16,5. The Speed of Waves an Strings When the crests of the pulses coincide (Fig. 16.80), the resulting wave given by 41 + yzis symmetiic, The wo pulses finally separate and continue moving in their ‘original directions (Fig. 16.84). Note that the pulse shapes remain unchanged, as if the two pulses had never met! The combination of separate waves in the same region of space to produce a resultant wave is called interference. For the two pulses shown in Figure 16.8, the displacement of the medium is in the positive y direction for both pulses, and the resultant wave (created when the pulses overlap) exhibits a displacement greater than that of cither individual pulse, Because the displacements caused by the pulses are in the same direction, we refer to their superposition as constructive interference. Now consider two pulses traveling in opposite directions on a taut string where one pulse is inverted relative to the other, as illusuated in Figure 16.9. In this case, when the pulses begin to overlap, the resultant wave is given by y1 + yy. but the values of the Function yp are negative. Again, the two pulses pass through each other; however, because the displacements caused by the two pulses are in ‘opposite directions, we refer to their superposition as destructive interference. Two pulses axe traveling tovard each other at 10 cm/s om a long string, a chown in Figure 16.10, Sketch the shape of the string at ¢~ 0.6 ¢ Figure 16.10 The pulses on this suing are traveling at 10 cm/s. [16.5> THE SPEED OF WAVES ON STRINGS In this section, we focus on determining the speed of a wansverse pulse waveling fon a taut string, Let us first conceptually argue the parameters that determine the speed. Ifa string under tension is pulled sideways and then released, the tension is responsible for accelerating a particular segment of the string back toward its equi- librium position, According to Newton's second law, the acceleration of the seg- ment increases with increasing tension, If the segment returns to equilibrium. ‘more rapidly due to this increased acceleration, we would intuitively argue that the wave speed is greater, Thus, we expect the wave speed to increase with increasing Likewise, we can argue that the wave speed decreases if the mass per unit length of the string increases. This is because it is more difficult to accclerat massive segment of the string than a light segment. If the tension in the string is T (not to be confused with the same symbol used for the period) and its mass per 499500 “The strings ofthis piano vary in both tension and mass per uaitlength. These differences in tension and density, in ‘combination with the different lengths ofthe strings, allow the instrument to produce a wide range of sounds, unit length is (Greek letter tau), then, as we shall show. the wave speed is ray pre yz (16) First, let us verily that this expression is dimensionally correct. The dimensions of Tare ML/T*, and the dimensions of w are M/L. Therefore, the dimensions of ‘T/wave 12/T*: hence, the dimensions of VT/q are L/T—indeed, the dimensions of speed. No other combination of Tand 1 is dimensionally correct if we assume that they are the only variables relevant to the situation, Now let us use a mechanical analysis to derive Equation 16.4. On our string ‘under tension, consider a pulse moving to the right with a uniform speed v mea sured relative to a stationary frame of reference. Instead of staying in this refer ence frame, it is more convenient to choose as our reference frame one that moves along with the pulse with the same speed as the pulse, so that the pulse is at rest within the frame. This change of reference frame is permitted because New: ton’s laws are valid in either a stationary frame or one that moves with constant ve- locity. In our new reference frame, a given segment of the string initially to the right of the pulse moves to the left, rises up and follows the shape of the pulse, and then continstes to move to the left, Figure 16.11a shows such a segment at the ine stant its located at the top of the pulse. “The small segment of the string of length As shown in Figure 16.11a, and mage nified in Figure 16.11b, forms an approximate axe of a circle of radius R In our moving frame of reference (which is moving to the right at a speed » along with the pulse), the shaded segment is moving to the left with a speed v. This segment has a centripetal acceleration equal to ##/R, which is supplied by components of the tension T in the string. The force T acts on either side of the segment and tane Figure 16.11) Tooman me Rent the ac, a8 shoo in Figure 16.11b, The horizontal components of T can Fee ee nce eat Cal. and each vertical component T sn @ acts radially oward the center ofthe arc Eh. itwcomeniente denne Hence, the total radial force is 27 sin 8, Because the segunent is smal, is small, themetionofasmallsegmeotof and we can wse the smalbangle approximation sin = @ Therefore, the total r= tescnginamoiagimeatiee Wages ence (Ola to ring tone of Feleence th sll segenot Sa, = 2rsin 0 270 Teng Asimov to th ef ih tpeed The net losce onthe se The segment has a mass m= ds, Because the segment forms part of circle ‘ment isin the radial direction be- and subtends an angle 20at the center, As = R(20), and hence ‘ante the horizontal components cof the tension force cancel, m= ws = 2uR616,5. The Speed of Waves an Strings 501 If we apply Newton's second law to this segment, the radial component of motion gives Solving for » gives Equation 16.4 Notice that this derivation is bated on the assumption that the pulse height is sonal relative to the length of the string, Using this assumption, we were able o tue the approximation sin @= @ Furthermore, the model assumes thatthe te sion T is not affected by the presence of the pulse; thus, Tis the same at all points on the string. Finally, this proof docs not assume any particular shape for the pulse ‘Therefore, we conclude that a pulse of any shape ravels along the string with speed “V7 without any change in pulse shape EXAMPLE 16J2> the Speed ofa Pulse ona Cord A uniform cord bata mast of 0.300 kg and a length of 6.00 ma T= mg~ (2.00 kg) (9.80 m/s!) = 19.6N (Fig. 16.12). The cord pases over pulley and supports a2.00- lig object. Find the speed of a pulke teaveling along this card (This calculation of the tension neglects the small mass of the cord, Strictly speaking, the cord ean never be exactly hor iuontal, and therefore the tension is not uniform.) The mass Solution ‘The tension 7'in the cord is equal tothe weight * perunit length w of the cord is lof the suxpended 2.00kg mase im _ 950018 — 56550 kg/m m= SHOES — 0.050018 Therefore, the wave speed ie i96N, 0.050 0 kg/in Exercise Find the time it takes the pulse to wavel from the wall tothe pulley. 19.8 m/s Figure 16.12 The tension Tin the corde maintained by the mie pended abject, The speed of any wave traveling along the cord is ghenby = V7 Answer 0.2 Suppose you create a pulse by moving the free end of a taut sting up and down once with your hand, The string is attached at its other end to a distant wall, The pulte reaches the wall in a time & Which of the following actions, taken by itelf, decreases the time it takes the pulse to reach the wall? More than one choice may be correct. (a) Moving your hand more quickly, but sill only wp and down once by the same amount. (b) Moving your hand more slowly, but sill only up and down once by the same amount (6) Moving your hand a greater distance up and down in the same amount of time. (a) Moving your hand a lesser distance up and dovn in the same amount of tie. (e) Using a heavier sting ofthe same length and under the same tension, (2). Using a lighter string of the same length and under the same tension, (g) Using a string of the same linear mass density but under decreased tension, (h) Using a stsing of the same linear mats density but under increated tension,