During the LIP, the Chachapoya embarked on a period of population growth, settlement nucleation and

artistic fluorescence, a trend that scholars believe began by the end of the MH. The timing of these profound
changes remains poorly documented, but participation in MH interaction spheres no doubt had a significant
catalyzing impact. The onset of the LIP marks the genesis of classic Chachapoya culture, with its hallmark
hamlets, villages and fortified urban complexes of circular stone constructions, and cliff tombs. Throughout
the region, hundreds of settlements cluster above 3,000 masl along the Maran-Huallaga divide or between
2,0002,900 masl on the forested slopes of the eastern cordillera. Nucleated settlements with four hundred
or more structures are rare, but include Kuelap, high above the Utcubamba, (Narvez 1996a, 1996b),
Caserones or Timbambo in the Atuen watershed (Schjellerup 1997), Purun Llaqta de Cheto east of the
modern city of Chachapoyas (Ruz B. 2004), and La Jalca east of the Utcubamba (Lerche 1986). While the
promontory location of sites may be a response to internecine hostilities, as suggested by the chroniclers,
few settlements, aside from Kuelap, are fortified. Mountain terrain provided natural defenses for some
settlements. Walled settlements include Vira Vira (Muscutt 1998), Teya (Langlois 1939; Lerche 1995) and
Pabelln (Lerche 1995). The Chachapoya may have placed their villages on mountaintops to mitigate high
rainfall and landslides, or to avoid occupying potential farmland (Schjellerup 1997). Unfortunately, very few
Chachapoyas sites have been adequately dated, and in the absence of excavated samples and examination of
architectural details, it is often difficult to determine whether settlements were built and occupied during
the LIP, Late Horizon (LH) or both. It is seldom possible to date sites merely by the presence or absence of
Chachapoya architectural canons and iconography since many of these have EIP roots, persist through the
LH, and even appear accentuated at some Inca period sites.

Subsistence practices focused on high altitude tubers and grains, hunting, and tending domesticated guinea
pigs and camelid herds for needed meat protein. Many settlements are 914 W.B. Church and A. von Hagen
surrounded by the extensive remains of field systems, ranging from broad, earthen terraces to ridged fields
and stone-faced terraces in protected gullies. At 3,800 masl, Timbambo (or Caserones) in the Atuen drainage
is surrounded by 500 ha of field systems and nearby Bveda (3,4003,600 masl) includes 100 ha of field
systems (Schjellerup 1997). Around La Jalca in the Utcubamba Valley, studies by Lerche (1986) revealed
similarly constructed, extensive terracing systems. Further down the eastern slopes, especially in the
Huayabamba and Abiseo drainages, large terracing systems covering slopes in the Montecristo Valley
surrounding Gran Pajatn suggest that maize was probably cultivated intensively.

Although circular houses are not unique in the ancient Andes, singular features distinguish Chachapoya
constructions. They frequently sit atop larger, circular platform bases, accessed by ramps or stairways.
Decorative, stone mosaic friezes (zigzags, rhomboids, step-frets or figurative motifs such as those at Gran
Pajatn) embellish the platforms or structures upper walls; only rarely are these found gracing interior walls
(see Figures 45.5, 45.6). Cornices, surrounding or set in a half-moon around the houses, served as decorative

Features or walkways, protecting the foundations from rainfall. Steeply pitched, conical thatch roofs
crowned the constructions. The settlements appear to follow the terrain in a seemingly random pattern,
although Kuelap includes houses clustered along corridors or facing common patios, suggesting planning, and
reflecting social relations (Narvez 1988). Perched on a ridge at 3,000 masl, high above the Utcubamba,
Kuelap is one of the most impressive northern Chachapoya sites, not only for the natural beauty of its setting
but for the sheer audacity of its surrounding wall. Today, orchids and bromeliads festoon large trees, hinting
at the lush forests that once blanketed much of the region. The citadel occupies around 6 ha and runs north-
south along a limestone ridge almost entirely encased by a giant retaining wall. The site complex, however
including outlying settlements, tombs and agricultural terraces covers approximately 450 ha. The height of
the perimeter igure 45.5. A slate frieze portraying human figures with carved sandstone tenoned heads
decorates the lowerexterior wall of Building No. 1 at Gran Pajatn. (Gregory O. Jones)Chachapoyas: Cultural
Development at an Andean Cloud Forest Crossroads 915wall ranges between 10 and 20 m, and is entirely
built of finely cut limestone masonry covering an interior core of rubble fill and mud mortar (see Figure 45.7).
Ongoing ceramic analysis (Narvez and Morales G. 1999) suggests steady occupation from the EIP through
early Spanish colonial times, but the period of peak construction activities remains to be determined.

Figure 45.6. Typical Chachapoya circular dwellings, partially reconstructed at Kuelap. (Warren Church)

Figure 45.7. Kuelaps surrounding wall reaches up to 20 m in height. (Warren Church) 916 W.B. Church and A.
von HagenThree entryways punctuate the wall, two on the eastern side and one on the western, cliff side.
The main entry is trapezoidal and was once partly covered by a corbelled vault. The entryway is actually a 60
m-long, walled corridor that narrows into a passageway allow-ing only one person at a time to enter.
Excavations and mapping within the settlement by Narvez (1988) revealed 420 mostly circular structures
distributed in lower and upper sectors, likely reflecting social divisions. Such bipartite divisions appear to be
common at LIP Chachapoya settlements such as Vira Vira, Patrn Samana and La Congona (Ruiz 1985). At
Kuelap, the walled-off upper sector contains several rectangular structures with unknown functions. The
imposing surrounding wall, restricted entryways, possible parapets and 2,500 sling stones stashed on the
Torren, a tower at the settlements northern side, imply that Kuelaps inhabitants were preoccupied with
security. Large clumps of burnt roofing thatch indicate that residents either burned the structures at the time
of abandonment or that Kuelap came to a violent end.