
depending on the gender of the participants. An inappropriate topic can
result in a dead conversation or can cause offence. It is important not to
neglect raising students' cultural awareness of what is considered fit for
conversation.

Stress and intonation

These two aspects of pronunciation are used to open, maintain and end
conversations; they are also used to signal turn-taking. As such they are
important tools in conversation. Students need help not only in using them
appropriately but also, crucially, in being made aware of them and
recognising what they can be used to communicate.
Gesture and body language

While common to conversation in any language, the amount of gesture

used, which gestures are appropriate, and conventions relating to body
language are culture-specific and misuse of them can cause problems in
communication.