New Solutions in

Fluid Sampling
Representative fluid samples are essential for

the exploration and development of oil and gas

reservoirs. High-quality samples enable the asset

team to determine pressurevolumetemperature

(PVT) properties such as density, formation volume

factor, viscosity, interfacial tension, gas/oil ratio

(GOR), or compressibility; generate relative

permeability relationships; or assess enhanced

oil recovery strategies.

In this article, Andrew Carnegie outlines the main

challenges in fluid sampling and reveals how the

latest technology has improved sampling by making

it faster, more accurate, and cost-effective.

 lmost all of the technical and
A economic studies conducted for
exploration and production require
a detailed understanding of
reservoir fluids. Fluid sampling
provides critical information for a
wide range of professionals.
Geologists, reservoir engineers,
completion and production
engineers, and facilities and flow-
assurance engineers all benefit from
accurate fluid properties.
Geologists use fluid data for
reservoir correlations, geochemical
studies, and hydrocarbon-source
analysis. Reservoir engineers need
reliable fluid information so that
they can estimate reserves, perform
material-balance calculations, simulate
the reservoir, and interpret well tests
correctly (Figure 1). Completion and
production engineers use fluids to
guide their decisions on completion
design, material specification,
artificial-lift calculations, production-
log interpretation, production-facilities
design, and production forecasts.
Facilities and flow-assurance
engineers rely on fluid data to manage
flow assurance, separation and fluid
treatments, and metering and
transport issues.
The downhole fluid sampling
process presents engineers with a
series of technical challenges. These
include selecting the correct zone for
Figure 1: Planning the next move: accurate information helps engineers to optimize production.
differential vaporization, and a
multistage separation test. Fluid
samples also provide the information
needed to help with the planning and
the special treatments that may be
required for production, for example,
assessment of waxing tendency and
asphaltene content, or the removal of
hydrogen sulfide.
Hydrocarbon composition can vary
significantly within a reservoir, and
these variations must be assessed and
recorded. Compositional properties are
important in verifying the saturated
hydrocarbon concentrations that relate
to wax production. Waxes can cause
blockages in subsea pipelines and
production facilities. Asphaltenes are
tar-like solids that can come out of
suspension in crude oil when the
pressure is reduced, and they can
cause serious problems in the near-
wellbore region, the production tubing,
and the surface facilities. The asset
team may also send samples for
refining trials to assess their suitability
and requirements for downstream
processing (Figure 2).
Sampling as an exploration tool
During exploration, fluid sampling
helps to answer key questions about
the reservoir. It indicates how much
hydrocarbon is actually present within
the structure, reveals reservoir
compartmentalization, and helps
reservoir engineers to establish the
fluid contacts and any hydrocarbon
compositional gradients that may
exist in a compartment. The results
from fluid analyses are key elements
in reservoir modeling and simulation
that will shape field development.
Before field development, the
reservoir engineer must determine
physical and chemical factors such
as viscosity, density, wax, emulsions,
asphaltenes, and GOR.
Once the asset team has made its
assessment of reserves, the next step
is to define the fluid properties and the
composition of the hydrocarbons. When
the team has established which kinds
of hydrocarbons are present, they can
predict potential health, safety, and
environment (HSE) concerns and plan
to avoid them. For example, when a
reservoir contains hydrogen sulfide
it is vitally important to establish the
concentration of this toxic and
corrosive substance as soon as possible
and to develop an appropriate profile
for the production facilities.
The economics of any field
development rely significantly on the
Checking fluids for field development
Field development is an extended
the appropriate facilities for the field.
In the early stages of development,
period of intense activity and may take the operator will need to develop a
strategy to meet production targets
more than a few years to complete.
and sustain production levels over
During this phase, development wells
the course of any supply contract.
are drilled and surface facilities and
Sampling helps reservoir and
gathering systems are built and enter
production engineers to determine
service. Hydrocarbon production
which zones require perforation and
climbs toward peak levels and, in
which (for example, those containing
many cases, water or gas injection
heavy fluids such as tar) should
starts to support reservoir pressure.
be ignored. Once production is
Artificial-lift methods may also be
established in a part of the field, fluid
introduced to assist flow in the well.
sampling, together with pressure
Throughout this period, the asset
measurements, can help to identify
team will have to make important
bypassed hydrocarbon zones in order
decisions about the field.
to increase ultimate recovery.
During the field development phase,
fluid sampling may help to boost
recovery (for example, by optimizing
Sampling during production
waterflooding schemes) and aid the
asset team in designing and building

Photograph, Science Photo Library

sampling, connecting to the reservoir,
minimizing contamination, obtaining prediction of hydrocarbon-recovery
sufficient sample volume for analysis, rate. The type of hydrocarbon and
maintaining samples as single phase, the physical conditions within the
and transporting unaltered samples formation directly influence the
to surface and laboratory facilities. recovery factor. Fluid sampling and
In the early days of the oil and gas analysis help the asset team to forecast
industries, sampling was conducted at recovery and predict any problems
surface and little effort was made to that might be encountered in the
establish fluid conditions at formation reservoir, the well, or the surface Figure 3: Analysis of hydrocarbons is required to ensure efficient processing and to predict the type
depths. Companies that bought or facilities. Fluid information is also of and the value of the refined products.
sold hydrocarbons needed to know vital importance further downstream
how much was being transferred, refinery managers need a clear
and to do this they had to be able to indication of crude oil composition
measure the volume and composition to ensure efficient processing and to
of fluids. Fiscal metering of crude assess the type and the value of the
oil and gas has always been a crucial refined products (Figure 3).
element in any field operation.
Today, the measurements performed
on a fluid sample from a reservoir will
usually include PVT relationships,
viscosity, composition, GOR, and

Figure 2: Crude oil is an extremely complex mixture of compounds, and refining processes must be
Number 6, 2005

Number 6, 2005
matched to specific compositions.

6 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 7
 Chemistry and classification of
crude oil
Crude oil is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons and heteroatomic
organic compounds of varying
molecular weights and polarities. The
chemical classification of hydrocarbons
divides these compounds into
saturated and unsaturated types.
Saturated molecules
The simplest hydrocarbon molecule
is methane (CH4), which comprises
one carbon atom and four hydrogen
atoms; the next in the series is ethane
(C2H6). A whole class of chain-like
hydrocarbons (paraffins) can be
defined according to the general
chemical formula CnH2n+2.
Paraffins can be arranged either
in straight chains (normal paraffins
such as butane) or in branched
chains (isoparaffins) (see Figure 4).
In naturally occurring crude oils,
most of the paraffin compounds are
normal paraffins, while isoparaffins
are more likely to be products from
refinery processes. Normal paraffins
do not perform well as motor fuels,
but isoparaffins have good engine-
combustion characteristics.
For hydrocarbon molecules
containing more than four carbon
atoms, the carbon atoms may form
a closed-ring, known as a cyclo-
compound, rather than a branched
or a straight chain. Saturated cyclo-
compounds are called naphthenes.
Naphthenic crude oils tend to be
poor raw materials for lubricant
manufacture, but are more easily
converted into high-quality gasolines
than paraffins.
Unsaturated molecules
Olefins and aromatic compounds are
important components of many crude
oils. Both of these chemical families are
composed of unsaturated molecules.
This means that some of the valence
electrons on the carbon atom are not
bonded to separate carbon or hydrogen
atoms; instead, two or three electrons
may be taken up by a neighboring
carbon atom to make a double or a
triple carboncarbon bond.
Like saturated compounds,
unsaturated compounds can form
chain or ring molecules (see Figure 4).
Unsaturated chain molecules are
known as olefins. Only small amounts
of olefins are found in crude oils, but
large volumes are produced in refining
processes. Olefins are relatively
reactive as chemicals and can be
readily combined to form longer-chain
compounds. The other family of
unsaturated compounds is made up of
ring molecules called aromatics. The
simplest aromatic compound, benzene
(C2H6), has double bonds linking
every other carbon molecule.
The double bonds in the benzene
ring are very unstable and chemically
reactive. It is partly for this reason
that benzene is a popular building
block in the petrochemical industry.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons generally
have good combustion characteristics,
but their reactivity can lead to
instability in storage and sometimes
to environmental emission problems.
The previous description of
hydrocarbons refers to the simpler
members of each family, but crude
oils are actually complex mixtures
of very long-chain compounds, some
of which have not yet been identified.
Because such complex mixtures
cannot be readily identified by
chemical composition, refiners
customarily characterize crude oils
by the type of hydrocarbon compound
that is most prevalent in them:
paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics.
Some crude oils, such as those in the
original Pennsylvanian oil fields,
consist mainly of paraffins. Others,
such as the heavy Mexican and
Venezuelan crude oils, are
predominantly naphthenic and are
rich in bitumen (a high-boiling-point,
semisolid material that is frequently
made into asphalt for road surfaces).
The proportions of products that
may be obtained by distillation of five
typical crude oils, ranging from heavy
Venezuelan Boscan to the light Bass
Strait oil produced in Australia, are
shown in Figure 5.
Refinery processes
Each refinery is uniquely designed to
process specific crude oils into selected
products. In order to meet the business
objectives of the refinery, the process
designer selects from an array of basic
processing units. In general, these units
perform one of three steps:
1. Separating the many types of
hydrocarbon present in crude
oils into fractions of more closely
related properties
2. Chemically converting the
separated hydrocarbons into more
desirable reaction products
3. Purifying the products to remove
unwanted elements and compounds.
Figure 5: The proportions of products that can be distilled from five different crude oils.
Given the pattern of modern
demand (which tends to be highest for
transportation fuels such as gasoline),
the market price of a crude oil
generally rises with increasing yield of
light products. It is possible to process
heavier crude oils more intensely in
order to improve their yield of light
products, but the capital and
operating costs required to support
such high-conversion processes are
much greater than those required to
process lighter crude oils into the
same yield of products.
In addition to hydrocarbons, small
amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
compounds are present in crude
oils. Usually, there also are traces of
vanadium, nickel, chlorine, sodium, and
arsenic. These elements may affect the
safety of oil-transport systems, the
quality of refined products, and the
effectiveness of processing units within
a refinery. Minute traces can usually be
tolerated, but crude oils with larger
amounts of these materials must be
extensively treated in order to comply
with government regulations.
and aromatics) that it contains:
The precipitation of asphaltene
aggregates can cause problems such
as near-wellbore formation plugging
and wettability reversal. The
adsorption of asphaltene aggregates
at oil/water interfaces has also been
shown to cause the steric stabilization
of petroleum emulsions. Consequently,
the oil industry needs quantitative
tools and thermodynamic data to
predict asphaltene aggregation and
precipitation as a function of crude
oil composition and reservoir
temperature and pressure.
A crude oil classification system
Classification of crude oil must reflect
the type of oil generated by the
organic matter contained in the
source sediment and any alteration
that the original oil may have
undergone as a result of further
maturation or degradation.
One classification system
defines crude oil by the types of
hydrocarbons (paraffins, naphthenes,
1. Paraffinic crude oilsless than
1 % sulfur, density usually below
0.85 g/cm3
2. Paraffinicnaphthenic crude oils
less than 1 % sulfur
3. Aromaticintermediate crude oils
more than 1 % sulfur
4. Aromaticnaphthenic crude oils
less than 1 % sulfur and more than
25 % naphthenes
5. Aromaticasphaltic crude oils
more than 1 % sulfur and less than
25 % naphthenes
6. Asphaltic crude oils.
Types 4, 5 and 6 are heavy crude
oils. All six types can be displayed
on a triangular diagram with the
three principal hydrocarbon series
(Figure 6).

Problem hydrocarbons
Asphaltenes are high-molecular-
weight aggregates that occur in solid
bitumens. Asphaltenes are very
soluble in carbon tetrachloride and
aromatic hydrocarbons, but not in
light paraffinic hydrocarbons such
as heptane. They contain very little
hydrogen, and the high viscosity
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Number 6, 2005
of heavy oils is probably a function
Figure 4: Hydrocarbon molecules may be arranged in straight chains (a, b, and c), rings or branched chains (d and e), and may be saturated (a, c, and e)
of the size and the abundance of
asphaltene molecules.
or unsaturated (b and d). Figure 6: Six crude oil types defined by proportion of paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes.

8 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 9
 Gas and water injection schemes are
commonly used to boost or maintain
oil and gas rates in producing fields.
Regular fluid sampling can be used
to track changes in fluid composition
and fluid contacts, thus helping the
asset team to monitor and optimize
its secondary recovery strategies
(Figure 7).
Fluid sampling also has an
important role to play in mature
reservoirs. In oil and gas fields that
have been in production for many
years, chemical and physical
parameters within the reservoir may
have changed notably and require new
PVT analyses to optimize late-stage
field performance. This is particularly
important in saturated reservoirs.
Pressure, temperature, and phase
changes
A wide range of chemical and physical
conditions is encountered in oil and
gas reservoirs. Each oil and gas
accumulation presents its own
challenges, and the collection of
accurate fluid samples is a key step
in understanding reservoir processes
and overcoming potential problems.
Reservoirs are complex systems,
and relatively small changes in
temperature or pressure can have a
profound effect on fluid composition
and reservoir behavior.
Before a well is drilled in a new
reservoir, the fluids within the
formation are at the original reservoir
pressure. Oil at this pressure is
usually saturated with gas; that is, it
contains all the gas in solution that
it can hold under those particular
pressure and temperature conditions.
Any additional gas forms a free gas
cap above the oil column (Figure 8).
If the overburden pressure on the
reservoir fluids is reduced by erosion
or up-dip fluid migration, the oils
capacity for retaining gas in solution
is reduced, and the gas forms a
secondary gas cap (Figure 9).(This
gas cap should not to be confused
with the secondary gas cap associated
with production of oil below its
bubblepoint.) If the reverse happens
(an oil accumulation saturated with
Number 6, 2005
10 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
Figure 7: Changes in temperature and pressure within the reservoir modify key physical parameters
and present a range of challenges for reservoir and production engineers.
solution gas is more deeply buried)
the gas cap vanishes as the gas goes
into solution. Eventually, the oil
becomes undersaturated with gas.
These changes can be represented
Figure 8: Gas caps usually develop once production starts and reservoir pressure declines.
on a phase diagram that indicates
what will happen to a petroleum
mixture under various temperature
and pressure conditions.
Current sampling methods
Asset teams need to select the most
appropriate fluid sampling method for
any given situation or stage in field
development. The choice is influenced
by several physical factors: the volume
of sample required for analysis, the
type of reservoir fluid to be sampled,
and the degree of reservoir depletion.
Other factors to consider include
surface processes; well-completion
design, cost, and technical feasibility;
and probable environmental impact.
The team can only devise an effective
sampling strategy once these factors
have been taken into consideration.
There are a number of ways to obtain
fluid samples.
Bottomhole samples
Bottomhole sampling should always
be the first choice when reservoir and
well conditions permit. It provides
fresh, uncontaminated reservoir fluid
with the highest degree of vertical
resolution. When bottomhole sampling
is conducted correctly, the fluid is still
single phase. This technique provides
small samples (volumes typically range
from 0.25 to 4 L) and is essential when
the team needs very accurate results.
Figure 9: Up-dip oil migration (a) and erosion of overlaying rocks (b) both reduce the pressures
affecting the hydrocarbon deposits. Pressure drops can lead to significant changes in hydrocarbon
phase composition.
Wellhead and surface recombination
samples
Wellhead sampling is possible under
certain conditions, specifically in
cases where the gas saturation
pressure is less than the wellhead
pressure at wellhead temperature
(Figure 10). However, this approach
may be affected by density gradients
that result from cooling as fluids move
up inside the wellbore.
Surface sampling from the wellhead,
the separator, and the stock tank is
performed routinely during most well
tests and it is occasionally required
from production process lines. Figure 10: In some cases, wellhead sampling
Separator recombination samples are may be possible. However, results from this
often the only available representative method may be unreliable.
samples. In these circumstances,
accurate separator flow rate
Sampling while testing
measurements and stable separation
In some fields, the operators may
conditions are critical for the accurate
consider obtaining fluid samples during
determination of reservoir phase
testing operations. This approach
behavior from the recombined fluids.
appears to offer time savings and cost
Unfortunately there are errors inherent efficiencies, but the sampling results
in surface sampling: poor stability obtained through this method are not
of the separator during sampling; high quality. Sampling while testing
variations in sampling technique; increases the condensate/gas ratio and
inaccurate flow rate measurements; results in loss of liquid. It also causes
and problems encountered during commingling of the various fluids,
the recombination process. which makes it impossible to perform
selective tests. Sampling while testing
also carries an increased HSE risk, and
is relatively expensive.
Number 6, 2005
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 11
 Rapid analysis reduces costs
Traditional sampling was a relatively
slow process. A company conducted
all its fluid analysis work at a central
laboratory, away from the wellsite.
Transporting samples to the
laboratory, delays while high-priority
fluids from other wells or fields were
tested, and extended analysis times
meant that it could take a relatively
long time for the laboratory to send
results back to the field. Modern
business drivers, such as high day
rates for deepwater rigs, have
encouraged companies to devise
new techniques that provide a faster
turnaround of fluid analyses.
Operating companies must
understand the fluids in their
reservoir before they can devise
and optimize their testing programs
and completions. In deepwater
environments, delays can be costly,
but proceeding without the correct
information could pose serious HSE
problems. Today, Schlumberger can
perform accurate fluid analysis at the
wellsite and deliver the results in
Figure 11: High-quality samples and wellsite analysis enable field operators to update their reservoir
models in a matter of hours.
Number 6, 2005
12 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
around 10 h. The results can be used
to quickly update reservoir models
and so optimize field development
strategies (Figure 11).
Current challenges in sampling
The main aim of field sampling is
to collect the required volume of
representative fluid quickly and
without contamination. In general,
sampling is difficult in formations
where the fluids do not flow easily.
Low flow rates are encountered in
many reservoir types, including
tight, low-pressure, and damaged
formations. Hot reservoirs provide a
different challengephase changes
are difficult to prevent when the fluid
is brought to the lower temperature
and pressure at surface.
There are also reservoirs where
well testing is not allowed, and then
there are those that can give specific
problems with sampling methods, for
example, oil-base mud contamination
in MDT* Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester sampling of clastic
reservoirs or sanding.
Onshore
Tight or hot reservoirs present
the major challenges for onshore
sampling operations. For oil and
gas fields located close to built-up
areas, there are often operational
restrictions; for example, well testing
may be prohibited.
In tight formations, the fundamental
challenge for sampling techniques is
collecting enough fluid from the
formation to constitute a representative
sample. Tight formations may have
good oil or gas saturation values but
low permeability, which prevents the
hydrocarbons from flowing freely into
effective way to obtain accurate fluid
the wellbore. Stimulation techniques
such as fracturing may help.
Offshore
There are also restrictions on testing
operations in the offshore environment.
Concerns about wildlife and HSE issues
mean that sampling must be conducted
in a way that eliminates discharges and
environmental contamination without
compromising the safe operation of
the facility.
When samples are taken offshore,
the field operators must either send
the samples to an onshore facility or
perform the analysis on the platform.
Offshore, space is often limited, so
any analytical equipment deployed on
the platform will have to be compact
and easy to maintain.
Deep water
Operations conducted in deep water
present a range of special challenges.
Tasks usually cost significantly more
than comparable work on shallow-
shelf or onshore locations. Rig rates
for deepwater operations are very
high. Logistical requirements are
more demanding, and there is
additional commercial pressure on
the sampling team to collect the right
volume of sample at the first attempt
and then to conduct an accurate
analysis in the shortest possible time.
Real-time, downhole analysis using
the MDT wireline tool is an extremely
data in a very short time frame. The
MDT tool consists of individual modules
that can be configured to meet almost
any testing and sampling need. A high-
accuracy, high-resolution quartz gauge
with a fast dynamic response provides
formation and hydrostatic pressure
measurements. Sensors mounted in
the flowline provide measurements
of formation fluid resistivity and
temperature while fluid flow is
controlled from the surface.
Heavy oil
Heavy crude oils are those with API
gravity of 22 dAPI or below. API
gravity is an arbitrary scale that
expresses the gravity or density of
Figure 12: Gas treatment to remove hydrogen sulfide is a complex process that requires high levels
of capital investment. Accurate fluid samples help field operations to determine if treatment will be
required for a particular crude oil.
liquid petroleum products. The higher
the API gravity, the lighter the
compound. Intermediate crude oils
fall in the range 22 to 38 dAPI. Light
crude oils generally exceed 38 dAPI.
The most significant problems
encountered when attempting to
sample heavy oil are sanding and the
formation of emulsions. Heavy oils
are difficult to produce and require
special production techniques, such
as steam injection or steam soak, to
extract them from the reservoir.
Low-energy reservoirs and low
ambient temperatures make the
recovery and transport of heavy
crude oils complex and demanding
issues. Flow assurance during the
transportation of high-viscosity crude
oils is a major challenge for heavy-oil
developments. Some heavy crude oils
have high total-organic-acid contents
that can lead to naphthenate
precipitation in offshore processing
facilities and problems during
refining operations.
Accurate fluid-property data are
vital for reservoir modeling and
facilities design. For offshore heavy-oil
systems that are to be produced in
colder waters, it may be necessary to
measure PVT phase-behavior data at
the cooler flowline conditions as well
as at the reservoir conditions. These
lower-temperature data help the asset
team to define the compositional
equations of state that they require for
offshore facilities design calculations.
Hydrogen sulfide
Sweetening is the process of removing
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and
other impurities from sour gas.
Hydrogen sulfide can cause severe
problems at every stage of oil and
gas operations, from downhole well
completions through production
facilities and transport system
(pipelines, terminals, tankers, etc.)
to refining and end use. For oil and
gas operators, the major problems
with hydrogen sulfide are
corrosion, including sudden,
potentially catastrophic plant
failure as a result of sulfide stress
cracking (SSC)
toxicity to personnel
unpleasant smells at 10 ppm or less
in air, which can lead to complaints
from individuals or businesses
located close to any plant
reduced value for oil and gas
products. In some cases, the
operator may be unable to sell the
gas. Customer limits for hydrogen
sulfide may be 3 ppm or less, a level
dictated by the need to prevent SSC
in pipelines.
increased capital expenditure on
sweetening processes and/or
introducing SSC-resistant materials
to the production chain (Figure 12)
increased operating expenditure
on sweetening chemicals, corrosion
inhibitors, scale dissolvers, and
biocides.
Number 6, 2005
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 13
 Each of these potential problems
can be avoided if the design stage of
any new field or facility is undertaken
correctly. Operators must obtain
representative samples and accurate
analyses of reservoir fluids, aquifer
water, and other fluids such as
injection water.
Correct sampling and analysis
require very specialized techniques,
especially in situations with low
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide
or in the presence of nutrient
precursors (such as carboxylic acids)
for the anaerobic bacterial
generation of hydrogen sulfide.
Without specialized techniques,
these chemicals may not be
accounted for during analysis. For
example, bacterial nutrients may
disappear through aerobic bacterial
action in samples that have been
exposed to air, and hydrogen sulfide
may disappear by oxidation reaction
with iron in the well tubulars, or
even the stainless steel in sample
bottles. If the facilities design team
fails to identify the risk of hydrogen
sulfide generation, the resulting
problems could prove very costly.
Reliable prediction and monitoring
of changes to field waters and oil
and gas phases during field life and
production and transport operations
are major issues (Figure 13).
Operators must be aware of issues
such as reservoir souring following
water injection; bacterial generation
of hydrogen sulfide in flowlines and
tanks; corrosion predictions; the
effects of pressure and temperature
changes, and exposure in open tanks;
and the use of chemicals to control
bacteria or remove hydrogen sulfide.
Carbon dioxide
The carbon dioxide content of a
crude oil also has implications for
the economic viability of any field
development project and the asset
teams plans for facilities design and
production. Carbon dioxide is very
soluble in oil and gas, and can be used
in miscible tertiary-recovery schemes
in depleted oil fields. However, when
carbon dioxide occurs naturally within
the reservoir it can cause significant
problems for field development.
Number 6, 2005
14 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
Figure 13: Downstream facilities perform regular checks on the hydrocarbons arriving from the
field. Hydrocarbons with components such as hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide require special
arrangements for transport and treatment.
High levels of carbon dioxide are
uncommon in the worlds reservoirs.
Fewer than 1 in a 100 gas
accumulations will have carbon dioxide
concentrations greater than 20 %.
However, where the carbon dioxide
content of a reservoir exceeds 20 %,
the mean concentration is 50 % carbon
dioxide. In other words, when carbon
dioxide is abundant, it is frequently so
abundant that it can kill the prospects
economics. High carbon dioxide
concentrations are encountered in
several key Asian oil and gas fields,
including in the South China Sea, the
Gulf of Thailand, and Australia.
Fluid-sampling technology
By the mid-1990s, wireline formation-
testing tools were well established in
the industry. But, when it came to
recovering reservoir fluids, these tools
had a major limitation: the flow samples
they collected were often contaminated
with drilling mud filtrate. These
contaminated samples could be used
to prove the presence of hydrocarbons
 establish a new sampling technique could be excluded from the sample a single phase. Many sampling
that would reduce pressure shock chamber, using real-time surface chambers work on the principle of
to the formation fluid monitoring, until an uncontaminated trapping a fixed volume of single-
 conduct fluid-flow modeling studies sample was recovered. This saved time phase fluid at reservoir conditions.
that would lead to improved at the wellsite and helped to avoid the However, as the sample is brought to
sampling techniques, thus shortening costs of sending low-quality samples for the surface, the temperature in the
sample time while reducing ultimate analysis. For example, in oil-base mud chamber decreases. This cooling
contamination levels samples, contamination levels fell to leads to a pressure drop within the
 bring samples to the surface without less than 1 % when using the MDT tool. chamber and, in most cases, results
changing their initial phase The MDT tool also provided fast and in the sample passing through the
(Figure 14). accurate pressure data, and could be bubblepoint and becoming a
used to measure permeability tensor. gasliquid mixture. As the pressure
Accurate fluid samples and precise For the first time, reservoir engineers approaches the bubblepoint,
pressure data could assess these vital reservoir asphaltenes and paraffins may
characteristics in a single trip and gain be precipitated. Recombining
The introduction of the MDT tool
revolutionized downhole fluid sampling a wealth of information about pressure, precipitated asphaltenes in the
permeability and fluid PVT properties sample chamber calls for a long
and pressure measurements. This tool
on which to base key decisions. repressuring process. Unfortunately,
was designed to identify and collect
some of the changes that may have
Photograph, Science Photo Library
high-quality reservoir fluid samples and
bring them to surface for detailed
Single-phase sampling occurred during sample retrieval may
Accurate compositional and PVT not be fully reversible. Compositional
laboratory analysis. Flowline resistivity
measurements taken using the probe analysis of formation samples requires changes will also alter other critical
module helped to discriminate between the recovered sample to remain at production parameters such as GOR,
formation fluids and filtrate from water- formation conditions. This often viscosity, and API gravity.
and oil-base muds. Formation fluid involves maintaining samples in
within a specific zone, but were
unsuitable for rigorous PVT analysis.
Even when they were uncontaminated,
the bottomhole samples often had the
wrong bubblepoint or had lost pressure
as the sample was being retrieved.
Consequently, when operators had both
surface and bottomhole samples, they
usually relied on the surface sample to
provide the data they were seeking.
However, as the industry started
to operate in fields with more and
more complex fluid systems it became
apparent that bottomhole sampling
was vital. Fluid samples, like pressure
readings, are best taken close to the
reservoir. By the late 1990s, engineers
were working to improve bottomhole
sampling and to develop tools that
would enable fluid analysis to be
conducted downhole. Their long-term
objectives were to
 develop a downhole fluid analysis
technique that would minimize
sample contamination and determine
in situ hydrocarbon properties
Number 6, 2005
Figure 14: Rapid sample analysis means results that once took weeks can now be obtained in a few hours. This delivers dramatic savings in costly
developments such as deepwater fields without compromising safety.
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 15
 Maintain reservoir conditions
One solution for maintaining samples
at reservoir conditions involves
overpressuring the samples once they
have been collected. To achieve this,
sample chambers are pressurized
across two pistons with a nitrogen gas
chamber, thereby compensating for
the temperature-induced pressure
drop as the samples are returned to
surface. The single-phase multisample
chamber (SPMC) is designed for use
with the MDT multisample module
(Figure 15). The nitrogen is isolated
from the sample chamber and acts on
the sample through a piston floating
on a synthetic oil buffer. The
pressurized gas charge maintains
pressure in the sample chamber and
ensures that the sample remains
above the bubblepoint line and the
asphaltene precipitation threshold
(Figure 16).
Single-phase sampling saves time at
the wellsite because there is no need
to recombine samples in the field. In
addition, the SPMC provides a custom-
designed transfer system that can
transport samples to the laboratory
quickly and safely. Single-phase
sampling has encouraged analysts to
explore new aspects of fluid behavior
and made it easier for them to conduct
studies into asphaltene precipitation
and deposition, aquifers, and
corrosion.
Figure 15: Pressurization using the SPMC
counteracts temperature-related pressure
drops that occur as fluid samples are brought
to surface.
Figure 16: The phase envelope diagram explains how the nitrogen overpressure and
Number 6, 2005
compressibility enable the SPMC to keep the sample above not just the saturation pressure but
also the reservoir pressure. This is extremely important because many asphaltenes deposit at
pressures far in excess of the saturation pressure.
16 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review
In well interventions, where the
main priority is recovering a high-
quality sample, single-phase samplers
are the most effective tools. They are
particularly useful in situations where
analysts want to avoid sample
recombination in the field, for
example, when dealing with heavy
crude oil or gas condensate.
Low-contamination samples
PVT-quality, single-phase fluid
samples can be used to establish the
presence of producible hydrocarbons.
In one field, the test was conducted in
a fault block where the formation was
partially consolidated; there had been
miscible drilling-fluid invasion, and
water saturations were in the range
40 to 50 %.
The MDT tool, which was run
in conjunction with the SPMC,
recovered two low-contamination
single-phase samples. Analysis
of these enabled the operator to
estimate the recoverable reserves
accurately. Moreover, single-phase
PVT analysis revealed the critical
parameters for optimal completion
and production design. All of this
was achieved without the additional
expense, delay, and environmental
issues of drillstem tests.
Laboratory-based analysis
The traditional approach to fluid
analysis involves transferring all
samples to a central laboratory for
any analytical work. Onsite analysis
has improved significantly over recent
years, but some tests still have to be
conducted in a laboratory environment.
To ensure quality and accuracy,
operators require an integrated process
that covers the provision of suitable
uncontaminated sample transfer
bottles, tracking of the samples, and
their delivery to the central facility.
Reservoir fluid sampling and
flow-assurance studies
Laboratory PVT tests provide the
data necessary to assess the flow-
assurance risk. Laboratory testing
defines the phase behavior and
physical properties of the waxes,
asphaltenes, and hydrates that are
the principal causes of flow problems.
Flow assurance is a multidisciplinary
process that involves sampling,
laboratory analysis, production, and
facilities engineering working together
to ensure uninterrupted optimum
productivity. To meet this challenge,
Schlumberger uses a dedicated flow-
assurance team. This team combines
products, services, and technologies
from the Schlumberger business
groups to provide fully integrated
solutions that help operators to
minimize costs and meet their
production objectives.
The best laboratories usually have a
full range of PVT facilities and set-ups
to characterize fluid samples, both
visually and quantitatively, at realistic
thermophysical conditions. For
example, the Oilphase-DBR* fluid
sampling and analysis services provide
comprehensive flow-assurance studies
that help to prevent or reduce the flow
impairment caused by deposition of
organic solids. The Schlumberger PVT
Expert* system processes all laboratory
measurements and instantly provides
the final PVT report (Figure 17).
Condensates and the sampling Testing cased wells
Well conditioning before PVT
process
sampling is extremely important.
Condensates are low-density, high- Well clean-up times should be
API-gravity, liquid hydrocarbons that carefully planned to ensure that
are usually found in association with all contaminants are removed.
natural gas. Gas produced in Hydrocarbon withdrawal must be
association with condensate is called minimized before sampling, and
wet gas. The gas/liquid distribution production must be stable before
depends on the temperature and and during the sampling process.
pressure conditions in the reservoir The sampling team should monitor
and whether these will allow the wellhead pressure and temperature,
transformation from vapor to liquid. and may choose to track other
The presence of pressure-sensitive compositional indicators such as
condensates can complicate production carbon dioxide content and water
because liquid will condense out of the composition. Effective well
conditioning may take days, even
gas if the reservoir pressure drops
in high-permeability reservoirs.
below the dewpoint. This is usually
Hydrocarbon columns have
undesirable and reduces well
compositional variations with depth,
productivity considerably.
so for ideal subsurface or surface PVT
Subsurface sampling tools help to
sampling, it is best to have small
ensure that fluid is sampled above the
perforation intervals. Short intervals
dewpoint. The major problem with
enable the sampling team to capture
these tools is the high probability of the compositional variations. If the
sample contamination. Even a small perforations are over a large pay
amount of contamination can cause interval, the fluid samples will
significant errors in PVT analysis. represent the most mobile fluid.
Contamination from oil-base mud is Unfortunately, there are often
particularly difficult to detect. conflicts between the requirements for
The MDT tool allows fluid to be PVT sampling and the requirements
pumped through it and uses optical- for productivity testing during a well
and density-related techniques for test. Productivity testing requires large
determining the nature of the fluid tubing, high drawdowns, and large
collected (Figure 18). Surface perforation intervals. PVT sampling
readouts of these data should be requires exactly the opposite.
carefully monitored to try to ensure
that the fluid composition is stable
(see Figure 14).
The openhole approach
Openhole sampling does not disturb
the pressure within a formation, so
the engineer can sample saturated
and near-critical fluids with
confidence. The method provides
early PVT data without a well test,
which reduces both costs and
environmental exposure, and makes
it easy to evaluate several formation
intervals and examine different zones
and even fluid variations with depth
within a zone. However, with
openhole methods, samples will
always be contaminated to some
extent and the volume of fluid that
can be recovered is limited.
Figure 18: The MDT tool can determine the
Number 6, 2005
nature of the fluid collected and ensure that
every sample is free of contaminant.
Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 17
 Wellsite analysis comprehensive fluid analysis data The PVT Express service uses Analysis at the wellsite reduces the
for black oil or condensate samples measurement techniques based on amount of testing and saves money. It
The time between exploration or
(Figure 19) without HSE risks. This proven PVT laboratory procedures means that reservoir and production
appraisal drilling and the manufacture
enables operators to make rapid and and delivers results that match those engineers can have PVT results within
of production process plant is
informed decisions about the need for from the laboratory (Figure 20). The 10 h and that operators can make
decreasing. Oil companies are
additional wireline formation or PVT Express requires a very small informed decisions during logging and
working towards rapid development
drillstem testing. volume of sample (less than 50 cm3) well-testing operations.
and early exploitation of their assets.
The PVT Express system offers to conduct a full PVT study. It
However, before operators can select Optimizing samples in Oman
many advantages over traditional PVT includes a fiber-optic sensor to
materials for plant completion and
equipment and services. Mercury-free measure the saturation pressure of In Oman, an operator wanted to
process design, they require a
technology eliminates the risks gas condensates, and volatile and collect representative gas-condensate
complete understanding of reservoir
associated with the use and black oils. A helium ionization bottomhole samples during a well test
fluid composition and phase behavior.
transportation of mercury. And the detector is used in dual gas and to monitor surface gas and liquid
For example, trace concentrations of
tool has a modular, rugged construction chromatograph to perform C12+ gas composition to achieve stabilized flow.
chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide
that facilitates transportation to any and C36+ liquid analyses. The PVT The first set of samples analyzed in
and mercury are difficult to detect
location, including the wellsite; this Express service also provides the PVT Express onsite laboratory
and, if overlooked at the time of
means that accurate results can be accurate testing methods for oil-base had a measured dewpoint pressure
process design, can have a profound
delivered in hours rather than in weeks mud contamination in samples that close to the flowing bottomhole
impact on cost during production.
or months. have been collected for wireline pressure, which indicated that the
Operators can save time and ensure
early warning of problem chemicals formation tests. samples were unrepresentative.
by using a comprehensive wellsite Consequently, the well was produced
analytical service that provides quality on a lower choke, and a second set of
samples and fluid characterization. bottomhole samples was collected. The
This should also include trace- dewpoint measured on this set was
element analysis and monitoring for well below the flowing bottomhole
potential environmental hazards. pressure. This indicated that the well
Oilphase-DBR services can include was producing monophasically into
wellsite tests to provide PVT the wellbore and that the bottomhole
estimates and levels of oil-base mud samples being recovered were
contamination, and analysis of the representative. Two gas condensate
amount of hydrogen sulfide in liquids constant-volume-depletion PVT studies
Figure 19: Comparison of PVT Express data with laboratory results for black oil characteristics (top)
and gases, and of radon and mercury and 15 surface sample compositional
and for gas condensate characteristics (bottom).
in gases and water. studies were completed at the wellsite
using the PVT Express system. This
Mercury levels are assessed using
efficient and accurate sampling
an atomic fluorescence technique. procedure enabled the field operator to
Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy plan the next stage of production with
(AFS) is the optical emission from greater confidence.
gas-phase atoms that have been
excited to higher energy levels by
absorption of electromagnetic
radiation. The main advantage of
fluorescence detection compared
with absorption measurements is
the greater sensitivity that can be
achieved because the fluorescence
signal has a very low background. The
resonant excitation provides selective
excitation of the sample to avoid
interference. AFS can be used to
make quantitative measurements.
Analytical applications include flame
and plasma diagnostics, and enhanced
sensitivity in atomic analysis.

The PVT Express* service

As the pace of field development
increases, operators want to Figure 17 Analytical flow diagram for the PVT Express service. The report combines measurements
accelerate the analytical processes so and test results from a number of sources to present a comprehensive picture of key fluid properties.
that the results that guide their
Number 6, 2005

Number 6, 2005
decisions are available within hours.
The PVT Express onsite well fluid Figure 20: PVT Express-predicted formulation volume factor (FVF) compared with laboratory results (top)
analysis service can deliver
and comparison of PVT-predicted oil viscosities and laboratory results (bottom).

18 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 19
 Spectroscopic analysis
Spectroscopy is a well-established
analytical technique that can
characterize complex mixtures. It
relies on observing how different types
of molecule behave when exposed to
electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Every
molecular structure interacts with
EM radiation in a different way.
These differences are invaluable in
identifying the structures and the
proportions of the molecular types
present in a sample, and so
determining the sample composition.
The data obtained from
spectroscopic analysis are presented
as spectra; plots of the levels of
absorption (optical density) versus
the wavelength (or mass, momentum,
or frequency, etc.) of the energy.
Spectra can be used to identify the
components of a sample (qualitative
analysis) or to measure the amount
of a specific material in a sample
(quantitative analysis).
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
Optical properties of
wellbore fluids
Light passing through a fluid
sample is affected by two distinct
processesscattering and
absorption. The absorption spectrum
of crude oil exhibits a series of
absorption peaks with diminishing
intensity at shorter wavelengths
(Figure 22). These peaks indicate
the presence of various fluid types.
The largest oil peak that can be seen
using the OFA* Optical Fluid Analyzer
spectrometer is at 1,725 nm. This peak
corresponds to molecular vibrations
that involve hydrogencarbon bonds.
Such vibrational peaks, which are Typical sample history
located at discrete wavelengths, or
energies, are analogous to the resonant
Locate
frequencies exhibited by mechanical
The first challenge in successful fluid
springs or tuning forks. As the
sampling is to choose an appropriate
hydrogencarbon chemical groups of location along the sandface of the well.
all oils and asphaltenes are similar, The selection process must take into
these vibrational peaks are comparable
account factors such as the geological
for most oils. Materials that are black,
sequence and structure, so that the
such as tar, absorb the entire spectrum
sampling tool avoids tight zones or
of visible light through many different
faulted areas within the formation.
molecular vibrational and electronic
Having selected the best location, the
excitations. In these cases, the
reservoir engineer must ensure that
absorbed energy is converted into heat.
the sample chamber reaches this spot.
Water exhibits strong vibrational
absorption peaks observed in the
Position
spectrometer at 1,445 and 1,930 nm.
When a sampling device is collecting
fluids, it should be sealed from the
wellbore and have full and continuous
contact with the formation. This
helps to reduce sampling time and
minimize contamination from
wellbore fluids. Schlumberger has
developed a range of techniques to
establish and maintain good contact
with the borehole wall. For example,
the MDT tool has a retractable,
reduction in temperature and
pressure, and the accompanying
phase changes can be counteracted
by increasing pressure within the
chamber before retrieval.
Analyze
There are now several options for
sample analysis. Advanced studies are
still conducted in a central laboratory,
but, over the past few years, wellsite
systems have accelerated the
analytical process and enabled the
provision of answers in hours rather
than in days or weeks. Since 2002,
there has been the option to use the
CFA analyzer to perform detailed
analysis in the wellbore. This module
represents a significant new
opportunity, as it can perform
sophisticated analysis and
characterization of reservoir fluids
without having to bring samples to
the surface.
Downhole fluid characterization
Schlumberger introduced downhole
of downhole techniques has come
in response to oil industry demands
for rapid, detailed compositional
information and greater reliability
in sample selection.
At present, the information
available from downhole techniques
includes GOR, composition, API
gravity, pH, water cut, saturation
pressure, and contamination levels.
Fluid composition from optical
absorption spectrometry data
The CFA module contains an optical
absorption spectrometer that uses
visible and near-IR light to quantify a
fluids composition as it flows through
the tool (Figure 23). Light is
transmitted through the fluid to an
array of detectors tuned to selected
wavelengths. The amount of light
absorbed by the fluid depends on
its composition. The measured
absorption spectrum is represented
as a linear combination of the unique
absorption spectra for C1, C2C5,
C6+, carbon dioxide, and water, and

Photograph, Science Photo Library

Absorption of IR radiation can cause
the various bonds within a molecule
to vibrate differently, as they absorb
the radiation at differing frequencies
within the infrared region. This
frequency depends on the type of
bond (its strength) and the atoms
involved (their masses). Bonds of
the same type (for example, an
oxygenhydrogen bond) tend to
absorb at around the same frequency,
even if they are in different molecules.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy
Nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy relies on the absorption
and emission of radio-frequency
radiation by the nuclei of certain
atoms when they are placed in a
magnetic field, and can be used to
determine both the structure and
relative amounts of the analyzed
samples (Figure 21).
hydraulically operated probe,
fluid analysis in 2002. This represented enables determination of the weight
embedded in a circular rubber
a major advance on previous analytical percent of each molecular group.
packet, that is forced through the
mudcake to make a seal with the systems and enabled reservoir In gas reservoirs, oil vaporized
formation. Two opposing backup engineers to obtain accurate, reliable in the gas will precipitate as liquid
pistons on the opposite side of the measurements of reservoir fluids at condensate at surface temperature
tool help to push the probe against reservoir conditions. The development and pressure conditions. The CFA
the formation and thus maintain a
good seal.
Figure 21: NMR spectroscopy helps scientists to determine molecular structures in complex hydrocarbons.
Minimize contamination
The next challenge is to collect
the sample with little or no
contamination. The basic MDT probe
module contains a variable-rate and
volume pretest chamber; a flowline
fluid resistivity measurement sensor;
a temperature sensor; and two
pressure gauges, including a fast,
high-precision CQG* Crystal Quartz
Gauge instrument that enables
sensitive monitoring of drawdown
pressures during the sampling
process. Sample fluids and
contamination levels are monitored in
the flowline by the OFA or the CFA*
Composition Fluid Analyzer module.

Retrieve
Optical density is log 10 (I0/I1), where I0 is input light The sample chamber must be
energy and I1 is transmitted light energy. recovered to the surface with the
minimum disturbance to the phase
composition of the fluid. The natural
Number 6, 2005

Number 6, 2005
Figure 22: The key components of oilfield samples. Spectroscopic analysis can be used to identify Figure 23: An optical absorption spectrometer in the CFA module quantifies fluid composition as it
sample composition. passes through the tool.

20 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 21
 module measures the composition of Reservoir architecture and fluid changes LFA* Live Fluid Analyzer operators can discriminate between
the condensate while it is still in the Even using logs and seismic data, it reservoir hydrocarbons and monitor
The introduction of the LFA module
gas phase. This vaporized composition can be difficult to determine which oil-base-mud filtrate contamination
has greatly increased sampling
is the C6+ fraction. From the ratio layers are connected in layered gas while sampling.
efficiency, as it analyzes fluids as they
of the C6+ fraction to the C1C5 reservoirs. An accurate determination Real-time, quantitative
flow through the MDT tool. The
fraction, the condensate/gas ratio of connectivity is fundamentally contamination monitoring is achieved
analyzer detects and measures
(CGR) is determined. The CGR important to reservoir development by tracking sample color and methane
dissolved methane in live fluids,
indicates the condensate yield at planning (Figure 25). The content. The LFA module also
which are pressurized reservoir fluid
commingling of gases of different provides a predictable cleanup period
standard temperature and pressure samples that remain in single phase.
composition can be very undesirable for quality sample collection and
conditions. Engineers can identify downhole
particularly if some gases have reliable discrimination between water,
The CFA module ensures that fluids and make informed decisions on
unacceptably high percentages of oil, and gas. Free gas is identified
reservoir engineers can obtain sample acquisition. This has increased
carbon dioxide. Gas samples can be using two independent detectors.
representative fluid samples that and optimized sampling efficiency,
have acceptably low levels of acquired and analyzed at the surface thus saving valuable rig time. Tool
in a relatively brief time frame if there
contamination and also minimizes the
are not many layers. If a multilayered
time required for sample acquisition
well needs to be cased and perforated
(Figure 24). It also enables early
in a matter of days, then using the
determination of GOR or CGR for
CFA tool to measure gas composition
reservoir valuation purposes. can be a fast and accurate solution.
Sampling gas above its dewpoint The CFA module can be used to
monitor gas-injection patterns in
The CFA module measures
secondary recovery development
fluorescence emission using a narrow-
projects (Figure 26). In a gas-injected
spectrum light source, a blue-light-
field in the Middle East, the operator
emitting diode. The fluorescence Figure 24: In this example, the CFA data indicate a drop in contamination over time. Representative had trouble modeling and monitoring
emission spectrum varies with the samples can be taken after just 7 minutes. the injection in the layers being
amount of condensate vaporized in
produced. The solution involved
the gas; the spectrum changes
running a CFA module to track gas
whenever the pressure of a
injection in real time.
condensate falls below its dewpoint
pressure. Fluid sampling engineers
can, therefore, monitor the spectrum
to ensure that the reservoir fluid is
sampled above its dewpoint.
Figure 26: The CFA module helped geoscientists analyze injected gas sweep at four depths. In
Depth-related variation in fluid this case, the tool proved that there was no communication between zones A and B.
composition
Fluid scanning is the evaluation of
reservoir fluids in a large number
of zones using a combination of
downhole analysis and the short
pumpout period available with the
MDT sampling string. No fluid
sampling is required. In a thick gas
reservoir, CFA fluid scanning can be
Figure 25: The CFA module shows that these reservoir layers, just 5 m apart, are unconnected.
used to measure the compositional
gradient of the reservoir fluid. The
CFA module can provide production-
optimizing information such as fluid
scanning for a compositional gradient
in a thick reservoir; identification of
layers with different fluids; downhole
evaluation of carbon dioxide levels;
downhole determination of dewpoint;
secondary recovery monitoring; and
oil-base mud sampling. All of these
data can be fed back into the
reservoir simulation model and so
help to optimize production.
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Number 6, 2005
22 Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review Middle East & Asia Reservoir Review 23