Distinguished Author Series Multiphase Flow in Pipes by Peter Gritth, Massachusetts Inst of Technology Petar Griith has been on the facity ofthe Massachusetts Inst. of Technology (MIT) Since 1956, His primary research inforasts have been in two-phase Now, boing, Condensation, supercritical heat transler, and various applications of nuclear reactor Safety. He holde degroas mn mechanical enginearing trom Now York U, tho U. of Michigan, and MIT. Introduction Multiphase flow is found in many places. In the petroleum industry it oceurs in oil and gas wells, gathering systems, many piping systems, and key pieces of equipment needed in refineries and petrochemical industries, including boilers, ‘condensers, distillaion towers, separators, and associated piping. This article focuses on two-phase flow in pipes. Though a lot has been leamed about ‘owo-phase flow in the past 25 years, much of that knowledge has not been collected in a convenient place. In particular, much work done for the nuclear industry remains unknown to the petroloum industry. ‘The primary goal of this article is to describe the kinds of problems we are now able to solve and to point out where answers 0 these problems can be obtained. ‘When piping in which two phases are owing is designed, a number of questions can arise, depending ‘on the application: ‘What is the void fraction? What is the pressure drop? ‘What is the liquid level? What is the flow at a break? How can one separute the phases? Where will corrosion oceur? What is the wear rate caused by droplet impingement? 8. What is the vibration of the pipes as a result of two-phase flow? T shall begin by listing available books, then recommend flow-regime maps and correlations for void, pressure drop, and critical flow, and finally touch on the problems of separation, corrosion, wear, and vibration (MARCH 1984 Books on Two-Phase Flow ‘Various books on two-phase flow contain answers fo ‘many of the problems that arise. Almost all of the following books describe homogeneous and separated flow models for calculating void fraction and pressun drop, so I shall mention only those features unique t ‘each book Wallis' comtains the most complete mechanistic desetiptions of void and pressure drop for the differ flow regimes. Hestroni? has a unique section on flow instability and also the best section on flow regimes. Collier is primarily a multiphase heat-ttansfer boo but has a unique section on two-phase pressure drop fittings, Hewitt and Hall-Taylor* collect and report more experimental observations on annular flow than any other source. Lahey and Moody® have a unique section on chok flow. Their description of the drift-flux model is excellent. Govier and Aziz® consider both slurries and non- Newtonian fluid plus a wide varicty of solid, liquid, and gas systems, ‘Moore and Sieverding” have design data on screen ‘and chevron separators that are not reported elsewhe: Hsu and Graham® consider eryogens, Svilas® has @ design section on both pool and cyclone separators. Flow Regimes ‘The unique feature of 1wo-phase flow is the presenc ‘of flow regimes-descriptions of how the two phases are distributed in the pipe. Flow regimes and flow~ regime maps for horizontal, vertical, and inctined1d. smooth flow Stratified wavy flow Plug tlow Slug tlow } Annular tlow Dispersed bubble flow Fig. 1—Flow regimes for a horizontal pipe (adapted trom Fels. 2 and 10). Pipes are illustrated in Figs, | through 4.2! For quantities like void fraction or pressure drop. it has not proved convenient (0 use these maps as part of | the calculation scheme, The quantities of interest are continuous, while steps would occur at flow-regime boundaries if separate correlations were used for void or pressure drop for cach regime. Rather, the utility of the flow-regime maps lies in their ability'to help solve tunconventional problems. such as Is there a liquid level? Is there carryover? Is there entrainment? Is the flow steady? Will the top of the pipe be wet? ‘They are also of great interest when one runs ‘thought experiments.” It is hard 10 imagine how a ‘two-phase flow will behave in an untested system without also imagining how the phases are arranged. ‘The arrangement of the phases is the flow regime and can be predicted with the maps. Often one cun guess hhow a flow regime will change as it passes through a fiting, for example. There are also regime maps for inclined pipes. One of the most extensive sources of these is Ref. 12. All angles are included, from vertical upflow to vertical downilow The flow-regime maps recommended have a consistent designation for the flow regimes, a broad data base, and a semitheoretical basis for determining flow-regime boundaries. The approach taken in these works reflects just about the ight compromise between precision and simplicity A recent work extends the data base for flow regimes and recommends changing the location of the 62 50 DISPERSED ro|. 8UB81E (08) ELONGATED” 1} eusse swe Z| wrenmirtenr (yy 77 Anuean i crow.) Fe STRATIFIED Snooth (ss) a 1 1 5 ° i000 Us (m/sec) Fig. 2—Flowregime map pottes in terms of supertial velocities of each phase for ar and water in @ in [2.5écm)0 pipe at room temperature ana pressure Grosshatchgd bands represent the data of IMandnane. 2 wavy stratified annular dispersed boundary farther 10 the right. Our experiments indicate that these recommendations improve the map, Void Correlations (One of the most basie quantities in two-phase flow is void fraction or its complement, liquid fraction Various methods exists for calculating this quantity; each has its advantages and faults ‘The simplest is the homogeneous model, which assumes that both phases move at the same velocity. However, they rarely do. Void is usually ‘overestimated in horizontal and upflow and underestimated in downflow when this model is used. If pressure drop, rather than void, is the primary ‘concer and the gravity contribution to the pressure drop is small (say 20% of the total), this model is often satisfactory, ‘The next most complicated expression for void assumes that the liquid moves more slowly than the vapor. These are called “slip correlations.”” The well- known Martinelli, Thom, or Barvezy correlations ‘mentioned in all the handbooks on two-phase low! {it into this category. Where pressure drop as such is the issue. these methods can be satisfactory. Martinelli and Baroczy have a data base that includes a wide variety of fluid properties in the correlations. At low velocity, however, they can give poor answers because the gravity contribution to the vapor velocity is practically ignored in both of these correlations. ‘The most precise method for calculating the void fraction relies on the drift-flux model. The most convenient description of this model is provided in Refs. 1 through 3. A recent compilation of the drift- {JOURNAL.OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGYFig. 3Flow regimes distinguished by Tate and Dukler fora ‘verical upiow pipe." flux model constants for various flow regimes" has a huge data base. Properly used, the drif-flux model generally gives the best predictions of void fraction because it explicitly recognizes the two most important factors that cause slip: combined velocity-iensity distributions in the channel and the direction of the ‘gravity vector. This model also is unique because it properly predicts a liguid level for sufficiently small velocity levels. Thus, it can be used to help size devices such as separators or to tell whether some heated tubes will be wet when there is only a limited amount of liquid present. It also is unique because it can predict void in counterfiow and gives an indeterminate form during a downflow when the void is sometimes indeterminate Whenever one has several methods of calculating a sziven quantity, guidance is needed in choosing which method to use. In general, homogeneous void can be used only when the contribution of gravity to the total pressure drop is unimportant. Slip models are most convenient for engineering calculations but give poor answers when the system operates outside of annular, dispersed, or bubbly flow regimes. In any regime where gravity is a dominant force, a slip model will fail to represent an important part ofthe physics, so a drif-flux model should be used. Pressure-Drop Correlations Pressure drop is probably the quantity that one deals with most often in two-phase flow. In spite of this, our ability to predict it in truly new situations is not very good. Differences are primarily a result of the riety of flow regimes that one tries to bridge with ingle correlation scheme. Another problem is the large number of dimensionless variables that are MARCH 1984 100 ‘ tol Bu88Le anwutan 5 Zz : ‘SLUG y = c A cnuaw 34 | 3 on 1 1 «100 ~—«1000 Us (tise Fig. 4Flow-egime map for at and water in a vorical upfiow ‘at 75°F and 1 aim [24°C and 101.3 MPa} (adapted from Rots. 2 and 11). The coordinates are the super- ficial velocty of each phase, demonstrably important, at least at some conditions. For example, for a single-phase, fully developed flow in a pipe, the friction factor is @ function of a single dimensionless group, the Reynolds number. However, for a two-phase flow, the pressure drop (which can be calculated with a friction factor) is a function of atleast six variables. For example, one such set of variables identifies the friction factor as a function of a Froude number, the Weber number, the Reynolds number, the density ratio, the viscosity ratio, and the flow-rate ratio. If we try to correlate data and Jeave out some dimensionless groups, we cannot expect a good result ‘The same three alternatives exist for computing the pressure drop as exist for the void fraction: the homogeneous model, the slip model, and the drift-lux ‘model. A number of comparisons between these models have been made in the literature. For example, Ref. 2 makes recommendations for calculating pressure drop in both horizontal and vertical pipes. ‘When one looks at a large amount of two-phase pressure-drop data, the important differences tum out to be caused by the different data bases underlying the correlations. When the application for 2 correlation is known, *he best general advice isto use a correlation With a data base similar to the application. If there are ‘a number of differences between the data base and the proposed application, one has a problem deciding what Constitutes the most similar. 1 would rank order the similarities from most to least important: (1) quality and velocity level, (2) density ratio, (3) geometry (up, down, of inclined), (4) diameter, and (5) other properties such as viscosity and surface tension, “Tuming now to specific models, the homogeneous ‘model isthe simplest to use. Only one parameter is 363needed 10 predict pressure drop: the friction factor. 1 recommend that the friction factor be chosen by use of the well-known Moody curves, assuming that only liquid is flowing at the mixture mass velocity. Use the liquid density and viscosity to calculate the Reynolds number and the Moody curves to determine the friction factor. This procedure gives a smooth transition to the two-phase pressure drop in the low- quality region and a step at 100% quality. Surprisingly. the step at high quality has some experimental justification. In any case, the homogencous methods that rely on a weighted viseosity have practically no experimental justification and make no physical sense. At best they provide a smooth transition from a single- to a two-phase flow ‘of both ends of the quality range. The slip models generally have a larger data base than the homogeneous models. ‘Thom, Martinelli, and. Baroczy all are included in this category. The ‘empirical friction pressure-drop multipliers they propose are easy to use and give sensible answers 10 overall pressure drop. Average errors with these techniques are small, but errors possible for a single calculation sometimes are huge—as much as 60%. In a complex system where heat addition may cause a quality change, and where there are fittings and perhaps several sources for the flow. the overall errors ‘re mich less because they tend to average out. There is no suitable friction pressure-drop calculation procedure, which is needed to accompany the drift-flux model (used for density). Generally if the drifisflux model is appropriate, the friction contribution to the pressure drop is very small. Under the circumstances, I recommend that the homogencous mode! be used t0 calculate the friction pressure drop. pressure-drop models for vertical upflow, if those mentioned in this section, are ‘compared and evaluated in Refs. 32 and 33. Recommendations for calculation are included Fittings often are important components in piping ns, though little information exists that can be used to calculate two-phase pressure drop in fitings. Ref. 3, in any case, has a section on pressure drop in finings, Inclined pipes are a special case. Naturally the data base for any particular angle inclination is skimpy, so ‘more extrapolation is necessary. The important Factor to keep in mind with inclined pipes is that there is ofien a flow-regime change as the pipe changes orientation from upflow to downflow. One often changes from slug flow in the upflowing portions to stratified or annular flow in the downflowing portions. is little or no pressure recovery in downflow in ied or annular flow, so the elfect of replacing a section of horizontal pipe with an inclined pipe of the ‘same overall length and net elevation changes is to increase the overall pressure drop substantially. To ‘calculate this pressure drop properly, the void fraction in the upflowing portions must be calculated by use of the drif-flux model. For the stratified downflowing, regions a theory presented in Ref. 12 is most appropriate. The most extensive study of inclined-pipe pressure drop is Ref. 15. 368 Critical Flow ‘Two-phase critical low is an important problem in several areas. Overpressure relief valves for devices such as boilers and cryogenic storage tanks need to be sized so the tank is protected from bursting against all, transients. Subsurface safety valves contain choked ow and also must be sized. Break flows must be calculated for pipelines that contain two phases. Over the past decade much work has been done on break flow since this is an important factor in how a nuclear reactor system behaves after a break occurs This section explains the results of nuclear work to other parts of the technical community. In this context, what we call a critical low is defined by the following experiment. A pipe connecting a fluid reservoir close to saturation conditions is allowed to discharge into a reservoir at a lower pressure. AS the pressure in the lower-pressure reservoir is dropped, the flow continues to increase to 4 certain point and then holds constant even though the discharge pressure is decreased. This asymptotic flow is the critical flow and its velocity is called the critical velocity. Unlike gases, there is no simple relationship between this velocity and the velocity of a pressure ‘wave in the mixture, Both the frequency of the pressure wave and the flow regime change the measured pressure-wave velocity. ‘The homogeneous model and separated flow models both can be used to calculate choked flow for 1wo- phase mixtures. At low quality and pressure the homogeneous-equilibrium model has been shown to underestimate the break flow greatly. Slip models for choked flow were developed to remedy some of these defects, but other factors, primarily the departure from ‘thermal equilibrium, also apply, Because of these ‘complications, the most successful critical flow models have an extensive data base and rely only minimally ‘on theory. The most convenient source of information on choked flow of steam/water mixtures is contained in Ref. 5. The results of calculations using the homogeneous equilibrium model and the best slip ‘model are included in a form that is uncommonly ‘convenient for calewlation. Both models (as presented in this reference) are only for water, but the analytical dotals included allow calculations for fluids other than steam and water to be performed. Recently several useful reviews have been published in this area. Ref. 16 discusses what goes out the break when there is a hole in a pipe with a stratified flow ‘This is important because proportions of the two phases that go out the break are not necessarily the same as those in the pipe o those flowing. The break quality and flow rate depend on the location of the break and its size, among other factors. Ref. 17 is a thoughtful review of the current theories on choked flow and compares data with a variety of theories. Ref. 18 examines data from a variety of sources and recommends calculations for the large pipes found in reactor systems. Though break flow is still not entirely understood, wwe know enough to make serviceable estimates of the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGYflow and the resulting set impact forces and critical pressure ratios, Other Topics ‘The items touched on so far might be described as conventional two-phase flow topics. Many areas are affected by what we have learned about two-phase flow that are not usually regarded as wo: phase flow concems, even though two-phase flow is an important factor. It is worthwhile to spend some time on these topics because itis unlikely that the more conventional fields will be the real problems in the future. ‘The first Of these topics is gas/liquid separation, Separators. Most separators are built and tested by ‘manufacturers with very litle information provided to the purchasers about their operation or design. Scattered throughout the literature are papers and chapters in books that allow one 1o design separators tnd estimate their performance. This section attempts to draw this information together. Both gravity and centrifugal separators are described in Ref. 9. Gravity separators, in essence, are tanks in which the velocity level is low enough to allow phase separation. They usually have demisters at the top to remove additional small drops that might be carried over. Ref. 9 gives a design procedure for separators of this kind. Properties like gas and liguid density are considered explicitly. Cyclone separators are also men tioned, though less information is given about their design Ref. 7 describes demisters of various kinds such as screens, knitted wire mesh, and corrugated plate separators. Information on separator efficiency is presented for all these kinds of separators in a form that is useful for design. Flooding limits also are presented so that one can predict at what vapor velocity level the separated liquid will have difficulty flowing back against the wind. ‘Additional information on separators is provided in Ref. 2. A wider range of separators is considered, though some useful design information is lacking, Perhaps the simplest separator is a vertical downflowing pipe in which the deposited liquid is allowed simply to run out. This kind of separator can bbe designed with the information contained in Ref. 19. Stability. Two-phase systems often behave in an unstable manner. “Instability” in this context involves two separate manifestations: excursive instability (first described by Ledinege) and oscillating instabilities. Both kinds of instabilities are found in two-phase piping systems. Ref. 2 is practically the only compilation of the information available for describing, two-phase flow instabilities in general. Unheated two-phase systems are prone to excursive stabilities if, for any reason, there are (1) parallel passages connecting common headers or plenums, oF (2) a negative-sloping pressure-drop/flow-rate curve in fone or more of the passages connecting the two headers. The most common cause of a negative- sloping pressure-drop/flow-rate curve is gravity. The slower the flow, the more liguid is held up and the greater the pressure drop. To determine whether a MARCH 198 system is prone to this kind of instability, itis necessary to calculate the pressure-drop/flow-rate curve and see whether there is @ negative-sloping, region in the operating range. In principle all the information needed to do this is in the pressure-drop correlations mentioned earlier. In fact, how one should do this calculation is still somewhat in doubt, The calculation should be done ‘where the proportion of the txo phases distributed to the various paralle! passages connecting the headers are allowed to vary as they will. One cannot assume, for example, constant quality or equal flow split unless the system is designed to ensure such a flow split. The root of the difficulty is that we don’t have @ method of calculating how two phases split when they come to & junction. This deficiency must be regarded as one of the outstanding, unsolved problems in two-phase flow. Making a piping network predictable may well be a design requirement. If so, and if one has t0 distribute two phases, perhaps the best way is 10 design the system to ensure symmetry. There are at Teast two ways to do this, One can arrange any number of outlet Pipes in a circle around a plenum. This practically guarantees thatthe flow out will have the same quality in each pipe. Another procedure is to split and resplit the flow in tee’s in the horizontal plane, For equal pressures in both branches, the quality flowing in the two branches is the same. ‘The following are examples of specific excursive instabilities that have led to difficulties in various two- phase systems, 1. Small, highly heated tube. ‘The friction term was found to be destabilizing when boiling began. 2. N-shaped three-pass vertical boiler tube. The ‘gravity term has been found destabilizing.” 3. Heated, inverted U-tubes (in a pendant super- heater). The gravity term was destabilizing.” 4. Yankee dryer condensate drain (a “vertical” upfow pipe sucking condensate from the inside surface of a rotating drum and is discharging it into a horizontal axle).”® ‘The gravity term was destabilizing. Many other examples in the literature duplicate the failures that already have been discovered. In general the following systems are particularly prone to two- phase flow pressure-drop/flow-rate instabilities. All these instabilities appear when the pipe in question is part of a multiple-tube array connecting common headers 1. Upflowing two-phase pipes at low velocity (where gravity is dominant). Gravity destabilizes 2. Downflowing heated tubes. Gravity destabilizes 3. Upflowing chilled tubes. Gravity and momentum are both destabilizing 4. Heated tubes of any orientation with vigorous surface boiling. Friction is destabilizing Jn general one stabilizes a system by putting sufficient orificing in the lines to ensure a positive pressure-drop vs. flow-rate curve over the entire ‘operating. region ‘These instabilities also can lead to oscillating flow rates. The most likely such instability, described in Ref. 23. is where a flow delivered to a heated pipe oscillates because of compressibility in the fuid 365delivery system. Any soft delivery system can lead 10 an oscillating flow. ‘A more common cause of an oscillating flow is a dlensity wave instability. Ref. 2 summarizes most of what is known about them. ‘They are found in systems of any orientation in which heat addition causes a density change. When the oscillations occur, their period is about twice the transit time in the heated section. For these oscillations to occur, a large proportion of the pressure drop must be concentrated in the exit section of the tube. Ifthe flow is above the stable limit for the existing heat flux, a reduction in flow. for ‘example, will cause a reduction in the exit pressure drop. This will tend to increase the flow, However, it takes time for the resulting increase in density 10 propagate to the exit section. When it gets there, the exit pressure drop increases (because of the increase in pV? where p=density and V=velocity) and the inlet flow decreases. This causes the flow to decrease and the p¥? to decrease, but only after a delay. The cycle of increase and decrease occurs at @ period equal to ‘ice the transit time in the test section. In principle, the methods for calculating the pressure drop in heated sections mentioned earlier are adequate for predicting this instability, In fact, however, these correlations are generally too imprecise for this purpose, since pressure derivatives as well as pressure-drop values are important and the correlations ate not that good, Again, these oscillations usually are eliminated by throttling at the inlet to the heated section. These oscillations ean occur in any flow regime, Corrosion-Erosion. One of the more peculiar 1wo- phase flow problems concems corrosion-erosion in wet Steam-extraction Lines, Carbon-steel pipes passing wet steam from extraction points on the turbine to the feed ‘water heaters have suffered from wastage rates so large that pipes have to be replaced.?*=® The location of the wastage is entirely a result of the peculiarities of the two-phase flow passing through these lines. The ‘metal loss peaks at a temperature of 300°F [149°C] and typically is found in pipes and fittings with flowing steam of 80 t0 95% quality. The flow regime is unnular-dispersed, ‘The most peculiar facet of this wear is that itis sometimes found on the outside of the pipe bend and Sometimes on the inside. This is because two separate mechanisms are responsible for the removal of material. In any ease, metal removal begins by the steel corroding to magnetite, Fey,, On the outside of the bend the secondary flow and centrifugal acceleration throw the drops out onto the magnetite, fatiguing it and causing it 10 erode away. This exposes ew metal to the steam and accelerates the wastage. ‘On the inside. the shear stress caused by secondary flow in the bend draws the annular film from the bottom or sides of the pipe to the inside, where an inward-flowing stagnation point occurs. This Stagnation point has a very high mass-transfer coefficient and the oxide is dissolved away as a result, To calculate the metal-removal rate, one needs to 366 know what the mass-transfer coefficient bend. Ref. 26 reports an ingenious experiment in which pure water and air are used to simulate the Steam/water system of interest. The "pipe"? is cast in two pieces of plaster of Paris. The system is run for a while using air and water and the erosion pattem is observed. This shows more clearly than any other method how the peculiar wear pattern observed in Steam-extraction lines comes about around the ‘Wear. Oil and gas pipelines and wellstrings, panicularly in the vicinity of fittings, can exhibit wear From the impact of entrained sand, This has been Studied in a recent work and an unpublished thesis. 275 ‘The wear theory of Finnie2? can be adapted to the case of sand entrained in a liguid rather than a soli, ‘When this is done, reasonable wear rates are predicted. The secondary flows in the bends are Important in determining how much of the sand hits the bend, while the effects of flow regime ane much smaller than anticipated. For bubbly and slug flow, the sand is probably in the liquid but the velocities are low enough so that the resulting wear is not very important. In annular flow the film is apparently thin enough that the sand sticks out of the film and may be largely entrained. ‘The wear pattern indicates that this is probably the case. The homogeneous model appears adequate for predicting the sand velocity and distribution in the Pipe. ration Caused by Two-Phase Flow. Very little information is available that can be used to prediet the Vibration amplitudes caused by fluctuations in a two: phhase fow. The mechanism of these fluctuations (as described in Ref. 30) follows To two-phase flow, especially slug flow, plugs of ‘uid proceed down the pipe with the density fluctuating between that of almost pure liquid and that of almost pure gas. When these fluctuations hit a ‘bend, for example, a fluctuating force resulting from the momentum change in the plug or bubble as it proceeds around the bend is exerted on the bend. This force ean cause the pipe to vibrate if the Muctuations are near a natural frequency for the system. These Vibrations are best deseribed as random since there usualy isnot a single well-defined frequency that ‘characterizes the flow. ‘The maximum amplitude of the fluctuating force can be estimated conservatively from the maximum density difference between the phases and the mixture velocity. The frequencies can be estimated from the information presented in Ref. 30 or 31 ‘The exciting frequencies ate typically from 1 t0 20 eyclesisee {1 to 20 Hz] while the natural frequencies of the piping systems typically range from 5 10 40 eycles/sec [5 t0 40 Hz). This means that a pipe excited by a two-phase flow will vibrate at its natural frequency with a variable amplitude, The same kind of vibration would oceur ir pipe were struck occasionally and allowed to vibrate between blows JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGYFlow regime is of governing importance for this problem, The maximum amplitude of the exciting force occurs at the slug-annular boundary. Bubbly flow is very smooth, whereas annular flow becomes Increasingly smooth as the velocity and quality increase. Slug flow, however, is very rough: Conclusion. Methods for calculating many of the quantities of interest in two-phase flows exist but are scattered in the literature. This antcle cites references where the information can be found, stressing the handbooks, Which are the most generally available sources for this kind of information, References 1, Wallis, G.8.: One-Dimensional DoosPhase Flow, MeCiraw- Hill Bok €o, Inc. New York City (1969), 2. Hesinni, Gis Manet of Maliphace esters Publishing Corp.. Washington, DC 11980), 3. Collet, 1G. Cimvecive Boing aed Condensation, MeGeas Hil Book Go, Ine, New York Cy (19D. 4, Howitt GAF and Hall Taylor, NS. Adar Teo-Phose low Pstpamon Pres, New York City (1970, 5. Lahey RT and Moly, F The Thermals of Be tng Water Naclear Reactor, American Noclet Soe, Lt Grange Pak, IL (1977. 6. Gove, G.W. and Aaiz, Ke The Flow of Complex Mires in Pipes. Van Nostrand Reino New York City (1972) 2. Moore, MJ and Sieventing, CM Two-Phase Steam Flom Turbines and. Separaurs.” Hemisphere Publishing Cop. Washington. DC (1976), 8. Ha, YY and Graham, ROW: Taonporr Process Bing and Tyo: Phase Sens. Hemp Pabishing Comp Washington, DC (1976), 98. Szius. AP: Produc an Transor of Oil and Gas, Eevee Sciomtic Pinning Co, New York City 1978) 1, Tal, Y. uml Duke A.Es "A Mal for Pricing Flow ‘Regime Tramsons in Honaomtl and Nest Honzontl Gs Lig Flow." AICKE J. 22 Jan. 1976) 47-54 11, Tati, ¥- and Dakler AE. "Modeling Bow Panes Tarsiions for Steady Upward GusLiguid Flow in Wenical Tubes." AIChE 4.26 1930) 318-52 12, Sholana, ©. “Flow Pater Tramsiton and Charcteriton in Gas Laid Two Phone Flo is Inline Pipes,” PRD dsr, Tek Aviv U. (1982) 13. Welsman, Jer af “Effsts of lull Propemes. and Pipe Diameter in Tw Prase Flow Pater in Horseonta. Lines,” J Mntiphose Plo (1979) 8. 437-62 14 Toit Mes "One-Dimensional Drif-Flux Model and Constitutive Equations for Rebative Motion Between Piss i Vations T= hse Flow Regimes,” ANL-T7-47 (1977), 15, Reggs, HID. and Bil, 3P."~'A Sudy of Two-Phase Flow in In clined Pips."J. Pet Tech (May 1973) 607-17 16. Zabes. No “Prolene in Maseling of Sl Break LOCA NUREG 0724 1041. 1980) 17, Wallis, G.B. “Critical Two-Phase Flow.” fat J. Maliphase Flow (Feb Xpil 1980) 6, 97 18 Ablollahiar. P. ct als "Cical low Data Review and ‘Analysis EPRI NP-219> (lam. 1982), Hemisphere MARCH 1984 19, Liv, YOM. and Agarwal, 1K: “Experimental Observation of ‘Aeroxol Deposition in Turbulent Plow. deravel Science 8 ara 20. Dormer. TJ. and Bovgels, A.E- “Prose Drop wits Sufice Boiling in Snail Danas Tubes,” Report No. 8767-3, Dept of Mechanical Engineering, Mavsichasets Inst of Technoogy, (Sere. 1964), 21, Kranphova, LY, and Glsker, BN, Pass’ Panels with Bator Inlet Headers tor Once Through Boilers" Thezmal Engineering (NO. 8. 196) 22, Deane, R.A "A Experimcnal Staly of Sone Dryer Drsnage Siphon Tec sf the Peper ad Pp dustry (Mah 1959) 2, 23, Mautbatsch. 8. and Grit, Pa “A Study of Systems Induced Insubiiies in Fovced-Convcctim Flows with Sub-ooled Bot ing” AICHE ‘id In, HT Conteronce, Chicago (1968). 24, Vac HL: Enosve-Comosive Wear in Steam Extraction Lins of Power Plans.” MS these. Massachets Inst of Technolgy Cambriige 1982), 28, Coal, A. at Teasin. G.° “Erosion ant Erosion Corrosion of Metab.” Proc, Stein Conlerence on Erosion by Solid and Lig it Inet (1979) 25" 1-1 26, Sprague. BJ, Wilkin. SK. and Coney. M.W-B: “tects of ToerPhae Flow on Wall to Fla Mane Transfer i Bens and Staight Pipes.” Proc, Hurpsan Two-Phase Flow Grup Mesting. Zunch (1963), 27, Henenata, MT. Grith, P.. and Rabinowice, E.2 “Eroson of Metlie Plat by Sold Panicles Entrained in a Liga Set Tran. ASME (1083) 108, 215-23, 28, Dluncurd. D.: "“Etosion of Metal Pipe by Solid Pusles Eo Arana in Water.” MS hess, Massachtutsrs.o Technolgy. Comtedge 1981), 29, Fine. 1s The Mechanism of Erosion of Ductile Metals. Proc, 38, US, Nall. Congress of Applied Mechanics (1958), 527-32 Yih. 1S. and Gifith, Ps “Unseady Momentum Fates in Two. Phase Fons und the Vibrio of Nuclear Sytem Components, ANT=768S (May 1970), 1M. Hubbond, MG. and Dukler. A.B "A Model forSlug Frequency Dung Gas Ligitd Flow in. Horizontal and Near Horton Pipes." In J. Muliphave Flow (1977) 3, 585-96. 432, ldkiga, W., Toes, Nan! Hovering, Rs An Assessment of TwoPhaye Presure Drop Corclutions for Steam: Water System Inte Mliphuse Flow (1077) 3, A013, 3, Hemandcr. F2 *Congarison of Faction Factor Comlations fot Gax-Liguid Flow in Horizontal Pipes.” MS thesis U, of Tas «973 Hydraulic Sud of Tce Fa SI Metrie Conversion Factors atm x 1.013 250" E+0 °F CF—32y1.8 fl x 3,048" E-01 in, x 2.540" E+00 wer freee bese tne nt nana fcc by cosa ec seas ‘Sis wo mao tule neuen Won mee St tapers irony oat haey Pape 361