SAFAEDUCATIONALREFORMSTRUSTPAKISTAN

MuslimEpistemology
AnAnalyticalAppraisalof
IslamizationofKnowledge

ByDr.MuhammadAmin
9/1/2009

Published by:
Educational Reforms Trust Pakistan
http://www.Safa.edu.pk

 Muslim Epistemology
An Analytical Appraisal of Islamization of
Knowledge

Dr. Muhammad Amin

Professor & Chair Department of Islamic Thought & Civilization
University of Management & Technology, Lahore

Abstract
Epistemology or Islamic concept of knowledge is not merely theoretical but has
a close bearing on human thought and behavior in individuals and the society at
large. Quran, Hadith and Muslim scholars have attached great importance to
Islamic concept of epistemology. In the early days of Islam epistemology
flourished in the light of Islamic principles. Later on under the influence of
colonial powers and wave of modernity Muslim epistemology lost it identity.
Different Muslim scholars presented different views to develop and evolve an
education system in the light of Islamic Principles. Hossein Nasr, Al -Attas,
Fazlur Rehman ,Ismail Raji Al-Faruqi and Ziauddin Sardar are few of them.
According to the writers point of view with reference to Muslim epistemology
entire knowledge including social sciences and religious studies should be
reproduced or reconstructed in the light of Muslim worldview. New disciplines
of knowledge should be introduced such as Occidental studies, Muslim
Civilizations, Science of personality development and Ummah studies etc. For
this purpose practical training of personnel having a truly Islamic mindset is
required. Academic planning, theoretical frame work, impressive monograph
and organized workshops on reconstruction of existing knowledge in Islamic
perspective should be arranged A role model University along with affiliated
colleges and schools can serve the purpose. The insightful, well planned step by
step process is required to develop an educational system based on Muslim
Worldview. For this, entire Ummah should pool its resources, both intellectual
and material, and embark upon the project, giving it top priority.

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 Muslim Epistemology
An Analytical Appraisal of Islamization of Knowledge (1)

Muslim epistemology means Islamic theory of knowledge or the Islamic

concept of knowledge. It discusses nature of knowledge, its sources, objectives
and scope, its types and branches, which branch of knowledge is useful and
should be acquired, which one is harmful and should better be avoided, what is
possible to know, and what is simply not possible to know, how can knowledge
be acquired etc.

Importance
The discussion of epistemology is not merely theoretical as it has a close
bearing on human thought and behavior in individuals and the society at large.
Epistemology, in fact, is the product of the worldview of a society (its concept
of man, the universe and the deity).The concept of knowledge in a society gives
birth to different disciplines and branches of knowledge, educational philosophy
and institutional infra-structure. Education plays a key role in the character
building of individuals who in turn make up the society and develop a
civilization.

Background
The importance of epistemology should be evident from the fact that the Noble
Quran provides detailed guidance in this regard, and the subject also gets high
priority in the Ahadith.For instance, Imam Bukhari, in his Sahih, has set the
chapter on Ilm (knowledge) immediately after the Book of Revelation and the
Book on Iman, and it is an exhaustive study spreaed over sixteen chapters.
Similarly, Muslim ulema and scholars, theologians, thinkers and the Sufis
(mystics) have attached great importance to knowledge and discussed it at
length. (2) Accordingly, Imam Ibne Abdul Barr, Syed Ali Hajveri, Ibne Sina,
Imam Ghazali, Ibne Rushd, Ibne Khuldoon, Ibne Arabi, Ibne Taimiyah, Mullah
Sadrah, Shah Wali Ullah, Shah Ismail Shaheed, and in the recent past Allama
Muhammad Iqbal, Maulana Syed Abul Ala Maudoodi, and Dr. Rafi Uddin have
made valuable contribution in this field. (3)

Muslim history also bears witness to the fact that the Islamic ideology of life
brought about all embracing spiritual, moral and conceptual development of the
Muslims during the period of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and his companions,
and the Muslims made remarkable advancement in every sphere of knowledge,
religious, as well as secular including social sciences, technology and natural
sciences. However, after about one thousand year, deviation of the Muslims
from their worldview coupled with the absence of a proper system of education

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and Tarbiyah, internal dissention and various other factors weakened the
Muslim world and they became slaves of the strong Western nations. The
awakened sections in the Muslim society continued their resistance against the
oppressive forces and were finally successful in throwing away the yoke of
slavery within a century or two. But as is always the case, the oppressive forces
dont occupy lands only, they also enslave minds and hearts of the oppressed
nations. Accordingly, after invading the Muslim states, the Western Imperialism
wound up the educational system of the Muslims, replacing it with their own
based on the Western worldview and epistemology. This strategy enable them
to create a class of the local Muslims which were Muslim in name but
practically loved the Western values and culture in all respects. (4)
Consequently, when the turn of events forced the Western nations to concede
political freedom to the Muslims, they were successful in handing over power to
the class which had been captivated by the glamour of Western thought and
civilization. The net result was that the Western concept of life and knowledge
remained acceptable in those liberated Muslim states and the educational system
introduced by the colonial rules continued except with some cursory changes
made under the pressure of religious groups and the general public. The Ulema
who had succeeded in preserving the religious education to some extent by
establishing Madrasas (religious schools) during the colonial rule did not
realize their responsibilities in the newly liberated set up and stuck to their old
education system which had no room for secular knowledge and disciplines.
This was the over all situation for the last three quarters of a century although
some Muslim thinkers advocated that an educational system founded on the
Western worldview and epistemology did not provide solution to the problems
of the Muslim world, and that the Muslims should evolve their own educational
system based on the Islamic worldview and epistemology. The writings of
Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Syed Abul Ala Maudoodi and Dr. Rafi Uddin in the
recent past, especially in the Indian sub continent, established this point.

Contemporary Efforts
Some Muslim scholars residing in the Western felt the gravity of the situation in
early 70s of the last century. Accordingly, Iranian scholar, Dr. sayed Hossein
Nasr in the USA, made a critical analysis of the Western epistemology,
declaring it harmful for the Muslims. He also underscored the need for sticking
to Muslim epistemology to confront the present day challenges. Dr. Nasr was
influenced by Sufism (mysticism) and his views on Muslim epistemology also
reflect the same. (5)

Views of Al-Attas
Malaysian scholar of Arab origin, Syed Muhammad Al Naquib al-Attas also
analyzed Western and Muslim epistemology in detail and came to the
conclusion that:

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- knowledge is never value-neutral. It is always influenced by the worldview
and the religious, moral, social and cultural milieu of the society which it
absorbs unconsciously, mostly without being noticed by others. (6)

- The Western epistemology is based on skepticism skepticism that knows no

moral values and norms. The Western mind has however been able to exploit
skepticism as a constructive force despite its weaknesses and harmful effects.

- The Western scientists extensively benefited from the Muslim advancement in

knowledge at the initial stage. The Enlightenment Movement of France in the
17th century that laid down the foundations of the modern Western science and
technology was essentially influenced by the Muslim epistemology. The
Western civilization however, did not accept the Muslim disciplines of
knowledge in their original form. Instead, it assimilated that knowledge in its
own epistemology, shaping the disciplines of knowledge according to Western
thought and behavior. As a result, the Muslim knowledge came in partial
harmony with the Western epistemology and was fused and amalgamated with
the Western culture. This process, it may be said, saved the West from the
negative aspects of the Muslim epistemology. However, complete harmony
could not be developed between the Islamic and the Western knowledge
because the two are based on two conflicting and contradictory ideologies. This
dualism and internal conflict of the Western skepticism gave birth to an
unending curiosity in the West and the desire to know the unknown, which is
the real motive behind all their new discoveries and inventions. (7)

- Any attempt of the Muslim scholars to reform their educational system within
the ambit of the Western epistemology would only promote Western values and
ideas because the Western knowledge, being a product of the Western
epistemology and the Western worldview, can neither find roots in the Muslim
society and culture nor can meet its demands.

Dr. Fazlur Rahmans View point

Eminent Pakistani intellectual, Dr. Fazlur Rahman, who spent his last years in
USA, in his book Islam and Modernity, has discussed the plight of knowledge
and education in the Muslim countries along with their efforts for its
reconstruction. His views in brief are as follows:

- It is imperative to make a distinction between the Normative Islam as it is in

its original sources and the Historical Islam as it has been passing through
different stages of implementation in the Muslim society and as it exists today.

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An effort should be made to review or rediscover the Historical Islam by
analyzing it in the light of the normative Islam. (8)

- The above process should be continued in the light of two basic principles.
First, a fresh understanding of the Holy Quran (in the sense that while giving
due importance to the Order of Revelation of the Holy Quran and the
enforcement of the Quranic injunctions in the early days, a conscious efforts
should be made to discover relevance to the Quranic verses in the present day
situations). This necessitates focusing on the noble Quran as revealed and not as
we recite it today (i.e. to follow Order of Revelation instead of Order of
Recitation). Secondly, a critical analysis of the epistemological and educational
concepts of the Historical Islam should be made to find out its strong as well as
weak points before we apply them in the reconstruction of knowledge and
education today in Islamic perspective. (9)

- The traditional institutions of religious education as at present have crumbled

under the debris of the past while the modern Islamic forces remain completely
ignorant of the importance of knowledge and education, and are attaching
greater importance to political Islam. Accordingly, their study of Islam is
superficial and they havent done any solid work for the Islamization of
knowledge and education. (10)

- The challenge at hand is not the Islamization of the Western disciplines of

knowledge but to critically analyze the worldview of the Historical Islam in the
light of Normative Islam, and then review the Islamic epistemological thought
to reconstruct the Islamic disciplines of knowledge. (For instance, Dr. Rehman
opposed the division of knowledge into religious and secular and differs with
Al-Ghazali who advocates the superiority of religious studies (revealed
knowledge) over the Physical sciences (medicine). (11)

- Intergration of the Islamic and the modern disciplines of knowledge is

essential. However, the Muslim states so far havent realized the need for
practical steps in this direction to achieve the desired results, and the modern
Islamic forces non governmental level too havent taken the issue seriously.
(12)

Dr. Raji al Faruqis Standpoint

Although Syed Naquib al-Attas criticized the Western epistemology and Dr.
Fazlur Rehman also made a realistic study of the educational conditions in the
Muslim society and the influence of the West on that, both of them couldnt
lead to any alternate and practical approach with reference to Muslim
epistemology. It goes to the credit of Dr. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, a Palestinian
Muslim scholar settled in USA, to have presented a comprehensive philosophy

6
for the reconstruction of the Muslim epistemology along with a practical
framework for Islamization of knowledge.

Dr. Faruqis view in brief are as below:

1. The Muslim Ummah cant steer out of its present mess unless its education
system is revamped and reconstructed. To achieve that, the duality of the
religious and the modern disciplines of knowledge must be abolished and the
two should be synthesized to evolve an integrated system of education imbued
with the true Islamic spirit. This will, however, be possible only with the
Islamization of knowledge in the true Islamic spirit. Around twenty branches of
modern social sciences being taught at the University level at present must be
reviewed in accordance with the Islamic ideology. Islamic History should be a
compulsory subject for every student. (13)

2. Objectives of Islamization of knowledge are:

a) To gain command over modern disciplines of knowledge.

b) Acquisition of the Islamic knowledge.

c) Determining the Islamic viewpoint in regard to every branch of knowledge.

d) Unifying and integrating the modern disciplines of knowledge with the

Islamic thought; and

e) Establishing the supremacy of the Islamic thought over the modern

knowledge. (14)

3- Islamization of the modern knowledge and other objectives mentioned above

can be achieved only under a comprehensive, well thought out plan. Dr.
Faruqis plan incorporates the following steps:

i. Acquisition of adequate information about every branch of modern

knowledge.
ii. Detailed study of different disciplines of knowledge and achieving expertise
in these.

iii. Acquisition of the Islamic knowledge in its various branches.

iv. An analytical study of Islamic thought with reference to the problems of the
modern age.

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v. Determining the Islamic standpoint in regard to each and every branch of
knowledge.

vi. A critical study of the modern knowledge from the Islamic viewpoint.

vii. An analytical study of the problems facing the Ummah in every sphere of
life.

ix. A study of the problems facing humanity at present.

x. Unifying the Islamic thought with the modern disciplines of knowledge.

xi. Restructuring the modern disciplines of knowledge at the university level in

the light of the Islamic thought.

xii. Publication of the knowledge acquired through the Islamization process.

(15)

Thus, Dr. Faruqi not only realized the need for the Islamization of knowledge in
the modern era but also gave a plan of action for that. Going still further, he
established an institute called International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) in
USA and arranged several international conferences (Islamabad in 1989, Kuala
Lumpur in 1986 and Khartoum in 1987), and assigned this important task to the
Muslim worlds top educationists and thinkers. It was primarily the result of this
movement that international Islamic universities were established in Pakistan
and Malaysia, while various branches of the IIIT are working in different
Muslim countries.

The question now arises, what has been the net result of this exercise?
Unfortunately, Dr. Faruqi, who conceived the idea of Islamization of
knowledge, did not get the opportunity to implement his plan and hidden forces
put him to death considering him and his activities as a threat. To answer this
question, we would first refer to the views of Mr. Ziauddin Sardar, Dr. Wali
Raza Nasr and Dr. Manzur Ahmad on the work initiated by Dr. Faruqi. Later,
we would present our own views in this regard.

Ziauddin Sardar

According to Ziauddin Sardar, a known Pakistan born thinker based in the

West, the plan conceived by Dr. Faruqi has certain flaws in terms of thought
and action. These are as under:

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i.. Ideologically, there is no substance in Dr. Faruqis concept of the Unity of
the Truth and the Unity of Ilm (knowledge) implying that since Truth is one,
therefore, it equates with Ilm also being one.

ii. Majority of the scientists believe that many a thing which we believe as true
today, may prove to be false tomorrow.

iii. If Ilm is The truth, every effort for its attainment ought to be the attainment
of the truth. But hundreds of scientists are presently doing research on weapons
of mass destruction. Can we treat their work as digging out The Truth?

iv. According to Dr. Faruqi, Allah is The Truth which is One. Therefore, there
cant be more than one truth in Ilm or knowledge. This is, however an erroneous
view because the concept of Allah being the Absolute Truth does not imply that
there cant be more than one Truth in knowledge, for instance, such a possibility
exists in Physics.

v. Dr. Faruqis argument that pursuit of knowledge aims at search for the Truth
which is One, is also fallacious as may be probed in day to day life. For
example, when a child poses a question, what are the trees for? , there may be
more than one correct answers to this query, for instance, that the trees are for
providing shade, for decoration and beauty, or we get fruit form these.etc.
(16)

2. Dr. Faruqi has mainly stressed on the Islamization of the social sciences.
Theoretically, the importance of the social sciences cant be denied. But it is
also an irrefutable fact that the present development in the West which is also
greatly affecting the worlds social, economic and political structures, primarily
depends on the advancement of science and technology in the West. Hence, the
need for the Islamization of the Physical and Natural sciences cant be under-
estimated. (17)

3. During the 20th century, the knowledge paradigm of the West in Social and
Natural Sciences with reference to objectivity has been the same. However, now
several Western scholars accept that the process of perception is never value-
neutral, and is influenced by the interests and the attitude of the observer:

- the ideas, interests and values of the person engaged in experimentation

influence the results of his efforts.

- an individual does not study facts from a strictly neutral angle as his findings
inevitably reflect his ideas, perception, likings and disliking, etc.

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There fore, it is not possible to Islamize the modern social sciences which have
been evolved under the Western epistemological paradigm (perceptions,
images, theories, linguistic patterns etc.). Such an attempt wont be the
Islamization of the Western knowledge, instead it would tantamount to
Westernization of Islam. (18)

4. It is impossible, with reference to social sciences, to create harmony between

two different epistemological paradigms which are based on the conflicting
worldviews, because adherents of every paradigm would work within their own
paradigm, and any effort for unification or amalgamation of perceptions,
images, theories and linguistic patterns from adherents of one paradigm would
be neither understandable nor meaningful to the adherents of the other
paradigm.

5. Every discipline of knowledge is the product of a particular worldview and

meets the requirements of a specific culture evolved by that worldview. For
instance, the discipline of Orientalism was evolved after the West subjugated
the Muslim state and felt the need of studying Islam and the Muslim societies
with the ulterior motive of successfully controlling the Muslim masses and
resolving various problems cropping up with that. In this background, Dr.
Faruqis suggestion of accepting the Western division of knowledge as such and
establishing the specific relevance of Islam to each area of modern under the
domination of the Western worldview. Islam is permanent Truth and a reality
for all times. Therefore, instead of discovering the relevance of Islam to the
modern knowledge, it is modern knowledge that needs to be made relevant to
Islam and its correctness or otherwise ascertained.

In other words, the Islamization of knowledge should not begin with the
acceptance of the disciplines of knowledge already in existence. Instead, the
paradigms of the Islamic epistemology must be formulated first. There should
be knowledge paradigms as well as behavior paradigms. The knowledge
paradigms would determine the basic principles, concepts and values for each
discipline of knowledge while the behavioral paradigms would lay down the
moral boundaries within which the Muslim scholars would work.

We must keep in mind that the Holy Quran, the Sunnah and the traditions
of the Muslims in the field of knowledge provide the basis for the Muslim
epistemology, although it is now necessary to study these in light of the modern
realities.

Like the paradigms, the disciplines of knowledge too are strictly

ideological (knowledge based) and behavioral (shaping the human conduct).

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Therefore, the paradigms of Islamic epistemology having firm footing and being
functional, would create new disciplines of knowledge in accordance with the
Islamic worldview, to meet the needs of the Muslim society. (19) The
disciplines of knowledge formulated by the West after banishing religion and
morality, are meeting the requirements of the Western society and promoting
their culture. However, these neither reconcile with the Muslim worldview nor
can be absorbed in the same. Therefore, the Islamization of the Western
knowledge is simply impossible.

The task before the Muslim scholars therefore, is to establish the above
mentioned two paradigms of the Muslim epistemology (knowledge Paradigm
and Behavioral Paradigm) in accordance with the Muslim worldview to
undertake the study of the Western knowledge - both analytical and critical -
and absorb and assimilate the findings of such study in its own paradigms
gibing them a new shape and color of their own in harmony with the Muslim
culture. Muslim scholars in the past benefited from the knowledge of the other
nations through this process and this is the only way to Islamize knowledge
even today. (20)

Dr. Wali Raza

Dr. Syed Wali Raza Nasr, son of the Dr. Hossein. Nasr, a young and emerging
Muslim scholar in USA, while critically analyzing the plan for the Islamization
of knowledge under the auspices of Pakistan chapter of International Institute of
Islamic Thought (IIIT) opines:

- The term Islamization of knowledge is incorrect. It gives the impression that

there is something un-Islamic that is being brought in line with Islam. In fact, no
knowledge is essentially un-Islamic. For instance, take the case of Hard
sciences. These are simply study of nature to which the Hoy Quran invites the
faithful, time and again. (21)

- The Islamization of knowledge need not be undertaken apologetically or as a

defensive measure. Instead, the whole exercise should be on the basis of the
Islamic worldview with special reference to its spiritual aspect which must be
brought to lime light. (22)

- Work on the Islamization of knowledge was initiated in different fields,

especially Economics, without necessary groundwork on intellectual and
practical fronts before establishing different institutions. Consequently, it has
not yielded any concrete result from the Islamic view point. (23)

The proper way of Islamization of knowledge would be to study the basic

philosophy behind every discipline of knowledge, social sciences as well as the

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natural sciences, bringing to fore its basic concepts, (keeping in mind that these
concepts are natural, eternal and are not the discovery of the Muslims; for
instance, the principle of Supply and Demand in Economics).

- to study these in the light of the Muslim worldview / Islamic perspective

determining their role in the Islamic thought and action.

In other words, the Islamization of any discipline of knowledge is linked with

the Islamic approach and the Islamic outlook and not in its restructuring or
revision of its institutional framework. (24)

Dr. Manzur Ahmad

Former Vice Chancellor Karachi University and currently the Rector of the
International Islamic University, Islamabad, Dr. Manzur Ahmad, in his recent
article on educational issues, made the followings observations on the efforts of
Islamization of knowledge:

1. The entire endeavor for the Islamization of knowledge is based on the

assumption that the knowledge produced by the West in un-Islamic and should
thus be Islamized. This presumption in itself is wrong. It is incorrect to divide
knowledge into Islamic and un-Islamic. The whole worldly (secular) knowledge
cant be categorized as un-Islamic. Islam, in fact, does not believe in the
dichotomy of religious and secular. Muslim thinkers in the past had categorized
as un-Islamic only those branches of knowledge which did not stand to the test
of intellect and experiment such as magic, sorcery, soothsaying, etc. otherwise
all intellectual and experimental branches of knowledge were always
appreciated by the Muslim scholars. (25)

2. The Western concept that the universe is being run on certain basic laws
discovery of which is the primary function of knowledge, is so solid and viable
that it cannot be demolished on intellectual grounds. Besides, the idea that the
laws of nature have been devised by Almighty Allah is a matter of faith, not an
intellectual approach. There fore, the criticism of modernism by some Western
thinkers cannot be taken as an argument in support of the veracity of religious
perspective of knowledge, nor can the Islamists benefit from that in any
manner.(26)

3. While Islamization of knowledge is a vague and unpractical project, one

may endeavor for the Islamization of values and of the self, which too, however,
seems to be difficult in the midst of a strong value system founded on the basic
concepts of Western philosophy and thought. Besides, belief in the veracity of
our own value system along with a struggle for establishing its dominance may

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lead to confrontation. We have to keep in mind that the Muslim value system
requires deeper understanding and restructuring today. In the modern times, any
religious value system cant become compatible with the prevailing moral
sensitivities while pressing for the social conditions, possible and tenable one
thousand years ago, but no more suitable in todays industrialized and global
society. (27)

4. All attempts for Islamization of knowledge so far have been a failure in the
sense that these have only added to the moral degradation of the Muslims
instead of cutting it down. (28)

The Writers Viewpoint

As we consider the reconstruction of knowledge and education in the

Islamic perspective and the contemporary needs, a number of questions arise in
our mind such as: what is the true nature of the task?, what would be the basic
guidelines for doing job?, what methodology should be followed - a
methodology that would be both effective and fruitful.
We would explain our view point in the light of Dr. Faruqis answers to these
queries with the difference that we have also proposed Islamization of
Education along with the Islamization of knowledge because the educational
process alone provide the practical and institutional set up required for the
reconstruction of both thought and knowledge.

Theoretical Aspect

Nature of the job

From our point of view, the task before, the Muslim intellectuals with reference
to Muslim epistemology is the Reproduction of knowledge (provided this term
is correct) and its reconstruction or recasting in a creative manner in the light of
Muslim worldview, and not a mere Islamization of modern social sciences.
There is a vast difference between the two.

First. The goal in the former is the reconstruction of the entire knowledge, not
merely the modern social sciences, including religious studies, Science and
Technology. For instance, Muslim religious studies today must include a
comprehensive study of concepts and terminology in Islamic and the Western
Thought. Similarly, it is imperative to introduce new disciplines such as
Muslim Civilization, Ummah Studies (History and Geography of Muslim
people, past and present) and Tazkiya-o-Tarbiya (science of personality

13
development in Islam).Contents and methodology of teaching Arabic in non-
Arab Muslim countries needs to be revised. It is necessary to provide answer to
various misconceptions and questions being raised by the Western intellectual
about Islam. Likewise, the impact of Western thought and civilization on the
Muslim society also needs to be studied from an analytical and critical angle,
and the numerous legal and ideological issues cropping up in result thereof
should be discussed in depth.

Similarly, the Physical Sciences, though primarily based on observation and

experience, yet the style of their presentation and expression needs to be
reviewed. For instance, in Mathematics, we may include questions on Zakat
instead of bank interest. Again, in the field of science, the statement Water has
the characteristic to expand when it converts to ice when temperature falls may
be reshaped as Allah has gifted water with the quality to expand when it
coverts to ice as temperature falls. With that, we may add that: the wisdom
behind this is that living beings may survive even below the top surface of the
lakes and the seas. In the field of Technology, a Textile Engineer brought up
with an Islamic outlook would not design thin clothing through which body is
visible, and a painter with a Muslim mentality would not paint nude pictures;
and so on.

Second. Even in the case of Social sciences, Islamization of the modern

concepts would only form a part of a large scheme of reconstruction of social
sciences. This reconstruction would involve reshaping of a certain discipline of
a social sciences from the view point of Islamic epistemology based on the
Islamic worldview. This would required us to keep in view the past Muslim
heritage especially the Muslim dominance in the world, besides taking into
account the requirements of the modern times. This last segment would entail
that if a particular discipline has shown development in an epistemology and
worldview other than Islam, then this academic development should be
critically analyzed and those of its ingredients as are healthy and compatible
with the Muslim epistemological, should be accepted. Subsequently, these
should be assimilated within the framework of Muslim epistemological domain
and accepted as knowledge beneficial for the contemporary Muslim society.

We follow the above methodology in our personal life and have found it
practical and useful. When we intend to write on a certain topic, we first write
down our own view point based on our studies, observation and assumptions.
Then we revert to other thinkers and authors and dig out their observations and
writing on the topic. It we find in their writings some new idea, a new
dimension or something that has not been incorporated in our article, we do not
hesitate in benefiting from that after gibing reference to those authors. In this

14
exercise, our own view point remains dominant in our works though we do
benefit others.

The same approach needs to be adopted in the reconstruction of knowledge in

Islamic perspective today. First, we should reconstruct various disciplines of
knowledge in the light of Islamic thought, advancement made in a particular
field in the past, the requirements of the modern times and the homogenous
conditions etc. Next, we should critically analyze the development made by
other nations / civilizations in that particular branch of knowledge and then we
can decide whether or not to accept something out of that which does not
contradict our worldview, epistemology and major themes developed by us in
that particular branch of knowledge.

Basic Principles

Three basic principles should remain before us during the reconstruction of

knowledge in the Islamic perspective:

1. The Objective
The primary objective of knowledge and education is to develop a personality in
accordance with the worldview of a society. Therefore, for the development of a
personality in a Muslim society, it is inevitable that its knowledge and education
system are based on the Islamic Worldview and Islamic epistemology. Any
compromise or relaxation of this principle is bound to cause mental disharmony
and ideological confusion, resulting in distortion and destruction of the Muslim
personality.
2. Rejection of Western Thought and Civilization
In principle, this should have been our first point because while entering the
fold of Islam, we first deny all deities and then proclaim our faith in One God or
Allah. There is no sense in affirming faith in One God without refuting all false
gods. One the same premise, while reconstructing knowledge in the light of the
Islamic worldview, we should not only discard the knowledge based on Western
worldview, but also reject and negate it because the Western Worldview is not
only different from the Islamic worldview, but in fact it is contradictory to that.
Similarly, the Western epistemology is totally opposed to the Islamic
epistemology. Consequently, the Western knowledge can neither fit in
ideological and cultural framework of Muslim society nor can beneficial to it.

This is a basic principle, but since the Western thought and the Western
philosophy rarely come under discussion in our society, we would try to give a
comparative study of the both below:

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The Islamic Worldview The Western Worldview

1. Source 1. Sources

The divine guidance provided by Allah Human intellect and senses.

through His apostles.

2. Concept of human being 2. Concept of human beings

Human beings are humble servants of their Human beings are sovereign and fully
Lord who submit to his commandments independent to lead their lives they wish.
unconditionally.

3. Concept of the Universe 3. Concept of the Universe

Allah is the sole Creator and Sustainer of
the Universe and He has vested mankind
with limited authority to manipulate in the
universe. The life in the Hereafter has
priority over the life in this world.
The Universe is the outcome of the natural
laws which also regulate its existence.
Human beings enjoy full freedom on the
earth and are free to lead their lives in
accordance with their sweet will. The
worldly life is an end in itself and is to be
given priority over every thing else.

4. Concept of Deity 4. Concept of Deity

Mankind has been created by Allah who
alone is the Lord, the Sustainer of all
creation, and He is Living, All Powerful
and possesses all Authority. None else is
worthy of worship and obedience.
Faith in God is an entirely personal affair
for an individual, having nothing to do with
the collective life (such as political, social,
economic systems, etc). Every individual is
at liberty to line in the way he likes.

5. Goal of Life 5. Goal of Life

A human being is required to lead his life in Attainment of every success and maximum
this world in obedience of the divine worldly pleasure, at any cost and in any
injunctions on the model set by Allahs manner in this world.
messenger, to earn Allahs pleasure in the
Hereafter.

16
The above mentioned differences between the Islamic worldview and the
Western worldview naturally lead to opposite and contradictory epistemologies
as shown below:

Islamic Epistemology Western Epistemology

1. Sources of knowledge 1. sources of knowledge

Primary: Divine revelation (The Holy Primary: Human intellect and senses
Quran and the Sunnah) (Observation and Experience).

Secondary: A limited and subordinate Secondary: A cursory role of religion.

role of human intellect and senses.

2. Objectives of Knowledge 2. Objectives of Knowledge

To know and truly understand the Lord Success in the worldly life and the
and the Self; to prepare and motivate attainment of maximum pleasures.
individuals for worship and obedience
of Allah in the worldly life for earning
His pleasure in the Hereafter.
3. Branches of Knowledge 3. Branches of Knowledge

- The revealed knowledge (The Quran a) Various disciplines of worldly

and the Sunnah).
- Knowledge related to revelation, and
its implementation; for instance,
Arabic language and Muslim
jurisprudence.
- Disciplines of knowledge that are
based on divine revelation as well as
human intellect and senses, such as
Economics, Politics, Psychology, etc.
- Disciplines of knowledge mainly
based on human intellect and senses
(observation and experience) such as
Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture,
etc.
4. Purpose of Education
knowledge such as:
- Natural / Physical / Hard Sciences
- Arts and Humanities
- Social Sciences
- Technology
b) Religious knowledge. This is a
purely personal affair of a human
beings and has nothing to do with the
collective life.
4. Purpose of Education

To develop personality of individuals Rearing up a human being as a

in a way that they become faithful completely free and independent being

17
servants of Allah. (sovereign) capable of achieving
maximum worldly success and
pleasure.

The comparative study above makes it crystal clear that the Western worldview
and the Western epistemology are no only different but totally opposed to the
Islamic worldview and Islamic epistemology. Therefore, in the course of
reconstruction of the knowledge, the Muslim cant afford to blindly copy the
Western disciplines of knowledge. On the other hand, they should consciously
reject the Western knowledge and find out their way in an Islamic perspective.

Eradication of a Misconception

Although we have explained in detail our views for rejecting the Western
knowledge in the course of reconstruction of Islamic lines, yet some Muslim
intellectuals differ with this approach, and we think there is no harm in
examining their view point as well.

The main arguments of this group are (29):

1- That the real force behind the rapid development of the West is its
advancement in knowledge, therefore, in order to achieve worldly progress, the
Muslims must acquire Western knowledge.

2- The development of knowledge is a continuous process. It neither knows

any limits nor is it the property of someone. No civilization can survive or
progress in isolation. Every civilization is the custodian of the knowledge
acquired by its predecessor. It exploits this knowledge for its benefit and also
develops it. In this way, the process of human development goes on unhindered.
In other words, knowledge is a collective property of mankind and the Muslims
too should benefit from the Western knowledge and also contribute to its
advancement. Therefore, the idea of the Muslims rejecting the Western
knowledge and trying to build up on the basis of the knowledge in the Middle
Ages, is neither practicable nor wise, and would only makes us a laughing
stock.
In reply to these arguments, we may submit that every civilization has its roots
in a particular worldview and it develops knowledge which is in harmony with
its worldview. A civilization may, after a careful analysis, partly benefit from
the knowledge alien to its worldview but it can neither absorb/assimilate that
knowledge, nor promote it in its totality. This careful and limited utilization of
other knowledge may involve digesting the relevant knowledge content after

18
bringing it in harmony with its own epistemology, giving it a shape and color of
its own, and an entirely new look acceptable to its own body of knowledge. The
Muslims had adopted this process in the case of the Greek knowledge.
However, at that time, the Muslim civilization was at its peak, and its ideology
was powerful enough to swallow some foreign body, digest the same and
reproduce it in a new form and shape. (The Holy Quran furnishes a simile of the
cattle swallowing green fodder and supplying human beings with white milk
(30).

However, the conditions at present are totally different. The Muslim civilization
is oppressed, not dominating. It is sunk in the mire of decline. The minds and
hearts of the Muslims have been conquered by a powerful, colonial civilization
having an alien worldview. The Muslims themselves are cut off from their own
worldview, and thus deprived of original thinking and high morals. Therefore, if
they try to absorb the Western knowledge in its original form, they would only
reproduce its copy. This blind plunge them into confusion leading to destruction
of their personality and identity. In fact, they already suffer from this malady.

What the Muslims need under these circumstances today is Ijtehad i.e creative
thinking and intellectual sovereignty; and not Taqleed or blind following. They
need not be browbeaten by the dominant Western thought and civilization but
should stick to their own roots.

Having accepted the principle that they have to work within the Islamic
worldview and the Islamic epistemology and should consciously reject the
conflicting Western worldview and the Western epistemology, they may benefit
from the advance Western knowledge within certain limits, as explained above.

Further, it would be wrong to believe that as political, economic and scientific

progress of the West is because of their advancement in knowledge, therefore,
Muslims too should focus to seek that knowledge. In our opinion, knowledge
and education pave way for progress only when these are in harmony with the
worldview of the society. We believe that if Europe and America today start
following a body of knowledge which is based on an alien worldview and
epistemology, they would face a decline. Similarly, if Muslims adopt a body of
knowledge based on Western worldview and epistemology, they would further
go down in the quagmire of decline and degradation. Turkey, for instance, has
been copying the West for the last seventy years or so, with little again.

It is, therefore, wrong to presume that by attaining the Western knowledge

alone, the Muslims can march on the path of progress. We may recall that our
predecessors ruled major part of the world for about on thousand years without
even being familiar with the Western knowledge, and undoubtedly, theirs was

19
the best and the most advanced civilization of their time. It would be better if
we look at the realities in their true perspective. We have dealt with this issue in
detail in our other writings (31)

3- Reconstruction of knowledge must be a Non-Political Agenda

We would however, suggest that the task of reconstruction of knowledge on
Islamic lines should be undertaken purely on non-political basis, and the people
engaged in this exercise should have no links with any political group or party.
This in because the powerful Western colonialism which had been compelled to
grant limited independence to the Muslim states during the twentieth century is
ruthlessly against the complete independence of the Muslim states and is
conspiring to capture the Muslim states once again. After Afghanistan and Iraq,
Iran and Pakistan seem to be their next target. No doubt Dr. Faruqi was an
academician and a non-political figure, but he had ideological leaning with
certain groups having political agenda. Accordingly, some dacoits stormed his
house one night and put him to death along with his wife, and this had happened
in the USA, the world power that claims to be the biggest champion of liberty
and intellectual freedom. And this was long before 9/11 that made the Muslims
a symbol of terrorism. So, there is every likelihood that if some other Muslim
enthusiast ventures to tread this path and tries to break the status quo and bring
about a qualitative change, some dacoits may barge into his house and remove
him from the scene. Therefore, there is no harm in exercising caution. No doubt
any plan for the intellectual and educational emancipation of the Muslim
Ummah and the consequent banishment of the menaces of poverty, degradation
and humility, is somewhat political in nature yet any such project working on
non-political basis had greater chances of success as against the one having
open political affiliations. The Naurasi Movement in Turkey is an example in
this respect, which is working in the field of education on non-political basis
and has set up several universities and hundreds of schools in Turkey and other
countries, even couple of them in USA, and is getting positive results.

The Procedure

Having explained the main features of the task and the basic guidelines for
doing the job, we may now discuss the mechanism to achieve the goal. In our
humble opinion, the task may be undertaken in four phases.

First Phase: The Worldview

This will have three dimensions:

1. The Western Worldview

20
We must understand the Western worldview, the philosophy, principles and
intellectual basis on which the edifice of Western thought and civilization
stands. This world require a detailed discussion on Western philosophy,
ideological movements (such as Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment,
Modernism etc.) beside different isms such as Humanism, Secularism,
materialism, Empiricism etc.
2. A detailed study of the Islamic worldview and its institutions.

3. A comparative study of Western and Islamic worldview. This should

include:

- An analytical study of the Western worldview, highlighting its weak points

and shortcomings.

- An analysis of the Islamic worldview, highlighting its practicability and

superiority over the Western worldview.

Second Phase: Epistemology

Three dimensional exercise (as outlined in the Fist Phase) focusing on the
following points:

- Study of the Western epistemology: prominent features of the concept of

knowledge emerging from the Western worldview such as sources of
knowledge, purpose of knowledge, branches of knowledge etc.

- Studying the Islamic epistemology and its prominent features in the light of
Islamic worldview.

- A Comparative study of the Islamic and Western epistemology. This should

comprise:
* An analytical study of the Western epistemology and its weaknesses.

** Analytical study of the Islamic epistemology with its strong points, and its
superiority over the Western Epistemology.

Third Phase: Disciplines of knowledge-preliminary study

This would also be a three phased project, on the pattern narrated above:

- Study of the basic concepts of every discipline of knowledge having its roots
in the Western Worldview and the Western epistemology, along with their
theme, values and institutions.

21
- Highlighting the basic theme, values and institutions of all the disciplines of
knowledge having roots in the Islamic worldview and the Islamic epistemology.

- A Comparative study of the convergent disciplines of knowledge of both the

Western economics and Islamic economics, the Western concept of religion
along with the Islamic concept of Deen etc.

This will have two parts:

*An analytical and critical study of every discipline of Western knowledge

highlighting its weaknesses and shortcomings.

** An analytical study of every discipline of Islamic knowledge, especially with

reference to its advancement in the past with concrete suggestions for its future
development to meet the requirements of the modern era. Along with that, a
categorical admission and indication of the fact that the Islamic knowledge
provides better solutions to human problems as compared to the Western
knowledge and education, it is not only more practicable, but also guarantees
better and more effective results as against the solutions given by the Western
disciplines. At this stage, its would also be better to examine the need, scope
and possibilities of benefiting from the convergent discipline of the Western
knowledge, to redesign and reorganize its relevant ingredients of making them
acceptable to the body of Islam knowledge.

Fourth Phase: Preparing Courses of Study for various Disciplines

Once a serious and systematic effort is made on the three phases mentioned
above, it wont be difficult to prepare a course of Study for each discipline.
Rather, it would be easy to build a comprehensive and grand structure of
knowledge on the intellectual and practical foundations in the Islamic
perspective. However, the differences of age, sex and local conditions etc.
would have to be taken care of as the common sense demands, and the whole
effort would have to be linked with quality training and creative research.

It is hoped that the Reconstruction of Knowledge on the lines suggested above

would meet the requirements of Islamic renaissance and challenges of the
modern age. It will provide the basis for a truly Islamic education system
required to build a model Muslim personality capable of discharging its
responsibilities, both in individual and collective life, besides achieving real
success in this world and in the Hereafter.

22
Need for New Disciplines of Knowledge

We believe that if the Muslim continue blind following of the Western

knowledge contradictory to Islam, they would never realize the need for new
disciplines of knowledge in their education system. Keeping in view the
requirement of the Muslim society in present era, the following four new
disciplines of knowledge are urgently required bedsides the reconstruction of
the whole body of knowledge:

1. Occidental Studies

This new discipline of knowledge should consist of the following major themes:
- Study of the ideological foundation of the Western civilization;

- An analysis of the policies and the strategy of the West in regard to Islam and
the Muslim world:

- An analysis of Orientalism (Wests study of Islam and the Muslim world);

- The impact of the Western civilization on the Muslim society;

-A comparative study of the Western thought and its basic concepts,

terminology and institutions, with that of Islamic thought, its basic concepts,
terminology and institutions.

2. Tazkiya-o-Tarbiya (Sciences of Personality Development)

Traditionally, there were Madrasas for education the children and

khanqahs (Zawiya, Tekkes) for development and rehabilitation of personality of
the grown ups, in the Muslim world. In some religious schools and khanqahs,
certain books were also prescribed for this purpose. A new and regular
discipline should be introduced for tarbiya of the students and the teachers on
Islamic lines and in a coordinated manner. The following may be the salient
features of this discipline:

- Principles of personality development in the light of Islamic worldview and

the Islamic epistemology;

- Normative personality, normal personality and rehabilitation of a damaged

personality in Islam and the Western approach in these spheres.

3. The Ummah Studies

23
The conspiracies of the Western imperialism during the last two hundred years
have greatly damaged the concept of Ummah in Muslims. It is now necessary
that the new generation of the Muslims is informed of the concept of the
Ummah, its glorious past and its history & the geography. The youth should
also be educated about the realities and challenges of the modern age and the
problems facing the Muslim Ummah (especially the disunity), along with the
possible solutions.

4. The Muslim Civilization

The traditional Islamic disciplines being taught in our educational institutions

include the Holy Quran, Hadith, Fiqh, Aqidah,Kkalam etc. It is high time that
the Muslims also start studying their civilization. This should include its
ideological foundations, cultural expressions, influence on the world at large,
comparative study with other civilizations, its history, institutions and
prominent personalities, besides bright chances to its renaissance since its
primary sources are intact. All these topics put together in the right perspective
and proper order, would prove highly useful no only for the Muslims but also
thought provoking for other nations/civilizations.

The Work Plan

The reconstruction of knowledge on these lines should be carried out in a well

planned manner. The important features of this planning should be:

Training of Workforce

Successful implementation of this plan requires personnel having a truly Islamic

mindset. This job cant be entrusted to all and sundry or the people brought up
and educated under the Western worldview and the Western epistemology, as
they might not be able to think beyond those. It is just possible that the
manpower suitable for this task may not be available in the society, so they
would have to be produced and their minds built on correct lines through proper
mental, ideological and practical training. Training of mind will make the
trainees understand the nature and the importance of the task so that they work
with dedication and conviction. Ideological training would equip them with
independence of thought for carrying out the task without any influence of the
Western thought currently dominating the world, because the Western
worldview and the Western epistemology are contradictory to the Islamic

24
worldview and the Islamic epistemology. The practical training is required for
doing the job in a highly professional manner.

Establishment of a University in Private Sector

Dr. Faruqi (and hid colleagues) thought that task of reconstruction of knowledge
should be undertaken by the Muslim governments in view of the wide scope of
activities involved and heavy finances required for the project. However, this
very factor proved to be counter productive. Plainly speaking, our national
institutions and the Muslim governments are not tailored to support the Islamic
agenda and thought. The ideological gap between the Muslim rulers and the
Islam loving masses and religious circles is a bitter reality that cant be ignored.
In our humble view, Dr. Faruqi and his friends could have done much better by
establishing a university in the private sector, without depending on the
governments. No doubt, in that case, the output could have been small, yet it
would have yielded permanent and far reaching results. (32). Even today, if
some one wants to take up the job, establishment of a university in private
sector is a must.

Creating a Role-Model

Academic planning, theoretical framework, impressive monographs and

organized workshops & seminars on the topic of reconstruction of existing
knowledge and education, in Islamic perspective, will not yield positive results
unless a new role-model educational institution is established to serve as a
beacon of light. Establishment of such a role-model institution requires creative
research and academic autonomy which are only available at university level.
However, a university alone may not suffice and a model school (Primary to
Secondary) would also be required so that the process of elimination of
dichotomy, introduction of Islamically designed integrated curriculum, teachers,
training, students tarbiya activities all take place at school level also and
provide a complete chain form bottom to top (from grade-1 to Ph. D) and gives
desired results.

Further, the proposed university would require regular availability of good and
capable students. This necessitates a next work of affiliated schools, colleges
and Madrasas, whose curriculum, text books, examinations, tarbiya activities
etc. are supervised by the proposed university. Such a chain of educational
institutions would not only ensure bright future of the proposed university but
would also change educational scenario of the country as a whole.

25
Along with that, specially designed tarbiya activities for teachers and the
students would be necessary to make this educational model a success and result
oriented. We have some suggestions in this regard which are given below:

Teachers Training

The teachers play the key role in the success (and failure) of any educational
scheme. Even the best education courses designed in Islamic perspective are
doomed to fail without good teachers. At present good teachers groomed on true
Islamic lines are a scarce commodity and the general lot is West oriented. The
core theme of an Islamic oriented teacher training center should be Be good
Muslims yourselves and make students good Muslims. We are not aware of
any training center in the country which follows this theme.

We surveyed and analyzed knowledge working of many Islamic-oriented

educational institutions in the country from this viewpoint and came to know
that in spite of best intentions, most of these failed simply because their
managements tried the teachers already available in the market. As against this,
those few institutions were comparatively successful which recruited fresh
talented graduates and trained them according to their needs. We happened to
know that an International Islamic University gives preference to the teachers
possessing Ph.D and having teaching experience from Western would lack the
flexibility to adopt a new approach after having reached the height of their
profession and would not be beneficial for this scheme, in spite of their quality
and professionalism. Hence the need for teachers training for the proposed
model educational institution (from school to university) and its affiliated
schools and colleges both before induction and on-the job is absolutely
inevitable.
Students Tarbiyah

The ultimate goal of the Islamization of knowledge and education cannot be but
to produce a personality desired by the society according to its worldview.
According to the Holy Quran, knowledge and education are the means of
personality development and character building (Tazkiya) (33). Therefore, all
education must be based on the Holy Quran and wisdom leading to
development of personality and building of character on these two principles.

Islamic history speaks of a broad net work of khanqas and Zawiyas for
development and rehabilitation of personality of Muslim individuals.
Unfortunately, that institution has also been deteriorated, liked all other
institutions, due to general decline of the Muslim Ummah, and some alien
customs and rites have crept into that. Nevertheless, the rules and regulations
farmed by the learned mentors of the institution are Islamic and based on

26
wisdom, prudence and practical experience. These can be implemented in
educational environment for Tazkiya of students with necessary modifications.

Students tarbiya being the ultimate goal of all educational activities requires
multi dimensional efforts. This goal must be reflected in the curriculum, it
should be the main objective of teachers training and it should get due
importance in the text books. Similarly, the educational management should be
trained on these lines and a system should be devised to evaluate tarbiya like
evaluation of other teaching disciplines. In fact tarbiya should be the main
criteria of the success or failure of the students for promotion to next grade.

Each educational institution should have a tarbiya net work headed by the
Director / Principal / a suitable senior teacher. This person should be well
familiar with the principles of human psychology (or can be assisted by an
Islamic-oriented professional psychologist) besides being acquainted with the
Islamic teachings / tradition of character building so that he can bring up the
students as a balanced personality.

The proposed tarbiya network should have a teacher as tarbiya In charge or

mentor for each class (although from the Islamic point of view, every teachers
should be a mentor). Then, in every class, a suitable student should act as
Deputy of the Teachers In charge of tarbiya. This tarbiya Team should hold
meetings before the commencement of the academic year and chalk out a
detailed tarbiya program for the next year. Later, it should hold regular weekly
meetings to ensure the implementation of the program. In case the team feels
problems in the tarbiya of a student, it should contact the parents and make
special efforts for reformation and moral rehabilitation of the child (34). The
ultimate goal of education should be the build up a child as a good Muslim in
every respect.

Work to be done at Ummah Level

It should be noted that the goal of reconstruction of knowledge and education at

individual level is to enable a Muslim to obey his Lord in this world to seek His
pleasure in the Hereafter. But at the level of Muslim society, it should work as a
source and tool of renaissance of the Ummah by steering it out of the present
degradation. As such the entire planning should be done keeping this goal in
view which requires that the education system of the entire Ummah should be
revised and changed. The first step in this direction would no doubt be the
setting up of a model educational institution (from school up to university level
) in any Muslim country along with all out efforts for reconstruction of
knowledge and education in Islamic perspective land then to introduce the
system gradually in the Muslim countries. We are sure that if this project is

27
floated with a non-political agenda in the private sector, it would yield good
results.

The last Word

Eliminating the influence of Western thought civilization on knowledge and

education in the Muslim societies and its reconstruction in accordance with
Islamic teachings is indeed an uphill task, and in the words of renowned
researcher and Sufi Prof. Dr. Ghulam Mustafa Khan, only Imam Mehdi can
accomplish it (35). However, We believe that the job is of immediate nature and
we shouldnt wait for Imam Mehdi for that. Instead, the entire Ummah should
pool its resources; both intellectual and material, and embark on the project,
giving it top priority. The sooner it is done, the better it would be.

28
 References
1. This is an expanded and revised English version of our Urdu article published
in Quarterly Taleemi Zawiyay, Lahore, June-Sep 2006, P-180-200, primarily
based on Ziauddin Sardars Rediscovering the Epistemology of Islam, in this
Islamic Futures.

2. Even non-Muslim scholars confess that; see for example: Rosenthal,

knowledge Triumph, P-46, Brill Lei den, 1977

3. For details, see Urdu Encyclopedia of Islam, 13:42, Punjab University,

Lahore, 1976

4. Lord Macaulays historic report of February 2, 1835 on Indian Education.

(The Encyclopedia of Education, 4:570, Crowell-Collier Education Corporation
USA, 1971.

5. Nasr, Hossein S., Encounter of Man and Nature, Allen and Unwin, London,
1968

6. Al-Attas Muhammad Naquib, Islam, Secularism and the Philosophy of

Future, P-127, 128, Mansell London, 1985.

7. Ibid., P-30.

8. Rahman, Dr. Fazlur, Islam and Modernity, P-141, The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1982.

9. Ibid., P-146,147

10. Ibid., P-1137

11. Ibid., P-134

12. Ibid., P-130,139

13. Al-Faruqi, Dr. Ismail Raji, Islamization of Knowledge-General Principles

and work plan, P- 8,9, International Institute of Islamic Thought, Washington,
1982.

14. Ibid., P-38

29
15. Ibid., P-41

16. Sardar, Ziauddin, Islamic Futures, P-95, 96

17. Ibid., P-100

30