Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch.

19

Electrical Properties Outline of this Topic

1. Basic laws and electrical properties of metals

2. Band theory of solids: metals, semiconductors
and insulators
3. Electrical properties of semiconductors
4. Electrical properties of ceramics and polymers
5. Semiconductor devices

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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Goals of this topic: 1. Basic laws and electrical properties of metals

Understand how electrons move in materials: electrical

Ohms Law
conduction
How many moveable electrons are there in a material V = IR
(carrier density), how easily do they move (mobility) E = V/L
Metals, semiconductors and insulators where E is electric field intensity
Electrons and holes
= / E where = the mobility
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Carriers
Semiconductor devices: p-n junctions and transistors
= the drift velocity
Ionic conduction Resistivity
Electronic Properties of Ceramics: Dielectrics, = RA / L (.m)
Ferroelectrics and Piezoelectrics Conductivity
= 1 / (.m)-1
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Materials Choices for Metal Conductors

Electrical conductivity between different materials Most widely used conductor is copper: inexpensive,
varies by over 27 orders of magnitude, the greatest abundant, very high
variation of any physical property Silver has highest of metals, but use restricted due to cost
Aluminum main material for electronic circuits, transition
to electrodeposited Cu (main problem was chemical
etching, now done by Chemical-Mechanical Polishing)
Remember deformation reduces conductivity, so high
strength generally means lower : trade-off. Precipitation
hardening may be best choice: e.g. Cu-Be.
Metals: > 105 (.m)-1 Heating elements require low (high R), and resistance to
high temperature oxidation: nichrome.
Semiconductors: 10-6 < < 105 (.m)-1
Insulators: < 10-6 (.m)-1
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Conductivity / Resistivity of Metals

High number of free (valence) electrons
Electric field causes electrons to accelerate in direction opposite
high to field
Defects scatter electrons, therefore they Velocity very quickly reaches average value, and then remains
increase (lower ). constant
total = thermal+impurity+deformation Electron motion is not impeded by periodic crystal lattice

thermal from thermal vibrations Scattering occurs from defects, surfaces, and atomic thermal
impurity from impurities
vibrations
deformation from deformation-induced point defects
Resistivity increases with temperature These scattering events constitute a frictional force that
(increased thermal vibrations and point causes the velocity to maintain a constant mean value: vd, the
defect densities) electron drift velocity
T = o + aT The drift velocity is proportional to the electric field, the
Additions of impurities that form solid constant of proportionality is the mobility, . This is a measure
sol: of how easily the electron moves in response to an electric field.
I = Aci(1-ci) (increases ) The conductivity depends on how many free electrons there
Two phases, , : are, n, and how easily they move
i = V + V 6 8
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

2. Band theory of solids: metals, semiconductors and

E insulators
Scattering
events

Band Theory of Solids

Schroedingers eqn (quantum mechanical equation for
behavior of an electron)

Net electron motion

K + V = E

(-h2/2m) + V = ih
2

vd = eE x2 t
= n|e| e
Solve it for a periodic crystal potential, and you will find
n : number of free or that electrons have allowed ranges of energy (energy
conduction electrons per
unit volume
bands) and forbidden ranges of energy (band-gaps).
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Electrons in an Isolated atom (Bohr Model)

(m) = Metal Mobility (RT) Carrier Density

(s) = Semicon (m2V-1s-1) Ne (m-3)
Na (m) 0.0053 2.6 x 1028
Ag (m) 0.0057 5.9 x 1028 Electron orbits defined by
Al (m) 0.0013 1.8 x 1029 requirement that they contain
Si (s) 0.15 1.5 x 1010 integral number of wavelengths:
GaAs (s) 0.85 1.8 x 106
InSb (s) 8.00 quantize angular momentum,
energy, radius of orbit

metal >> semi

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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

When N atoms in a solid
are relatively far apart, they
do not interact, so electrons
in a given shell in different
atoms have same energy
As atoms come closer
together, they interact,
perturbing electron energy
levels
Electrons from each atom
then have slightly different
energies, producing a
band of allowed energies
Each band can contain certain number of electrons (xN, where N is the
number of the atoms and x is the number of electrons in a given atomic
shell, i.e. 2 for s, 6 for p etc.). Note: it can get more complicated than this!
Electrons in a filled band cannot conduct
In metals, highest occupied band is partially filled or bands overlap
Highest filled state at 0 Kelvin is the Fermi Energy, EF
Semiconductors, insulators: highest occupied band filled at 0 Kelvin:
electronic conduction requires thermal excitation across bandgap; T
(At 0 Kelvin) highest filled band: valence band; lowest empty band:
conduction band. Ef is in the bandgap

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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Metals, Semiconductors, Insulators

At 0 Kelvin all available electron states below Fermi energy

Insulators Semiconductors Eg are filled, all those above are vacant
Metals Eg > 2 eV < 2 eV
Only electrons with energies above the Fermi energy can
Empty
conduct:
Empty conduction Empty Remember Pauli Exclusion Principle that only two electrons (spin
band Empty band conduction
band band up, spin down) can occupy a given state defined by quantum
Ef numbers n, l, ml
Band gap
Band gap Ef Band gap So to conduct, electrons need empty states to scatter into, i.e. states
Ef above the Fermi energy
Empty states Filled Filled Filled
Ef band valence valence When an electron is promoted above the Fermi level (and can
band band
Filled states thus conduct) it leaves behind a hole (empty electron state)
A hole can also move and thus conduct current: it acts as a positive
electron)
Holes can and do exist in metals, but are more important in
semiconductors and insulators
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

The Fermi Function

Metals

This equation represents the probability that an energy level, E, Empty

is occupied by an electron and can have values between 0 and 1 states
. At 0K, the f (E) is equal to 1 up to Ef and equal to 0 above Ef

Energy
EF EF
f (E) = [1] / [e(E - Ef) / kT +1] Electron
excitation

Filled
states

(a) (b)

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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Semiconductors, Insulators
In metals, electrons near the Fermi energy see empty states a very small
energy jump away, and can thus be promoted into conducting states above
Conduction

Ef very easily (temp or electric field)

Conduction
band

band

High conductivity
Atomistically: weak metallic bonding of electrons Free
In semiconductors, insulators, electrons have to jump across band gap into electron
conduction band to find conducting states above Ef : requires jump >> kT
Energy

No. of electrons in CB decreases with higher band gap, lower T EF

Band
Gap

Electron
Relatively low conductivity excitation
An electron in the conduction band leaves a hole in the valence band, that
can also conduct
Hole in
Valence
Valence

band

Atomistically: strong covalent or ionic bonding of electrons

band

valence
band

(a) (b)
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Intrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity

E field
Si Si Si Si Both electrons and holes conduct:
Si Si Si Si

Si
hole
= n|e|e + p|e|h
Si Si Si free electron

Si Si Si Si n: number of conduction electrons per unit volume

Si Si Si Si p: number of holes in VB per unit volume
Si Si Si Si
In intrinsic semiconductor, n = p:
(a)
(b)
= n|e|(e + h) = p|e|(e + h)
E field
Electrical conduction in intrinsic Si, (a) before
excitation, (b) and (c) after excitation, see the
Si Si Si Si Number of carriers (n,p) controlled by thermal
free electron response of the electron-hole pairs to the external
field. Note: holes generally have lower mobilities excitation across band gap:
Si Si Si Si
hole than electrons in a given material (require n = p = C exp (- Eg /2 kT)
cooperative motion of electrons into previous C : Material constant
Si Si Si Si
hole sites)
Eg : Magnitude of the bandgap
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

3. Electrical properties of semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the key materials in the electronics and
telecommunications revolutions: transistors, integrated circuits,
lasers, solar cells. Engineer conductivity by controlled addition of
Intrinsic semiconductors are pure (as few as 1 part in 1010 impurity atoms: Doping
impurities) with no intentional impurities. Relatively high
resistivities
Extrinsic semiconductors have their electronic properties (electron
and hole concentrations, hence conductivity) tailored by
intentional addition of impurity elements

Room
Temp

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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

n-type semiconductors E field

Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
In Si which is a tetravalent lattice, substitution of 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

pentavalent As (or P, Sb..) atoms produces extra electrons, Si P Si free electron

as fifth outer As atom is weakly bound (~ 0.01 eV). Each As 4+ 5+

Si
4+ 4+ Si
4+
P
5+
Si
4+
Si
4+
n-type
atom in the lattice produces one additional electron in the Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si
conduction band. 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

So NAs As atoms per unit volume produce n additional (a) (b)

conduction electrons per unit volume
Impurities which produce extra conduction electrons are Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
called donors, ND = NAs ~ n
Si Si B Si Si Si Si
These additional electrons are in much greater numbers 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ 4+ 4+
B
3+ 4+

than intrinsic hole or electron concentrations, ~ n|e|e ~

hole
hole

ND |e|e
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+
Si
4+ p-type
Typical values of ND ~ 1016 - 1019 cm-3 (Many orders of (a) (b)
magnitude greater than intrinsic carrier concentrations at
RT)
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

p-type semiconductors Semiconductors

n-type more electrons
Substitution of trivalent B (or Al, Ga...) atoms in Si
Conduction

Conduction

produces extra holes as only three outer electrons exist to

band

band

fill four bonds. Each B atom in the lattice produces one

hole in the valence band.
So NB B atoms per unit volume produce p additional holes Donor state
Energy

Free
per unit volume electrons
Band
Gap

in the
Impurities which produce extra holes are called acceptors, conduction
NA = NB ~ p band

These additional holes are in much greater numbers than

intrinsic hole or electron concentrations, ~ p|e|h ~ NA
Valence

Valence
band

band

|e|h
Typical values of NA ~ 1016 - 1019 cm-3 (Many orders of
magnitude greater than intrinsic carrier concentrations at (b)
(a)
RT) For an n-type material, excitation occurs from the donor state in which
a free electron is generated in the conduction band.
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Semiconductors
p-type more holes
Conduction

Conduction
band

band
4. Electrical properties of
ceramics and polymers
Energy
Band
Gap

Acceptor state

Hole in
Valence

Valence

the valence
band

band

band

(a) (b)
For an p-type material, excitation of an electron into the acceptor level, leaving
behind a hole in the valence band.
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Temperature Dependence of carrier Concentration and Dielectric Materials

Conductivity

Our basic equation:

A dielectric material is an insulator which contains electric
= n|e|e + p|e|h dipoles, that is where positive and negative charge are
Intrinsic Main temperature variations separated on an atomic or molecular level
are in n,p rather than e , h
Saturation Intrinsic carrier concentration
ln p, n

n = p = C exp (- Eg /2 kT)
Extrinsic Extrinsic carrier concentration
low T (< room temp) Extrinsic
regime: ionization of dopants
When an electric field is applied, these dipoles align to the
{ln p/ [(1/T)]}
mid T (inc. room temp) Saturated
field, causing a net dipole moment that affects the material
= Eg / 2 k
regime: most dopants ionized properties.
high T Intrinsic regime: intrinsic
1/T generation dominates
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Capacitance Polarization
Capacitance is the ability to store
charge across a potential difference. +++++ Magnitude of electric dipole moment
from one dipole:
Examples: parallel conducting plates,
semiconductor p-n junction ----- - p = qd
D
Magnitude of the capacitance, C: P N
In electric field, dipole will rotate in
C = Q/V - - - + ++ direction of applied field: polarization
Units: Farads - - - + ++
Parallel- plate capacitor, C depends on - - - + ++
geometry of plates and material The surface charge density of a
between plates capacitor can be shown to be:
C = r o A / L D = or
A : Plate Area; L : Plate Separation D : Electric Displacement
o : Permittivity of Free Space (8.85x10-12 F/m2) (units Coulombs / m2)
L
r : Relative permittivity, r = /o
Vac, r = 1 33 35
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Increase in capacitance in dielectric

medium compared to vacuum is due
to polarization of electric dipoles in
dielectric.
In absence of applied field (b), these
are oriented randomly
In applied field these align according
to field (c)
Result of this polarization is to create
opposite charge Q on material
Magnitude of dielectric constant depends upon frequency adjacent to conducting plates
of applied alternating voltage (depends on how quickly This induces additional charge (-)Q
charge within molecule can separate under applied field) on plates: total plate charge Qt =
Dielectric strength (breakdown strength): Magnitude of |Q+Q|.
electric field necessary to produce breakdown So, C = Qt / V has increased
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Electronic
Surface density charge now
D = = or = o + P

P is the polarization of the material

(units Coulombs/m2). It represents
the total electric dipole moment Ionic
per unit volume of dielectric, or the
polarization electric field arising
from alignment of electric dipoles
in the dielectric

From equations at top of page Orientation

P = o(r-1)

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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Origins of Polarization

Where do the electric dipoles come from?

Electronic Polarization: Displacement of negative
electron clouds with respect to positive nucleus.
Requires applied electric field. Occurs in all materials.
Ionic Polarization: In ionic materials, applied electric
field displaces cations and anions in opposite directions
Orientation Polarization: Some materials possess
permanent electric dipoles, due to distribution of charge
in their unit cells. In absence of electric field, dipoles
are randomly oriented. Applying electric field aligns
these dipoles, causing net (large) dipole moment. Barium Titanate, BaTiO3 : Permanent Dipole Moment
Ptptal = Pe + Pi + Po for T < 120 C (Curie Temperature, Tc). Above Tc, unit
cell is cubic, no permanent electric dipole moment
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
Piezoelectricity
In some ceramic materials, application of external forces
produces an electric (polarization) field and vice-versa
Applications of piezoelectric materials microphones, strain
gauges, sonar detectors
Materials include barium titanate, lead titanate, lead
zirconate
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
Ionic Conduction in Ceramics
Cations and anions possess electric charge (+,-) and
therefore can also conduct a current if they move.
Ionic conduction in a ceramic is much less easy than
electron conduction in a metal (free electrons can move
far more easily than atoms / ions)
In ceramics, which are generally insulators and have very
few free electrons, ionic conduction can be a significant
component of the total conductivity
total = electronic + ionic
Overall conductivities, however, remain very low in
ceramics.
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
Electrical Properties of Polymers
Most polymeric materials are relatively poor conductors of electrical
current - low number of free electrons
A few polymers have very high electrical conductivity - about one
quarter that of copper, or about twice that of copper per unit weight.
Involves doping with electrically active impurities, similar to
semiconductors: both p- and n-type
Examples: polyacetylene, polyparaphenylene, polypyrrole
Orienting the polymer chains (mechanically, or magnetically) during
synthesis results in high conductivity along oriented direction
Applications: advanced battery electrodes, antistatic coatings,
electronic devices
Polymeric light emitting diodes are also becoming a very important
research field
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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

Applied Voltage
D
P N
D
P N
- - - + ++
5. Semiconductor Devices and Circuits - - - + ++ - - - + ++
- - - + ++ - - - + ++
- - - + ++ Vb Reverse Bias
Vb - +
Forward Bias

+ - Vo

Vo Vo-Vb Vo+|Vb|
Ec+ Ec0
EF0
Ec0
Ec-
EF-
Ev+ Ev0

Ev0
Ev-
Lower Barrier , I Higher Barrier, I
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19

The Semiconductor p-n Junction Diode

D
P N A rectifier or diode allows
- - - + ++ current to flow in one
- - - + ++ direction only.
- - - + ++ p-n junction diode consists of
adjacent p- and n-doped
semiconductor regions
n Electrons, holes combine at
junction and annihilate:
p depletion region containing
ionized dopants
Vh Electric field, potential barrier
resists further carrier flow
Ve

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 Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
Transistors
The basic building block of the microelectronic revolution
Can be made as small as 1 square micron
A single 8 diameter wafer of silicon can contain as many as
1010 - 1011 transistors in total: enough for several for every
man, woman, and child on the planet
Cost to consumer ~ 0.00001c each.
Achieved through sub-micron engineering of semiconductors,
metals, insulators and polymers.
Requires ~ $2 billion for a state-of-the-art fabrication facility
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
Bipolar Junction Transistor
n-p-n or p-n-p sandwich structures. Emitter-base-collector. Base is very thin (~ 1
micron or less) but greater than depletion region widths at p-n junctions.
Emitter-base junction is forward biased; holes are pushed across junction. Some of
these recombine with electrons in the base, but most cross the base as it so thin. They
are then swept into the collector.
A small change in base-emitter voltage causes a relatively large change in emitter-
base-collector current, and hence a large voltage change across output (load)
resistor: voltage amplification
The above configuration is called the common base configuration (base is common
to both input and output circuits). The common emitter configuration can produce
both amplification (V,I) and very fast switching
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor)
Nowadays, the most important type of transistor.
Voltage applied from source to drain encourages carriers (in the above case
holes) to flow from source to drain through narrow channel.
Width (and hence resistance) of channel is controlled by intermediate gate
voltage
Current flowing from source-drain is therefore modulated by gate voltage.
Put input signal onto gate, output signal (source-drain current) is
correspondingly modulated: amplification and switching
State-of-the-art gate lengths: 0.18 micron. Oxide layer thickness < 10 nm
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Introduction To Materials Science FOR ENGINEERS, Ch. 19
Take Home Messages
Language: Resistivity, conductivity, mobility, drift velocity, electric field
intensity, energy bands, band gap, conduction band, valence band, Fermi
energy, hole, intrinsic semiconductor extrinsic semiconductor, dopant,
donor, acceptor, extrinsic regime, extrinsic regime, saturated regime,
dielectric, capacitance, (relative) permittivity, dielectric strength, (electronic,
ionic, orientational) polarization, electric displacement, piezoelectric, ionic
conduction, p-n junction, rectification, depletion region, (forward, reverse)
bias, transistors, amplification.
Fundamental concepts of electronic motion: Conductivity, drift velocity,
mobility, electric field
Band theory of solids: Energy bands, band gaps, holes, differences between
metals, semiconductors and insulators
Semiconductors: Dependence of intrinsic and extrinsic carrier conc. on
temperature, band gap; dopants - acceptors and donors.
Capacitance: Dielectrics, polarization and its causes, piezoelectricity
Semiconductor devices: basic construction and operation of p-n junctions,
bipolar transistors and MOSFETs
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