Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Er.Omnath Tiwari
Bsc(H),MSc,MCP,MCSA,MCS
E,MCT,CCNA.
CONTENTS AT A GLANCE
3 LAN Classification 9
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7 Tree structure 25
9 Multi-Master Mode 37
12 ICS scenario 44
14 NAT Server 46
15 VPN server 48
16 LAN routing 52
17 Static routing 53
18 Architecture of router 60
20 Scenario of Telnet 76
22 Routing table 86
24 Routing loops 87
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25 OSPF Scenario 99
List of tables
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8 Operating Systems 21
9 Difference between Workgroup and Domain 34
10 Exchange Server with different operating systems 56
11 Router interfaces and connectors 62
12 Router Ports 63
13 Default address mask in binary & dotted decimals 71
14 Decimal and Binary values of subnet mask 72
15 Subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address 74
16 Routing table 86
17 Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2 90
18 Difference between IGRP and RIP 91
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1. Introduction to networking
Cable/media
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2. Models of Networking
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Table 1
Workgroup Domain
2. There is no client and no server. All the 2. There is a centralized dedicated server
computers are in equal status. computer called domain controller which
controls all other computers called clients.
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3. Categories of network
Networks can be categorized as per geographical area to be covered by the
network. Computer network are divided into four categories includes: Local Area
Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and
Wide Area Network (WAN).
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Types of LAN
In LANs, data can be transferred using techniques like token passing. As per
techniques used for data sharing, LANS are classified into Ethernet, Token Bus, Token
Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classification.
Advantages of LAN
a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure.
b). many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results
in fast work.
Disadvantages of LAN
a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN.
b). LAN cannot cover large area.
c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.
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IPv4 IPv6
IP Address Classes
IP address is a 32 bit address. It is divided into various classes namely Class A, Class
B, Class C, Class D and Class E. TCP/IP defines Class D for experimental purpose. TCP
/IP address contains two addresses embedded within one IP address; Network address
and host address as shown in figure 3.1
Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16-
bit network ID and 16-bit of host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network
ID and 8-bit of host ID.
Address Classes
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Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary
connectivity to the network or non-permanent devices such as portable computer. The
most common protocol used for assigning Dynamic IP address is DHCP also called
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the computer on
lease basis.
Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in
the network remains for a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent
IP addresses which remain allocated to a specific device for longer time e.g. Server.
5. MAC Addressing
MAC address is a hardware address that is embedded in the NIC card. It is also known
as hardware address or physical address. Every NIC card has a unique MAC address
assigned by IEEE. MAC address is used to identify the nodes at lower levels of OSI
model. The MAC address operates at the data link layer of the OSI model.
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► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
6. NETWORKING MEDIA
To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of media.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube
shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of
curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically of two types:
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In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra protection from noise.
There are different categories of UTP cables:
Category Speed
CAT-1 56 Kbps
CAT-2 4 Mbps
CAT-3 10 Mbps
CAT-4 16-20 Mbps
CAT-5 100 Mbps
CAT-6 1Gbps
CAT-7 1Gbps
7. Ethernet Cabling
There are three types of Ethernet cables:
· Straight cable
· Crossover cable
· Rolled cable
8. Straight cable
It is used when we have to connect
· PC TO Switch
· PC to Hub
· Hub to Router
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· Switch to Router
568A 568B
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Orange/white Green/white
Orange Green
Green/white Orange/white
Blue Blue
Blue/white Blue/white
Green Green
Brown/white Brown/white
Brown Brown
NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used for data transfer but Rollover
cables are not used for data transfer.
There are two methods for manufacturing Rollover cables:
568A 568B
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9. OPERATING SYSTEM
1) Types of Operating Systems
(i) DOS (Desktop Operating System) (ii) NOS (Network Operating System)
Table 8: Operating Systems
DOS NOS
3. In this OS, there is less security. 3. In this OS, there is more security.
4. In this OS, all computers are clients. 4. In this OS, there are servers and
clients.
5. In this OS, MS-DOS, GUI package
Win 5. In this OS Win NT, Win 2000, Win
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3.1, Win 95, Win 98, Win ME comes. 2003, LINUX, UNIX, Novell and
MAC comes.
Removed Features
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· The ability of creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used
instead.
· DNS SERVER
DNS stands for domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology
For managing the names of websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques allows
you to type names into your web browser like computer networking, about computer and
allow your computer to automatically find that address on internet. DNS is the resolution
mechanism used by Window Server 2003 clients to find other computers and services
running on those computers for computers in a window 2003 network infrastructure to
talk to one another, one of the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alone do not
communicate globally but communicate locally, but if domain name is added along with
it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use for name reservation i.e. to
convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the function of DNS is to
resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identify only user
friendly name and all computers and technologies identify IP address and MAC address
DNS is use to solve this problem because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (fully
qualified domain name) to IP address and IP address to host name .
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· HOST NAME
Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic
Input/ output system) name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol that can
use the transport services of TCP/ IP when used in routed network. A NetBIOS name is
16- byte addresses that identify a NetBIOS resource on the network.
· DOMAIN NAME
Domain name is used to identifies the internet site one can identifies the location
without having to remember the IP address of every location e.g. yahoo.com or
gmail.com
· FQDN
FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to the
parent name space in hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different levels of
namespace are visualize as in fig below this hierarchy is visualized─ the root level
namespace, top─ level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. Left most
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portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we give to an
IP address.
FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. We can identify host id and
location of a computer as in fig above. Suppose we want to find location of pc1 with
IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2nd floor in the organization center. The FQDN
for this is
Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com
But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simplify this we use “c name”
technique as:
Pc1.center.com=20.0.0.1
· Domain Namespace
DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an
organized, hierarchical division of DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to easily
locate the network services and resources. The domain namespace include the root
domain, the top level domain of the organization and organize these domain in a
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hierarchical tree structure. Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure of root
domain. There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There is one root domain, which acts as the starting point of the
fully qualified domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2
shows the tree structure or domain namespace.
· DNS server
Any computer providing domain namespace is a DNS server. DNS server is used to
convert host name FQDN into IP address and IP address into host name FQDN. To store
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· DNS Zone
Zone is the part of DNS database that contain record of domain or multiple domain.
If the domains represents logical division of the DNS namespace, zones represents the
physical separation of the DNS namespace. In other words information about records of
the resources within DNS domain is stored in a zone files, and this zone files exist on
hard drive of server. Zone files are divided into one of two basic types:
These specify the name servers that are authoritative for a given portion
of DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are performing
iterative queries to perform name resolution.
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authoritative for the zone. It is also used to store other properties such as version
information and timings that affect zone renewal or expiration.
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command display the domain name with IP (works only when reverse lookup
zone is set up).
(iv) c:>ipconfig /all
This command display FQDN, IP address, MAC address.
(iv) c:>ipconfig /flushdns
This command flush or clear all the information in the cache that is retrieved
from DNS server.
(v) c:>ipconfig /displaydns
Display the current contents or entries in the cache.
(vi) c:>ip config /register
register any DNS name
DHCP SERVER
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a protocol that allocates IP address to
computer on a network. DHCP centralized the management of IP address allocation and
reduces human error associated with manual IP configuration. DHCP server supplies all
the necessary networking param-eters. Two things are always handed out as a part of
DHCP configuration: IP address and subnet mask. Further DHCP will frequently
configure clients with optional values, such as a default gateway, DNS server address,
and the address of a Window Internet Naming Server, if one is present. Scenario showing
DHCP server IP address allocation.
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Scope having the range of IP address for providing dynamic IP address to other
computer. A group of IP address within a scope is called as DHCP scope.
Exclusion IP range
If you want to reserve some IP for any computer i.e if we want that from the series of
192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 if we want that a series of IP addresses must not be
assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range.
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When a DHCP client is unable to locate a DHCP server, the client picks out a random IP
address from the private APIPA address range of 169.254.*.*, with a subnet mask of
255.255.0.0. The 169.254.*.* IP range is private because that network number is not in
use on the internet, it is random because the client generates an arbitrary host number for
that network.
The significance of APIPA is that DHCP client computers that cannot find a
DHCP server can still be assigned an IP address and communicate with other computers
on the same subnet mask that also cannot find DHCP server. It allows communication
when DHCP server is down or just plain not there. Note that APIPA does not assign a
default gateway, and therefore it cannot communicate with any computer that lives on the
other side of a router.
IP Reservation
There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will also
want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by
statically filling the IP address. We can reserve IP address with the help of MAC address
for a particular computer.
On Client Side
· Go to LAN card properties → select TCP/IP protocol→ properties
· Select obtain IP address automatically
· Go to command prompt (cmd)
· Give command
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ACTIVE DIRECTORY
With the release of Windows 2000, Microsoft introduced Active Directory, a scalable,
robust directory service. Active Directory is used to create server based networking.
Active Directory’s job is to store and make available a Directory database i.e information
about the user, its class, name, address, mails, phone numbers, location.
Active Directory is a technology created by Microsoft that provides a variety of
network services like Directory Services, DNS based naming and other network
information. Active Directory also allows administrator to assign policies, deploy
software and apply critical updates to an organizations. Active Directory was previewed
in 1999, released first with window 2000 server edition and revised to extend functionally
and improve administration in Window 2003. Additional improvements were made in
Window server 2003 and Window server 2008.
The fundamental building block of Microsoft’s Directory services continues to be a
domain. A domain is logically grouping of network resources, including shares, printers,
groups and users accounts. The user account represents the individual to domain, and
allows for different type of access and different types of tasks. Every users account is
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unique. It has uniqueness of the user account that allows administrator to control access
for every member of domain.
There are two types of users accounts: local account and domain account. Local
accounts are maintained in the local database of a computer and cannot be used to grant
access to network resources. Local users are primarily used to administer a computer or
to allow several people to share a single computer that is not a member of a domain.
Whereas domain users accounts are much more widely used in organizations that local
user accounts because they allow for central administration and user can log onto any
computer in the domain. Domain users accounts are stored in Active Directory.
Workgroup Domain
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networks.
4. There is no centralized Admin-
istration and each PC is 4. There is centralized administration
administrated separately. and each PC can be administrated and
managed from the server.
5.In this model, low grade operating
system like 2000/xp professional, 5.In this model high grade operating
win 98 etc can be used. system ,like win2000/2003 server are
used.
6. Workgroup can be given names
like sales, HR, accounts etc. 6. Domain can also given names like
abc.com, xyz.com etc.
7 Users accounts are created in each
PC and are called as “Local Users”. 7.Users accounts are created on sever
side DC and are called as ”Domain
Users”.
Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary.
Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides before they
can access resources, such as a shared folders. Active Directory also links related
domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any of the domain in
which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures of related domain is called a
tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namespace.
All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a forest. All domains in
the forest share same schema.
Types of Domain
· Domain Forest
· Domain Tree
· Organization unit
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Domain Forest
Domain Tree
A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the domain
in the forest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree is a set
of two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domain
and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- parent
domain.
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All the domain controllers in the domain networking are peers and this model is
called as multi- master model .
· Next
· Domain NETBIOS name (gmail.com)
· Next
· Data folder, folder new tech directory service→ next (SYS VOL)
· Next
· Click on install and configure the DNS server on this computer to use this
DNS server as its preferred DNS server.
· Tick on permission compatible only with window server
· Next
· Enter the restore mode and the password
· next→ next→ finish
· now restart computer
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CHILD DOMAIN
A domain is created say “xyz.com”. this domain is known as parent domain or the
root domain. Now “chd.xyz.com” will be the child domain or the sub domain of xyz.com.
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First of all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now make Tom
user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram
Below are the steps to cerate child domain.
it should be noted that parent domain can logon into child domain but on the other
hand child domain cannot logon to the parent domain. Also parent domain can apply
policies or security on the child domain.
Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name.
· First right click on My Computer
· Properties
· Computer name
· Change
· Write domain name →ok
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INTERNET SHAREING
We can share a single internet connection to multiple computers with the help of
networking or internet sharing. There are four ways to share internet.
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ADSL modem has IP address 192.168.1.1. All the PCs are assigned with a DNS
(Domain Name Server) and GW (gateway) -192.168.1.1. Also DHCP (Dynamic Host
Communication Protocol) is enabled which will provide IP addresses to the PCs
automatically.
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Note:- When we configure ICS then the local card detect 192.168.0.1 address
automatically.
How to configure ICS
· Open network and sharing center
· Network- Properties
· Click on Manage network connections
· Right click on LAN Card which is used
for internet- Properties
· Click on sharing
· Enable ICS
· Ok
· yes
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classes A, B, C also it is supported by all operating systems. The scenario for WIN proxy
is shown below:
In win proxy as shown in the scenario above we can share internet. First of all a ADSL
modem is connected to the ISP (Internet Service Provider) by a RJ-11 connector and
other end of ADSL modem is connected to the PC1 through RJ-45. Assign IP address
192.168.1.1 to the ADSL modem also enable the DHCP server and set the start IP
address of 192.168.1.2 and end IP address of 192.168.1.254. Then after ADSL modem
connect PC1, assign GW 192.168.1.1 and
If we have to connect many computers with a single IP address then we will use NAT.
NAT exchange IP packet between local network and internet. The routing and remote
access server of window 2K3 server provide us with a component known as NAT. By
enabling NAT on a Server 2003 system, you allow connected users on a private system to
share a single connection to access a public network such as the internet i.e. NAT enable
multiple client computer to connect the internet through a single publicly registered IP
address. A NAT server translate private IP address to public addresses. NAT eliminates
the need for large number of IP addresses by mapping externally assigned IP addresses.
When deploying NAT, it is needed to configure setting on both the client side
and the server side. On the server side of NAT fill the IP address statically.
Steps to enable NAT server
· Open internet → Tools→ Internet options
· connections→ LAN settings
· untick the IP and port address
· ok→ ok→ give site name
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With the client side configured, there are few things to do on NAT server:
The first step to configure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Remote
Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup Wizard.
· Start→ administrator tools→ Routing & Remote Access
· Right click on My Computer→ right click on computer name
· Select option Configure and enable routing & remote access
· Welcome to routing → next→ next
· Select NAT→ next
· Select LAN card which is to be connected to internet
· next→ next
From any of the four methods of internet sharing only method is used at a
time to remove the other method
· go to start→ setting
· add & remove
· change/ remove, tick on remove.
several inbound connections, rather than require a modem and telephone line for each
simultaneous remote user.
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VPN components
(i) VPN server
(ii) VPN Clients
(iii) WAN Option
(iv) Security Options
VPN Server
VPN server, serve as the end points of a VPN connection. When configuring a
VPN server, you can allow access to just that server, or pass traffic through VPN server
so that the remote user gain access the resources of the entire network.
VPN Client
VPN clients establish connection to VPN server. They can also be routers that
obtain the router-to-router secure connection. VPN client software is included in all the
modern window operating systems, including Window 2003 server. Router-to router
VPN connection can be made from computers running server2003 and Windows 2000
running Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support PPTP or
L2TP connections can be VPN clients of a window server 2003 system.
WAN Options
These provide the physical mechanism for passing data back and forth. These
connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or frame
relay. In order for VPN connections to be successful, the VPN client and VPN server
must be connected to each other using either permanent WAN connection or by dialing
into an internet server provider (ISP).
Security Options
Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important
that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure
communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon and
domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet filtering and caller ID.
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Types of VPN
(i) PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol )
(ii) L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) according to CCNA.
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ROUTING
It is a process of transferring information through an inter network i.e from one
network to another. Routing connect different networks having ID help in process of
routing. The dial-in properties also allow for specific IP address to be assigned to a user.
This is the only way in Window Server 2003 that you can assign a specific IP to a user.
To assign a specific IP to a user, check the box next to assign A Static IP Address and
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enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be specified as per user. By
defining static routes, users can be limited to only specific parts of networks.
In an internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the for
effort websites, there are hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server computer
configured as router. In simple words Router is a computer with two network cards.
These two network cards, then, are attached to two different logical IP networks. The
routing table helps direct traffic that is passed through the router.
Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to
configure the router in order for that router to pass along traffic to the proper network.
There are two ways the routing table can be built and modified: either manually or
automatically.
Types of Routing
(i) Static Routing
(ii) Dynamic Routing
Static Routing
In this routing information required for routing is manually entered into the router
by administrator.
How to configure LAN routing
· Enter the static IP in the router
· Administrator tools
· Routing and Remote access
· Right click on computer name (pcc1)
· Configure and enable routing and remote access
· next→ custom configuration
· select LAN routing→next→ finish
· yes and logon to see IP table route
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· Mask 255.0.0.0
· GW 20.0.0.1
Dynamic Routing
The other way to manage a router routing tables is to let the computer do it
for you. Just like DHCP allocate IP addresses, configuring the dynamic routing
protocol usually means less errors due to human error, and less administrative
overhead.
In dynamic routing, routing information is automatically entered in the
router using protocols like RIP AND OSPF. These routing protocols used by
Window Server 2003 use one of two kinds of algorithms to determine the best
possible path for a packet to get to its destination, either distance vector or link
state. RIP is used for small networks where as OSPF is used for large networks.
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(i) RIP version1 and version2, with the ability to configure individual
network cards with separate versions.
(ii) Calculations used to avoid routing loops and speed recovery of the
network whenever topology changes occur.
(iii) Route filters; you can configure RIP to except information from
only certain networks, and also choose which routes will be shared
with RIP routers.
(iv) Peer filters, which allow control over which router announcements
are accepted.
(v) Simple password authentication support.
But there are significant drawbacks, which makes RIP a poor, if not unusable
solution for large networks. For example, the maximum hop count used for RIP routers
is15, making network 16 hops away (or more) unreachable where RIP is concerned.
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EXCHANGE SERVER
Exchange server is a mail server, we can send and receive mail from one user to another
user. Exchange server is the mail server of Microsoft.
Elements of Exchange Server
Mail Server
A server which helps to the users to send and receive mail is called mail server.
Mail Box
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Exchange Version
Table 10: Exchange Server with different operating systems
Where SP stands for Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded
externally to remove some bugs that come during installation of server CD.
Hardware Requirements
· Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz
· RAM: min. 256MB Rec. 512MB
Other Requirements
· OS: 2k or 2k3 Server
· NTFS partition
· Static IP address
· Active Directory
· DNS installation with AD zone
· IIS installed with ASP.net, SMTP, NNTP and www service
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Application layer accepts data and forward into the protocol stack. It creates user
interface between application software and protocol stack.
Presentation Layer
This layer decides presentation format of the data. It also able to performs other
function like compression/decompression and encryption/decryption.
Session Layer
This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.
Transport Layer
Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i) Error checking
(ii) Flow Control
Buffering
Windowing
Multiplexing
(iii) Sequencing
(iv) Positive Acknowledgement
(v) Response
(vi)
Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path
determination. Each networking device has a physical address that is MAC
address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of
addressing is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some
examples of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and
ARP etc. to perform the path determination for different routing protocol.
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Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining quality of service,
fragmentation and protocol identification.
Data Link Layer
The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers
· Logical Link Control
· Media Access Control
(i) Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the
NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link
Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi.
(ii) Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and
establish the identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of
Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this
layer deals with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform
modulation and demodulation as required.
ROUTERS
LAN
Processor
I/O
Controller WAN
Memory
Controller RAM
Ports
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BIOS
ROM Flash
RAM
Incomplete O/S
IOS
IOS
NVRAM
Startup Configuration
Flash RAM
Flash memory is just like a hard copy of the computer. Flash RAM is the
permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies
of router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).The
size of Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory is Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).
NVRAM
NVRAM is a “Non Volatile Random Access Memory”. It is used to store
the startup configuration of the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb.
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· Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: -
(i) Running copy of IOS.
(ii) Running configuration
(iii) Routing table
(iv) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table (IP address to MAC
address)
(v) Processor & other data structure
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from
different interfaces. Size of RAM in a router may vary from 2 MB to 512 MB.
The types of memory that may be present in a RAM are:
(i) DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
(ii) EDORAM -> Extended Data Out RAM
(iii) SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic RAM
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Router Interface
Table 11: Router interfaces and connectors
Router Ports
Table 12: Router Ports
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Modes of Router
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
Router>
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able to change
and save router configuration.
Privileged mode
Router#
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here
configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘enable’. We have to enter enable
password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority
than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will
work.
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Global configuration
Route(config)#
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are performed in this mode. But
here we cannot see and save the changes.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing, Security.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘configure terminal’
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Router(config)#router eigrp 10
Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Vty Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Enable Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
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To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
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To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router
configuration. By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to
use different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
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(1) Status
(2) Mac address
(3) IP address
(4) Subnet mask
(5) Hardware type / manufacturer
(6) Bandwidth
(7) Reliability
(8) Delay
(9) Load ( Tx load Rx load)
(10) Encapsulation
(11) ARP type (if applicable)
(12) Keep alive
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Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the type.
Different banners are: -
· Message of the day (motd)
This banner appear at every access method
· Login
Appear before login prompt
· Exec
Appear after we enter to the execution mode
· Incoming
Appear for incoming connections
Syntax:-
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner <type> <delimation char>Text Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#
Example
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router
connected to Reliance $
Router(config)#
To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year
Router#clock set 7:15:10 9 June 2009
SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into
smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is
done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie instead of having a single huge network for
an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnetting
allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based
networks.
In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id.
This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network size does not
shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within
the network.
· Easy to troubleshoot.
· Reduce the wastage of IP address.
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask specifies the part of IP address that is to be used for identifying a
sub network. A subnet mask when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bit
network address. This binary address gives the first address in the subnet block specified
in the large network.
Default Mask
Classfull addresses consists of three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used for
subnet.Each class has a default subnet mask C lass A consists of eight 1s in the network
address field and 24 0s in remaining field, Class B consists of 16 1s in network address
field and 16 0s in remaining field, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the network address
field and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the default address mask in binary and dotted-decimal
is shown in the table
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2. check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert it to
binary format .for this example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0 and
the equivalent binary format is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3. check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in class
B, 16 bits 2 octat are for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for host id.
4. now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next no. that is
power of 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the
network field which has to be borrowed from the host id field.
5. the total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s are of
additional bits required for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is 32-20=12.
which defines whole address.
6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in
decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0
Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask
Decimal
Binary
0 00000000
128 10000000
192 11000000
224 11100000
240 11110000
248 11111000
252 11111100
254 11111110
255 11111111
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Step 2:
· To idettify the total no. of the valid hosts for each subnet.
· 2^m-2= no.of valid hosts. Where m are the remaining no. of bits in host ID 2^6-
2=62
Step 3:
· Calculate the subnet mask and range
· Subnet mask for n/w 192.168.10.0/26 is
11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192
· range=> 256-192=64
step 4:
· Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
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192.168.10.0 192.168.10.1 to
192.168.10.63 192.168.10.63
192.168.10.64 192.168.10.65 to
192.168.10.126 192.168.10.127
192.168.10.128 192.168.10.129 to
192.168.10.190 192.168.10.191
192.168.10.192 192.168.10.193 to
192.168.10.254 192.168.10.255
VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The
network having more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host
comes at last and for each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario
given:
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TELNET
Telnet stands for terminal network, telephone network, terminal encapsulation on
the network. Purpose of Telnet is to access the remote device in order to configure it. It
provides textual access of the remote device. It uses the services of TCP. Telnet service is
used where small bandwidth is low. It provides textual access of the remote device. Port
number of Telnet is 23.
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Router>
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interfaces the command used is
Router#show ip interface brief
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At router 2:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
At router 3:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
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Router(config-if)#no shutdown
ROUTING
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To route the packet the router must know the following things:
· Destination network
· Neighbour device from witch it can learn about remote Networking.
· Possible number of routers to reach the destination.
· Best route to reach the destination.
· How to maintain & verify the routing information.
TYPES OF ROUTING
· Static routing.
· Default routing.
· Dynamic routing.
STATIC ROUTING
In static routing an administrator specifies all the routes to reach the destination.
Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router’s routing table.By default,
Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) of 1
Features
Ø There is no overhead on the router CPU.
Ø There is no bandwidth usage between routers.
Ø It adds security, because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain
networks only.
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Router(config)#interface so/1/0
DEFAULT ROUTING
Default routing is used to send packets with a remote destination network
not in the routing table to the next-hop route.
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Default routing is also a type of static routing which reduces the routing
overhead & default routing is also used with stub networks. Stub networks are those
having a single exit interface. Default routing is also used for unknown destination.
A special address is used to perform the default routing ie 0.0.0.0
The scenario for default routing is same and but the commands used at the routers
having single exit interface like R1 and R3 have different commands.
At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router#show ip route
DYNAMIC ROUTING
Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update
routing table on routers.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by router when it communicates
routing information between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable a
routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing information to the neighbor
router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the routing
table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other
router also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best
path is selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: -
IGPs are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same
Autonomous System(AS) number. Routing which is performed within a single
autonomous system is known as interior routing. The protocol that are used to perform
this type of routing are known as IGP(Interior Gateway Protocol).
These protocols are:-
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route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table.If both advertised routes to
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Converged Network
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The interface to Network 5 fails. All routers know about Network 5 from Router
E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router B.
When Network 5 fails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop
routing to Network 5 through Router E. But Routers A, B, and D don’t know about
Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update information. Router C will eventually
send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but Routers A and D are
still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still available through Router B
with a metric of 3.The problem occurs when Router A sends out its regular 30-second
“Hello, I’m still here—these are the links I know about” message, which includes the
ability to reach Network 5 and now Routers B and D receive the wonderful news that
Network 5 can be reached from Router A, so Routers B and D then send out the
information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined for Network 5 will go to
Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop.
· Hybrid protocol
Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state protocol.
Ex: EIGRP
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that one router sends a request to other about its route or network get networks which are
not assigned to it after all thee three routers have same networks, this process is repeated
to send and receive request so it is called slow convergence
RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to remote network, but
it has a maximum allowable hop count of 0-15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed
unreachable.
RIP version 1 uses only class full routing, which means that all devices in
the network must use the same subnet mask.
RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing, and does send
subnet mask information with the route updates. This is called classless routing.
· Hop Count
It is a way of measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15
routers, if there is one more router in the network then this routing will fails.
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thee router will send out updates to all its neighbors letting them know that the route is
invalid.
Hold-down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed.
Routers will enter into the hold-down state when an update packet is received that
indicated the route is unreachable. This continues until entire an update packet is received
with a better metric or until the hold-down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.
Route flush timer
Route flush timers’ sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its interval
from the routing table 240 seconds. Before it’s removed from the table, the router notifies
its neighbors of that route’s impending demise. The value of the route invalid timer must
be less than that of the route flush timers.
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At router 1
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
At router 2
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 40.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
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At router 3
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
Uses an autonomous system number for Does not yse aytibiniys system numbers
activation
Gives a full route table update every 90 Gives full route table update every 30
seconds seconds
Has an administrative distance of 100 Has an administrative distance of 120
Uses bandwidth and delay of the line as Uses only hop count to determine the best
metric (lowest composite metric),with a path to a remote network, with 15 hops
maximum hop count of 255 being the maximum
IGRP Timers
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default settings:
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· Update timers
These specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The
default is 90 seconds.
· Invalid timers
These specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if it
doesn’t receive a specific update about it. The default is three times the update period.
· Flush timers
These indicate how much time should pass before a route should be flushed from
the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the update timer
is 90 seconds by default, then 7 × 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be flushed
from the route table.
At Router 1
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
At Router 2
R2(config)#router igrp 10
R2(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R2#show ip route
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At Router 3
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
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Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must
become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship
establishment:
Ø Hello or ACK received
Ø AS numbers match
Ø Identical metrics (K values)
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Stores the route advertisements about every route in the internetwork received
from each neighbor.
EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that
use a single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a
combination of four:
· Bandwidth
· Delay
· Load
· Reliability
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Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the
backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if
at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are
called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area 0.
OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple
autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an
Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).
OSPF Terminology
· Link
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an
interface is added to the OSPF process, it’s considered by OSPF to be a link.
· Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses
the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no
loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP
address of all active physical interfaces.
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· Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common
network,such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.
· Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct
exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing information—
unlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF
directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not
all neighbors will become adjacent—this depends upon both the type of network and the
configuration of the routers.
OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the
same area share a common Area ID.
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Broadcast (multi-access)
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to
connect to (or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a
single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be
elected for each broadcast multi-access network.
Non-broadcast multi-access
Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay,
X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access,
but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF
configuration to function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined.
· Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct
connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to-
point connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it
can be logical.
· Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of
connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers. All
of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to
the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed.
Benefits of OSPF
(i) Minimum routing updates.
(ii) Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1.
(iii) The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination
Router)
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At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
At Router r3
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router#show ip route
LAN SWITCHING
SWITCH
Switches are generally used to segment a large LAN smaller segment. Smaller
switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 2924XL have 24 ports capable of of creating 24
different network segments for the LAN. Larger switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 6500
can have hundreds of ports. Switches can also be used to connect LANs with different
media, for example, a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN and 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN can be
connected using a switch. Some switches support cut through switching, witch reduces
latency and delays in the network, while bridges support only store-and-forward traffic
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WORKING OF SWITCH
When switches receives data from one of connected devices, it forward data only
to the port on which the designated system is connected. It uses the media access Control
(MAC) address of the device to determine the correct port. The MAC address is a unique
number that is programmed in to every Network Interface Card (NIC). Consider, device a
wants to send data to device B.When device A passes the data, switch receives it. Switch
than checks’ the MAC addresses of the destination system. It then transfers data to device
B only instead of broadcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only to the system
to which the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network
link.
SWITCHING METHODS
There are three types of switching method:
· Store-and-forward switching
The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before
forwarding the frame. If the frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the
CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error, it
will be discarded.
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It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency for switching. However, for
high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency is
not significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported by
most switches.
· Cut-through switching
It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as
the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes
following the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a frame is
forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but
the shortest latency for switching
NOTE:
Bridges only support store-and-forward switching. Most new switch models also
use store-and-forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches
use fragment-free switching by default.
· Layer-2 Switching
Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC
address from the host NIC card to filter the network traffic. Layer-2 switch can be
considered as multi- port bridge.
Layer 2 switches are fast because they do not look at the network layer
header information, instead it looks at the frames hardware address before deciding to
either forward the frame or drop it.
interfaces into different broadcast domains. Without VLANs, all interfaces of a switch
are in the same broadcast domain; switches connected with each other are also in the
same broadcast domain, unless there is a router in between. Different ports of a switch
can be assigned to different VLANs. A VLAN can also span multiple switches.
Types of VLAN
· Static VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set
up and manage.
· Dynamic VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of the
devices connected to the ports.
A VLAN management application is used to set up a database of MAC addresses, and
configure the switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on the
MAC addresses of the connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches is
called VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS).
Cisco switches support a separate instance of spanning tree and a separate bridge
table for each VLAN.
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VLAN Operation
VLAN links
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· Trunk link
A link from switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100
Mbps or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects switches or routers, and carries
frames of different VLANs . Therefore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be a member
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of multiple VLANs. All VLANs are configured on a trunk link by default. VLAN
Trunking, by making use of frame tagging, allows traffic from different VLANs to
transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches.
VLAN Trunking identifies the VLAN from which a frame is sent by tagging the
frame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This feature is known as frame tagging or
frame identification. When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to
connect one switch with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to connect
one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch.
With frame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should forward a broadcast
frame (forward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID). It
also knows which bridge table it should use for forwarding an unicast frame (since a
separate bridge table is used for each VLAN).
A frame tag is added when a frame is forwarded out to a trunk link, and is
removed when the frame is forwarded out to an access link. Therefore, any device
attached to an access link is unaware of its VLAN membership.
By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vlan
membership according to our requirement.
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no.>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no.>
Switch(config-if)#exit
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Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 – 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switch(config-if)#exit
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send periodic updates to VTP client switches. The clients will create Vlans from the
update received from the VTP server.
VTP Operation
• VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames.
• VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number.
• VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change.
VTP Modes
· VTP server mode
By default all the switches in this mode are in server mode. VTP server is a
switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans.yhe switch in this mode
forwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates for VTP
clients.
· VTP client mode
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The switch
in this mode creates the vlans that are received from server mode switch.The client
will receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in
vtp update.
· VTP Transparent mode
Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able
to create, delete and modify Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot be
forworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will
not learn any information from received vtp update.
VTP configuration
At Switch 1:
· Creat vlan
· Port assignment
· Trunk port
· Switch vtp
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At switch 2:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 3:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
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· Vtp mode
· Vtp pruning
· Vtp reusion number
· Maximum vlan supporting
· Total no. of vlans
VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically
disable, for a particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1
is not prun eligible.
• Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic
• Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward any
switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN
Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy
interface. So that only one path will remain active in the switches. If the primary path
goes down then disabled link will become enable and data will be transferred through that
path.
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· Bridges exchange STP information using messages called Bridge Protocol Data
Units (BPDUs) through Layer 2 multicast.
Wireless LAN
The range of a home Wi-Fi LAN depends on the wireless access point (WAP) or
wireless router being used. Factors that determine a particular WAP or wireless router's
range are:
A general rule of thumb in home networking says that 802.11b and 802.11g
WAPs and routers support a range of up to 150 feet (46 m) indoors and 300 feet (92 m)
outdoors. Another rule of thumb holds that the effective range of 802.11a is
approximately one-third that of 802.11b/g.
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Obstructions in home such as brick walls and metal frames or siding greatly can
reduce the range of a Wi-Fi LAN by 25% or more. Because 802.11a employs a higher
signalling frequency than 802.11b/g, 802.11a is most susceptible to obstructions.
Interference from microwave ovens and other equipment also affects range. 802.11b and
802.11g are both susceptible to these.
Wireless Standards
The different wireless standards that are used for IEEE 802.11 standard are
It was released in year 1997. The standard was original of 802.11. the max. data
rate of this is 2Mbps and frequency of this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m.
802.11a
802.11b
This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet or a
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802.11g
This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate for the standard is 54Mbps.
It supports a frequency range of 2.4GHz, covers a distance of 90m.
802.11n
The latest version of IEEE 802.11 standard that is still in progress of
development. The next generation of high-speed wireless networking, capable of
delivering the range and capacity to support today's most bandwidth-hungry applications
like streaming high definition video, voice, and music. Wireless-n is based on MIMO
(Multiple Input, Multiple Output) technology, which uses multiple radios to transmit
multiple streams of data over multiple channnels.
Operates in two modes of frequency 2.4GHz and 5.6GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet .
Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors,
walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
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Wireless Security
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual
snooping, but is now considered completely broken. Tools such as AirSnort or aircrack
can quickly recover WEP encryption keys.
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To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance blessed Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
for wireless security. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its designed lifetime,
has known attack vectors and is no longer recommended.
In 2004 the full IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards were released. If used with a
802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase WPA2
is still considered secure, as of 2009.
**
**THANKYOU
THANKYOU
THANKYOU**
**
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