2.

6 Bit-rate, dispersion, and optical bandwidth

In digital communications, signals are generally sent as light pulses along an

optical fiber. Information is first converted to an electrical signal in the form of
pulses that represent bits of information. The electrical signal drives a laser
diode whose light output is coupled into a fiber for transmission. The light
output at the destination end of the fiber is coupled to a photodetector that
converts the light signal back to an electrical signal. The information bits are
then decoded from this electrical signal. Engineers are interested in the
maximum rate at which the digital data can be transmitted along the fiber. This
rate is called the bit rate capacity B (bits per second) of the fiber.
1
 1 0.5
The maximum bit rate B: B
2 1/ 2 1/ 2
(Bit Rate Capacity) 2
There are two types of bit rates. One is called the return-to-zero(RZ) bit
rate, for which a pulse representing the binary information 1 must return
to zero before the next binary information. The other is called the non-
return to-zero (NRZ) bit rate, for which two consecutive binary 1 pulses
do not have to return to zero in between, that is, the two pulses can be
brought closer.

In most cases we refer to RZ bit rate.

3
 Rigorous Definition of Bit Rate
The maximum bit rate depends on the input pulse shape, fiber dispersion
characteristics (hence the output pulse shape), and the modulation scheme
of information bits.
For Gaussian output light pulses h(t) centered at 0:
t2

ht
1
e 2 2
Standard deviation 0.425 1/2
2 2

ht t dt
2

0.5 0.25

B General definition
ht dt 2

For Gaussian pulse, 0.425 1/ 2 ,
0.25 0.59
B
0.425 1/ 2 1/ 2

A Gaussian output light pulse and some

For rectangular pulse, the full width
tolerable intersymbol interference between two
consecutive output light pulses (y-axis in relative T 1/ 2
units).
At time t = from the pulse center, the relative T / 2

x dx
2
magnitude is e-1/2 = 0.607 and full width root
T 0.25 0.25 0.87
mean square (rms) spread is rms = 2. T / 2
0.29T B
T 12 0.29T T
4
 Bit Rate and Dispersion

Dispersion increases with fiber length L and also with the wavelength
range of source. It is therefore more appropriate to specify the product of
the bit rate B and fiber length L at the operating wavelength.
0.25L
Generally, BL
output
0.25L 0.25L 0.25
BL ,
output L Dch ,input Dch ,input
if only intramodal dispersion is considered .
The bit-rate distance product, BL, is a characteristic of the fiber, through Dch,
and also of the wavelength of the source. Its unit is Gb s-1 km.
When both chromatic (intramodal) and intermodal dispersion are present and
need to take into account. The overall dispersion can be found according to

overall
2
intermodal
2
intramodal
2

5
 B. Optical and Electrical Bandwidth
(For analog signal)

The input light intensity into the fiber can be modulated to be sinusoidal. The
light output intensity at the fiber destination should also be sinusoidal with a
phase shift due to the time it takes for the signal to travel along the fiber. We
can determine the transfer characteristics of the fiber by feeding in light
intensity signals with various frequencies.

6
The response, as defined by Po/Pi, is flat and falls with frequency when the
frequency becomes too large so that dispersion effects smear out the light at
the output. The frequency fop at which the output intensity is 50% below the
flat region defines the optical bandwidth of the fiber and hence the useful
frequency range in which modulated optical signals can be transferred along
the fiber.

For dispersion of Gaussian characteristics, the relationship

between the optical bandwidth and the bit rate is:

0.19
f op 0.75B

The electrical signal from the photodetector
(current or voltage) is proportional to the
fiber output light intensity. The electrical
bandwidth, fel, is usually defined as the
frequency at which the electrical signal is
70.7% of its low frequency value.
f el 0.71 f op
7
8
 Example: Bit Rate and Dispersion
Consider an optical fiber with a chromatic dispersion coefficient 8 ps km-1nm-1
at an operating wavelength of 1.5 m. Calculate the bit rate-distance product
(BL), and the optical and electrical bandwidths for a 10 km fiber if a laser
diode source with a FWHP linewidth 1/2 of 2 nm is used. (Gaussian pulse)

Solution:
The FWHP dispersion at the output is

1/ 2 / L Dch 1/ 2 8ps Km-1nm -1 2nm 16ps km 1
Assume a Gaussian pulse shape, the RZ bite rate - distance product is
0.25L 0.25L 0.25L
BL 36.8Gbs1km
0.425 1/ 2 0.425 16 L
The optical and electrical bandwidths for a 10 km distance are
f op 0.19 / 0.19 / 0.425 1/ 2 0.19 / 0.425 16 10 2.8GHz
f el 0.71 f op 0.71 2.8 2.0GHz

9
 2.7 Graded index optical fiber
Drawback of Step Index Fibers

Single mode step index fibers have small NA and the amount of light
coupled into a fiber is limited.
Multimode step index fibers have large NA and core diameters, which
allow for more light power launched into a fiber. However, they suffer from
intermodal dispersion.

10
In the graded index (GRIN) fiber, the refractive index is not constant
within the core but decreases from n1 at the center, as a power law, to n2
at the cladding. Such a refractive index profile is capable of minimizing
intermodal dispersion.
Intuitively, the velocity, c/n, is not constant and increases away from the
center. A ray such as 2 that has a longer path than ray 1 experiences a
larger velocity during a part of its journey to enable it to catch up with ray
1. Similarly, ray 3 experiences a larger velocity than ray 2 during part of its
propagation to catch up with ray 2.
11
We can visualize a graded index fiber by imagining a stratified medium
with the layers of refractive indices na > nb > nc ... Consider two close rays
1 and 2 launched from O at the same time but with slightly different
launching angles. Ray 1 just suffers total internal reflection. Ray 2
becomes refracted at B and reflected at B'.

12
 Graded Index (GRIN) Fibers

The refractive index profile can be expressed by a power law with an index ,
which is called the profile index (or the coefficient of index grating).

n n1 1 2r / a
1/ 2
ra
n n2 ra

The intermodal dispersion is minimized when

4 2 2 3
2 1 21
2 3 1 3 2
2
n n
1 2 is small
n1

With this optimal profile index, the intermodal n

dispersion in the output light pulse 1 2
per unit length is given by L 20 3c

13
14
 2.8 Light absorption and scattering

A. Absorption

Light propagating through a Lattice absorption through a crystal. The

material becomes attenuated in
the direction of propagation.
field in the wave oscillates the ions which
consequently generate "mechanical
waves in the crystal; energy is thereby
transferred from the wave to lattice
vibrations.
15
B. Scattering

When a propagating wave encounters a small dielectric particle or a

small inhomogeneous region whose refractive index is different from
the average refractive index of the medium, the field force dipole
oscillation in the dielectric particle or region by polarizing it, leading to
the emission of electromagnetic waves in many directions so that a
portion of the light energy is directed away from the incident beam.

16

Lord Rayleigh, an
English physicist (1877
1919) and a Nobel
laureate (1904), made a
number of contributions
to wave physics of
sound and optics.
8 3 2
R 4 n 1 T k BT f 4
2 1
3 17
Whenever the size of a scattering region,
whether an inhomogeneity or a small particle, is
much smaller (</10) than the wavelength of the
incident wave, the scattering process is
generally termed Rayleigh scattering. Rayleigh
scattering becomes more severe as the
frequency of light increases (the wavelength
decreases). Blue light that has a shorter
wavelength than red light is scattered more
strongly by particles in air. When we look at the
sun directly, it appears yellow because the blue
light has been scattered. When we look at the
sky in any direction but the sun, our eyes
receive scattered light, which appears blue. At
sunrise and sunset, the rays from the sun have
to travel the longest distance through the
atmosphere and have the most blue light
scattered, which gives the sun its red color at
these times.
 2.9 Attenuation in optical fibers

Assume a fiber of length L. The input optical power is Pin. The

optical power is attenuated to Pout at the end of fiber. We define an
attenuation coefficient for the fiber.

Generally, optical power attenuation in an optical fiber

is expressed in terms of decibels per unit length of fiber,
dP Pdx
as dB per km.
dP
dx
P
Pout Pin exp L 1 P
db 10 log in
1 Pin L Pout
ln
L Pout 10
db 4.34
ln 10

18
 Attenuation in silica based optical fibre

1. The sharp increase in attenuation at wavelengths beyond 1.6 m is due

to energy absorption by lattice vibrations of silica.
2. Two peaks at 1.4 and 1.24 m are due to OH ions in silica glasses.
3. The overall background is due to Rayleigh scattering because of the
amorphous structure of silica glasses (impossible to eliminate Rayleigh
scattering in glasses).
19
20
21
22
23
24
2.10 Fiber Manufacture

25
26
27
 Water Jet Guiding Light

Jean-Daniel Colladon first demonstrated

light guiding by a water jet in1841.
28
 Water Jet Guiding Light

How Does It Work?

First, a laser beam is focused into a nozzle while passing through a pressurized water
chamber. The low-pressure water jet from the nozzle guides the laser beam via total
internal reflection at the water/air interface, in a manner similar to that of conventional
glass fibers. The pulsed laser and water flow are brought together in a chamber designed
to couple the two, letting the water act as a variable-length, optical waveguide. The
resulting beam makes narrow, parallel, and burr-free cuts. Water also prevents thermal
damage and carries the laser beam to the bottom of the kerf. Accuracy on cutting is an
order of magnitude greater than with conventional laser-cutting processes. 29
GaAs wafer cut SiC wafer dicing

30
31
32
33
Light is bound within the core of the guide for wavelengths within this stop-band.
Light can only propagate along z.

d1 ; d2
4n1 4n2
34
35
36
37
Endlessly Single Mode in

38
Advantages in

39
40
Origin of the Idea of Holey Fibres

41
Big Advantages of Holey Fibres

42
43
44
Basic Properties of FBG

45
 Application of FBG
B 2n
Both the refractive index and grating
period affect Bragg wavelength, which
enables sensing.
1 d
L Linear expansion coefficien t
dT
1 dn
TCRI Temperature coefficien t of refractive index
n dT
Temperature change both refractive Temperature sensor
index and grating period.

Strain sensor

Photoelastic or elasto-optic coefficient

strain

46
47
Application of FBG

Optical add-drop multiplexer

48
49
Chromatic

50
51
52
53
54