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Motor Engg Cat
Motor Engg Cat
Guide to
Understanding
Motor
Fundamentals
Instruction Manual
II. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 1
II. MOTOR BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 1
Stator Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Rotor Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Simplified Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Rotor Current and Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
The Working Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Torque Vs. Stator Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Rotating Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Stator Poles Vs. Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Speed of Rotating Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Motor Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
The Rotor Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
High Frequency Rotor Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Torque Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
NEMA Design Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
The Motor as a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Motor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Effects of Voltage Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
Reduced Voltage Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Motor Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Voltage Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Effects of Frequency Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
Ill. MOTORS AND ADJUSTABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES . 3 - 1
Performance Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Operation Above Base Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Constant Voltage Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Constant Torque Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Generator Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
IV. ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
V. SPECIAL MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. - 1
When the rotor field shifts (during high slip) it not only
affects motor current, but torque as well. Recall that torque
results from the magnetic attraction between rotor and stator.
Increased inductive reactance causes the rotor current (and
resultant field) to lag rotor voltage. Since the rotor voltage is
in-phase with the stator field, the rotor field must be out of phase
with the stator field. Figure 2-13a shows the rotor field lagging
the stator field and rotor voltage by the angle m (the cosine of x is
a measure of power factor). Notice that positive motor torque is
produced only during the periods when stator and rotor fields are
in-phase. Compare this with Figure 2-13b, where voltage and
current are both in-phase. The out-of-phase rotor field (in
Figure 2-13a) actually produces negative torque, or a retarding
force. As power factor decreases further, torque suffers more.
Figure 2-13c shows a condition of maximum current lag ( m - 90>
resulting in negative torque completely cancelling positive torque.
Although maximum voltage and current flow in such a circuit, no
power is produced.
The torque equation of a squirrel cage induction motor is
similar to that for a DC shunt motor as shown in the following
equations. The major difference is the term cos m ". This
stipulates that only the in-phase rotor current produces positive
torque. Inductive reactance causes this phase shift, so it would be
expected that motor torque would be worst when inductive
reactance is greatest.
DC Shunt Motor Torque = K,0 1,
Where:
KT = Motor Torque Constant
0 = Field Flux
IA = Armature Current
(Equation 2-2)
Induction Motor Torque = K,G I,cos m
Where:
KT = Motor Torque Constant
8 = Field Flux
I/q = Rotor Current
cos c-c = Phase Displacement of Rotor Current
(Equation 2-3) 2-3)
2-14
$ STATOR
ROTOR
The Motor is very similar to a Transformer
Figure 2-19
2-20
A transformers magnetic coupling is fixed, but the motors
coupling between stator and rotor changes. When slip is 1, the
coupling is optimum. This occurs at locked rotor, when the
induced rotor voltage is highest and rotor current is maximum,
Figure 2-12, point A (page 2-11). This may be compared to the
transformer with a shorted secondary circuit. As the rotor
accelerates, slip decreases from 1 to as little as 0.1 (no load speed).
The primary to secondary coupling deteriorates and induced rotor
voltage is very low. Rotor current is as low as the secondary
current in an unloaded transformer.
Although an unloaded transformer may draw only 2% of
rated primary current, Figure 2-12, point E (page 2-11) shows
that the unloaded squirrel cage stator draws about 40% current.
One reason for this is because the motors magnetic coupling is not
as efficient as a transformer coupling. This is due to the air gap
between stator and rotor Figure 2-9 (page 2-7). The stator must
draw extra current to increase the flux density of its magnetic field
and bridge the air gap. A narrow air gap requires less no-load
current than a wide air gap, so motor designs incorporate the
narrowest air gaps possible. This improves efficiency and power
factor.
However, if the air gap is too small there is a danger that
the rotor may actually contact the stator, short circuiting it.
Maintaining a precise air gap requires precision rotor bearings and
careful machining.
There are other no-load losses besides the air gap. The
rotor must produce enough torque to spin the shaft-mounted fan to
cool itself. This loss is known as Windage. The rotor must also
overcome friction from the bearings which support it. There are
also iron (Hysteresis and Eddy Current) and copper (12R> losses to
consider. The sum of these losses result in the unloaded motor
drawing as much as 40% of rated current. It is more important,
therefore, to carefully size induction motors. An oversized motor
might never operate at rated horsepower, resulting in poor
efficiency and power factor.
Figure 2-20 (see page 2-22) shows the relationship
between efficiency, power factor and load for an average squirrel
cage motor. A fully loaded motor is more efficient than the same
motor running at quarter load. Also, a large HP motor is more
efficient than a small motor. High speed motors are more efficient
than low speed motors. Medium and low voltage motors (230 to
460V) are more efficient than high voltage (2300V) motors and
normal slip motors (NEMA A, B, C) are more efficient than high
slip (NEMA D) motors.
2-21
100
85
EFFICIENCY
0 25
Power Factor
IllI IIll III1
75 100 125
LOAD %
Figure 2-20
Effects of Voltage Variations
Recall from Equation 2-3 that torque is determined by
stator flux and rotor current, which result from rotor voltage. For
a given slip, rotor voltage is directly proportional to the density of
the stator flux being cut. Stator flux is directly proportional to
stator current (until the saturation level is reached). Therefore, if
the motors applied frequency is held constant, stator current and
flux will rise and fall in direct relation to the applied voltage.
Increased voltage yields higher flux density, which means
that higher rotor voltages are induced at a given slip.
It follows then that less slip is required to produce rated
torque at the motor shaft. The slip from no-load to 150% full load
becomes more vertical as shown in Figure 2-21, where stator
applied voltage has been increased by 10%. Notice that the entire
torque curve is affected by this increase.
%OF
w!&
4NORMAL TARTING
TORQUE)
122
100
81
25
SPEED
Figure 2-21
2-22
If applied voltage is decreased, flux is decreased, flux and
the rotor must slip back more in order to produce rated torque.
This is clear from the 90% and 50% curves in Figure 2-21. Also
observe that 90% rated voltage, does not produce 90% of the rated
torque, but rather only 81%. 50% voltage only produces 25% rated
torque. This is because both stator flux and rotor current are
affected by voltage variations. As such, torque varies not directly,
but rather by the square of the applied voltage. With some
manipulation (not elaborated here), Equation 2-3 may be restated
from the voltage standpoint:
Where:
T = torque at any slip
Kt = a new torque constant
E = voltage applied to the stator windings
(Equation 2-4)
The relationship between voltage and torque is especially
important during troubleshooting. Low voltage can cause any of
the following problems:
Inadequate Starting Torque - If a motor and load are
closely matched, then a 10% drop in line voltage (even momentary)
during starting could result in load torque demand exceeding
motor torque.
Speed Fluctuations - A momentary drop in line voltage
will cause a proportional dip in speed. Compare the 100% curve
and 90% curve of Figure 2-21. Notice that at rated load the 90%
curve requires more slip. The resulting drop in speed may cause
problems in the driven machine or process.
Reduced Speed - A prolonged drop in voltage may result
in the motor never reaching its nameplate rated base speed. Also,
speed regulation would be poor; since greater slip is required for
normal load changes.
Reduced Peak Torque - A 10% voltage decrease will
reduce Peak Torque (Breakdown Torque) by 19%. If the
application involves momentary load surges, there may not be
adequate Peak Torque to ride through the surge. Severe speed
fluctuations or even a complete stall may result.
2-23
--w---- $/!$
+ Resistant
\
Current
15 ;o $0 160
FREQUENCY (HZ)
Figure 4-l
Notice that the standard motor has been derated to 85%.
This is due to the heating caused by the waveform shown in the
right corner. To provide the same performance as the energy
efficient motor, a larger standard motor is required. No derating is
required on the energy efficient motor, since it can tolerate the
disturbances caused by the 6 step waveform. Other types of AC
drives produce smoother waveforms that would not require
derating of the standard motor. One such type is the PWM (Pulse
Width Modulated) AC drive.
Energy efficient motors prove most cost effective in
applications where:
The cost of electricity is high. The higher the power rate, the
greater potential for savings.
The customer is concerned about power factor penalties and
peak demand charges.
Loads are constant, allowing accurate projection of potential
savings.
Excessive heating is expected, either from high ambient
conditions or severe duty cycle.
Running time exceeds idle time, again increasing savings.
Larger horsepower motors are involved, since they consume
more power and represent greater savings potentials.
4-3
V. SPECIAL MOTORS
The Wound Rotor Motor is an induction motor that permits
variable speed operation without the use of an AC drive. The
motors stator is identical to that of the standard polyphase
squirrel cage motor, but its rotor differs considerably. The rotor is
not of cast aluminum or copper bars, but rather consists of
insulated coils of wire connected in regular succession to form
definite poles (the same number as the stator poles). The ends of
these rotor windings are brouht out to slip rings mounted on the
motor shaft. Carbon brushes ride the slip rings to connect the
rotor windings to an external resistor network.
Figure 5-l shows the controller, which allows adjustment
of the rotor resistance. By varying rotor resistance, the torque and
current characteristics can be changed. For example, high
resistance would produce high starting torque at low current,
similar to a NEMA D motor. As the motor accelerates, resistance
can be reduced to simulate a NEMA A motor. The result is
high starting torque, smooth acceleration, and optimum efficiency
at running speeds.
External
T1 T2 T3
on Rotor
Figure 5-l
Figure 5-2 (see page 5-2) is the speed/torque curve of a
Wound Rotor Motor. It portrays the speed regulation obtained by
inserting various amounts of resistance in the rotor circuit. Notice
that with 100% resistance the rotor will slip 50% in speed when a
50% load is applied (Point A). Reducing resistance to 30%
improves speed regulation considerably (Point B).
5-l
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
% 150
FULL 140
130
LOAD 120
TORQUE 110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPEED % OF SYNCHRONOUS
Figure 5-2
A means of variable speed operation is achieved with the
Wound Rotor Motor. Unfortunately, the motors efficiency
decreases in direct proportion to the speed reduction desired.
Because of this, the wound rotor motor is most often used on
cranes, hoists and elevators, where exact speed regulation and
efficiency are not important. Efficiency may be improved by the
installation of a slip recovery system in the rotor circuit. Basically,
the external resistances are replaced by a solid state converter
which feeds the excess rotor power back to the supply lines.
Another type of special motor is the Reluctance
Synchronous Motor. It again uses the same stator assembly as a
standard squirrel cage motor and differs only in rotor construction.
Figure 5-3 shows a rotor punching used in a typical Reluctance
Synchronous Motor.
5-2
Flux
Barriers
Aluminum
Figure 5-3
The rotor bars permit the motor to start as an induction
motor, with similar torque and current characteristics. Notice the
flux barriers in Figure 5-3, which guide the rotor flux to form
definite magnetic poles. At approximately 90% sync speed, the
rotor and stator fields begin to closely align, causing the rotor to
quickly accelerate to synchronous speed. Motor current increases
sharply during the transition to synchronous speed. However,
once in synchronism with the stator, the motor draws rated
current to produce rated torque without slip as shown in
Figure 5-4. Speed regulation becomes dependent on the stability
of the applied frequency, which is normally excellent.
TORQUE
%SYNCHRONOUSSPEED
Figure 5-4
Reluctance Synchronous Motors are specified when speed
regulation is a primary factor, such as in the machine tool and
textile industries. Normal sizes range from fractional to 15 HP,
although higher horsepowers are available. Efficiencies are low
(3575%) and power factor is also poor (.45-.63). They are not
recommended for high inertia loads or heavy cyclical loads. This is
because the rotor must accelerate into its synchronous position
rapidly, making the jump from 95% speed to 100% speed very
quickly. High load inertia or a pulsating load makes this difficult.
5-3
Publication 150-2.7 December 1998 Copyright 1998 Rockwell International Printed in USA