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Sivakumar
Axial Deformations
Introduction
Strain
Poissons ratio
Thermal effect
Design considerations
Strain energy
Impact loading
1.1 Introduction
An important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deformations
large that they may prevent the structure from fulfilling the purpose for which it is intended.
But the analysis of deformations may also help us in the determination of stresses. It is not
always possible to determine the forces in the members of a structure by applying only the
deformations in their various members, it will be possible to compute forces which are
indeterminate, even when the force in that member is known. To determine the actual
take place in that member. This chapter deals with the deformations of a structural
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Removing an existing force or including a wrong force on the free body will badly affect the
In view of this, some important points in drawing the free body diagram are discussed
below.
Figure 1.1
At the beginning, a clear decision is to be made by the analyst on the choice of the body to
Then that body is detached from all of its surrounding members including ground and only
The weight of the body and other external body forces like centrifugal, inertia, etc., should
also be included in the diagram and they are assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the
body.
When a structure involving many elements is considered for free body diagram, the forces
acting in between the elements should not be brought into the diagram.
The known forces acting on the body should be represented with proper magnitude and
direction.
If the direction of unknown forces like reactions can be decided, they should be indicated
After completing free body diagram, equilibrium equations from statics in terms of forces
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Figure 1.2
When a structural member is under load, predicting its ability to withstand that load is not
It depends upon the internal force, cross sectional area of the element and its material
properties.
Thus, a quantity that gives the ratio of the internal force to the cross sectional area will
define the ability of the material in with standing the loads in a better way.
That quantity, i.e., the intensity of force distributed over the given area or simply the force
P
= 1.1
A
In SI units, force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in square meters. Consequently,
the stress has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa).
In figure 1.2, the stresses are acting normal to the section XX that is perpendicular to the
The stress defined in equation 1.1 is obtained by dividing the force by the cross sectional
area and hence it represents the average value of the stress over the entire cross section.
Figure 1.3
Consider a small area A on the cross section with the force acting on it F as shown in
F
= lim 1.2
A 0 A
The average stress values obtained using equation 1.1 and the stress value at a point from
equation 1.2 may not be the same for all cross sections and for all loading conditions.
Figure 1.4
Consider a slender bar with point loads at its ends as shown in figure 1.4.
The normal stress distribution across sections located at distances b/4 and b from one and
It is found from figure 1.4 that the stress varies appreciably across the cross section in the
The points very near the application of the loads experience a larger stress value whereas,
the points far away from it on the same section has lower stress value.
The variation of stress across the cross section is negligible when the section considered
is far away, about equal to the width of the bar, from the application of point loads.
Thus, except in the immediate vicinity of the points where the load is applied, the stress
Now consider a bolted connection in which two plates are connected by a bolt with cross
Figure 1.5
The tensile loads applied on the plates will tend to shear the bolt at the section AA.
Hence, it can be easily concluded from the free body diagram of the bolt that the internal
resistance force V must act in the plane of the section AA and it should be equal to the
external load P.
These internal forces are called shear forces and when they are divided by the
V
= 1.3
A
Equation 1.3 defines the average value of the shear stress on the cross section and the
In general, the shear stress is found to be maximum at the centre and zero at certain
locations on the edge. This will be dealt in detail in shear stresses in beams (module 6).
In figure 1.5, the bolt experiences shear stresses on a single plane in its body and hence it
Figure 1.6
In figure 1.6, the bolt experiences shear on two sections AA and BB. Hence, the bolt is
said to be under double shear and the shear stress on each section is
V P
= = 1.4
A 2A
Assuming that the same bolt is used in the assembly as shown in figure 1.5 and 1.6 and
the same load P is applied on the plates, we can conclude that the shear stress is reduced
Shear stresses are generally found in bolts, pins and rivets that are used to connect
The average intensity of this pressure can be found out by dividing the load P by the
projected area of the contact surface. This is referred to as the bearing stress.
Figure 1.7
The projected area of the contact surface is calculated as the product of the diameter of
Bearing stress,
P P
b = = 1.5
A td
Example 1:
Figure 1.8
A rod R is used to hold a sign board with an axial load 50 kN as shown in figure 1.8. The
end of the rod is 50 mm wide and has a circular hole for fixing the pin which is 20 mm
diameter. The load from the rod R is transferred to the base plate C through a bracket B
that is 22mm wide and has a circular hole for the pin. The base plate is 10 mm thick and it
is connected to the bracket by welding. The base plate C is fixed on to a structure by four
bolts of each 12 mm diameter. Find the shear stress and bearing stress in the pin and in
the bolts.
Solution:
= 95.7 MPa
= 50 MPa
= 56.8 MPa
= 90.2 MPa
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However, if we consider an oblique plane that forms an angle with normal plane, it
Consider such an oblique plane in a bar. The resultant force P acting on that plane will
keep the bar in equilibrium against the external load P' as shown in figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9
The resultant force P on the oblique plane can be resolved into two components Fn and Fs
If A is the area of cross section of the bar, A/cos is the area of the oblique plane. Normal
Fn= Pcos
P cos P
= = cos 2 1.6
A / cos A
P sin P
= = sin cos 1.7
A / cos A
Equations 1.6 and 1.7 define the normal and shear stress values on an inclined plane that
makes an angle with the vertical plane on which the axial load acts.
From above equations, it is understandable that the normal stress reaches its maximum
But, the shear stress assumes zero value at = 0o and = 90o and reaches its maximum
when = 45o.
The magnitude of maximum shear stress occurring at = 45o plane is half of the maximum
P
max = = max 1.8
2A 2
Now consider a cubic element A in the rod which is represented in two dimension as
shown in figure 1.10 such that one of its sides makes an angle with the vertical plane.
Figure 1.10
To determine the stresses acting on the plane mn, equations 1.6 and 1.7 are used as such
Maximum shear stress occurs on both om and mn planes with equal magnitude and
Example 2:
kN. Determine the stresses acting on an element which makes 300 inclination with the
vertical plane. Also find the maximum shear stress value in the bar.
Figure 1.11
Solution:
P
Normal stress on 300 inclined plane, = cos 2
A
80 103
= cos 2 30o = 50 MPa
3
1.2 10
P 80 103
Shear stress on 300 plane, = sin cos = sin 300 cos 300
A 1.2 10 3
P 80 103
Maximum shear stress in the bar, max = =
2A 2 1.2 103
= 33.3 MPa
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1.5 Strain
The structural member and machine components undergo deformation as they are brought
under loads.
To ensure that the deformation is within the permissible limits and do not affect the
A quantity called strain defines the deformation of the members and structures in a better
way than the deformation itself and is an indication on the state of the material.
Figure 1.12
Consider a rod of uniform cross section with initial length L0 as shown in figure 1.12.
Application of a tensile load P at one end of the rod results in elongation of the rod by .
After elongation, the length of the rod is L. As the cross section of the rod is uniform, it is
appropriate to assume that the elongation is uniform throughout the volume of the rod. If
the tensile load is replaced by a compressive load, then the deformation of the rod will be a
contraction. The deformation per unit length of the rod along its axis is defined as the
L L0
= = 1.9
L L
Though the strain is a dimensionless quantity, units are often given in mm/mm, m/m.
Example 3:
A circular hollow tube made of steel is used to support a compressive load of 500kN. The
inner and outer diameters of the tube are 90mm and 130mm respectively and its length is
1000mm. Due to compressive load, the contraction of the rod is 0.5mm. Determine the
Solution
P 500 103
Stress, = = = 72.3MPa (compressive)
A 6.912 103
0.5
Strain, = = = 5 104 (compressive)
L0 1000
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between the stress and the strain which is an important characteristic of the material.
In the test, the uniaxial load is applied to the specimen and increased gradually. The
Stress-strain diagrams of materials vary widely depending upon whether the material is
Figure 1.13
In figure 1.13, the stress-strain diagram of a structural steel, which is a ductile material, is
given.
Initial part of the loading indicates a linear relationship between stress and strain, and the
deformation is completely recoverable in this region for both ductile and brittle materials.
This linear relationship, i.e., stress is directly proportional to strain, is popularly known as
Hooke's law.
= E 1.10
Most of the engineering structures are designed to function within their linear elastic region
only.
After the stress reaches a critical value, the deformation becomes irrecoverable. The
corresponding stress is called the yield stress or yield strength of the material beyond
In some of the ductile materials like low carbon steels, as the material reaches the yield
load/stress. This flat curve in stress strain diagram is referred as perfectly plastic region.
The load required to yield the material beyond its yield strength increases appreciably and
In other ductile materials like aluminum alloys, the strain hardening occurs immediately
After the stress in the specimen reaches a maximum value, called ultimate strength, upon
further stretching, the diameter of the specimen starts decreasing fast due to local
The load required for further elongation of the material in the necking region decreases
with decrease in diameter and the stress value at which the material fails is called the
breaking strength.
In case of brittle materials like cast iron and concrete, the material experiences smaller
Figure 1.14
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But it is clear that as the specimen elongates its diameter decreases and the decrease in
Hence, the actual stress which is obtained by dividing the load by the actual cross
sectional area in the deformed specimen is different from that of the engineering stress
P
act = 1.11
A act
Though the difference between the true stress and the engineering stress is negligible for
smaller loads, the former is always higher than the latter for larger loads.
Similarly, if the initial length of the specimen is used to calculate the strain, it is called
But some engineering applications like metal forming process involve large deformations
and they require actual or true strains that are obtained using the successive recorded
True strain is also called as actual strain or natural strain and it plays an important role in
theories of viscosity.
The difference in using engineering stress-strain and the true stress-strain is noticeable
Figure 1.15
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Figure 1.16
Consider a rod under an axial tensile load P as shown in figure 1.6 such that the material
P
is within the elastic limit. The normal stress on x plane is xx = and the associated
A
longitudinal strain in the x direction can be found out from x = xx . As the material
E
elongates in the x direction due to the load P, it also contracts in the other two mutually
Hence, despite the absence of normal stresses in y and z directions, strains do exist in
The ratio between the lateral strain and the axial/longitudinal strain for a given material is
always a constant within the elastic limit and this constant is referred to as Poisson's ratio.
It is denoted by .
lateral strain
= 1.13
axial strain
Since the axial and lateral strains are opposite in sign, a negative sign is introduced in
Using equation 1.13, the lateral strain in the material can be obtained by
xx
y = z = x = 1.14
E
Poisson's ratio can be as low as 0.1 for concrete and as high as 0.5 for rubber.
In general, it varies from 0.25 to 0.35 and for steel it is about 0.3.
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in elastic region.
The stress-strain relationship in elastic region need not be linear and can be non-linear as
Figure 1.17
The maximum stress value below which the strain is fully recoverable is called the elastic
When the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit, the material enters into plastic
To ascertain that the material has reached the plastic region, after each load increment, it
Presence of residual strain is the indication that the material has entered into plastic
phase.
If the material has crossed elastic limit, during unloading it follows a path that is parallel to
the initial elastic loading path with the same proportionality constant E.
The strain present in the material after unloading is called the residual strain or plastic
strain and the strain disappears during unloading is termed as recoverable or elastic strain.
If the material is reloaded from point C, it will follow the previous unloading path and line
CB becomes its new elastic region with elastic limit defined by point B.
Though the new elastic region CB resembles that of the initial elastic region OA, the
The change in the microstructure of the material is clear from the fact that the ductility of
When the material is reloaded, it follows the same path as that of a virgin material and fails
on reaching the ultimate strength which remains unaltered due to the intermediate loading
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increases with increasing load once the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit.
However, the materials undergo additional plastic deformation with time even though the
Consider a bar under a constant axial tensile load as shown in figure 1.18.
Figure 1.18
As soon as the material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, it undergoes an instant plastic
deformation 0 at time t = 0.
Though the material is not brought under additional loads, it experiences further plastic
Creep at high temperature is of more concern and it plays an important role in the design
However materials like concrete, steel and wood experience creep slightly even at normal
Analogous to creep, the load required to keep the material under constant strain
It was concluded in section 1.9 that the specimen will not fail when the stress in the
This holds true only for static loading conditions and if the applied load fluctuates or
reverses then the material will fail far below its yield strength.
Designs involving fluctuating loads like traffic in bridges, and reversing loads like
Fatigue failure is initiated by a minute crack that develops at a high stress point which may
The crack enlarges and propagates through the material due to successive loadings until
the material fails as the undamaged portion of the material is insufficient to withstand the
load.
Hence, a polished surface shaft can take more number of cycles than a shaft with rough or
corroded surface.
The number of cycles that can be taken up by a material before it fractures can be found
The obtained results are plotted as n curves as given in figure 1.19, which indicates the
number of cycles that can be safely completed by the material under a given maximum
stress.
Figure 1.19
It is learnt from the graph that the number of cycles to failure increases with decrease in
magnitude of stress.
For steels, if the magnitude of stress is reduced to a particular value, it can undergo an
infinitely large number of cycles without fatigue failure and the corresponding stress is
On the other hand, for non-ferrous metals like aluminum alloys there is no endurance limit,
and hence, the maximum stress decreases continuously with increase in number of cycles.
In such cases, the fatigue limit of the material is taken as the stress value that will allow an
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figure 1.12.
Let that the initial length of the rod be L and the deflection due to load be . Using
P
== =
L E AE
1.15
PL
=
AE
Equation 1.15 is obtained under the assumption that the material is homogeneous and has
Now, consider another rod of varying cross section with the same axial load P as shown in
figure 1.20.
Figure 1.20
Let us take an infinitesimal element of length dx in the rod that undergoes a deflection
d
d due to load P. The strain in the element is = and d = dx
dx
The deflection of total length of the rod can be obtained by integrating above equation, = dx
L
Pdx
= EA(x) 1.16
0
As the cross sectional area of the rod keeps varying, it is expressed as a function of its
length.
If the load is also varying along the length like the weight of the material, it should also be
Also, if the structure consists of several components of different materials, then the
deflection of each component is determined and summed up to get the total deflection of
the structure.
When the cross section of the components and the axial loads on them are not varying
along length, the total deflection of the structure can be determined easily by,
n
Pi Li
= 1.17
i =1 A i E i
Example 4:
Figure 1.21
Consider a rod ABC with aluminum part AB and steel part BC having diameters 25mm and
Solution:
= 0.1164 mm
= 0.0446 mm
= 0.161mm
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Figure 1.22
The reaction force at the support for the bar ABC in figure 1.22 can be determined
Fy = 0; R-P=0
Now, consider the right side bar MNO in figure 1.22 which is rigidly fixed at both the ends.
From static equilibrium, we get only one equation with two unknown reaction forces R1 and
R2.
- P + R1 + R 2 = 0 1.18
Hence, this equilibrium equation should be supplemented with a deflection equation which
If the bar MNO is separated from its supports and applied the forces R1 ,R 2 and P , then
these forces cause the bar to undergo a deflection MO that must be equal to zero.
MO = 0 MN + NO = 0 1.19
MN and NO are the deflections of parts MN and NO respectively in the bar MNO.
Individually these deflections are not zero, but their sum must make it to be zero.
Equation 1.19 is called compatibility equation, which insists that the change in length of the
Deflection of parts MN and NO due to load P can be obtained by assuming that the
R1l1 R l
material is within the elastic limit, MN = and NO = 2 2 .
A1E A2 E
PA1l2
R1 =
l1A 2 + l2 A1
1.21
PA 2 l1
R2 =
l1A 2 + l2 A1
From these reaction forces, the stresses acting on any section in the bar can be easily
determined.
Example 5:
Figure 1.23
compressive load of 1.5MN. Four steel rods of each 24mm diameter are passing through
the concrete as shown in figure 1.23. If the length of the column is 3m, determine the
normal stress in the steel and the concrete. Take Esteel = 200 GPa and E concrete = 29 GPa.
Solution:
Pc = Load on concrete
Pc + 4Ps = P
Pc + 4Ps = 1.5 103..........(a)
concrete = steel
Pc 3 Ps 3
=
( 0.4 ) (0.35) 29 10 9
(0.024) 2 200 109
4
Pc = 44.87Ps ................(b)
Ps = 30.7kN
Pc = 1378kN
P 1.378 106
Normal stress on concrete= c = = 9.84MPa
Ac (0.4)(0.35)
P 30.7 103
Normal stress on steel= s = = 67.86MPa
As 2
(0.024)
4
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If the elongation or contraction is not restricted, then the material does not experience any
The strain due to temperature change is called thermal strain and is expressed as
T = (T) 1.22
Since strain is a dimensionless quantity and T is expressed in K or 0C, has a unit that is
reciprocal of K or 0C.
The free expansion or contraction of materials, when restrained induces stress in the
Thermal stress produces the same effect in the material similar to that of mechanical
Figure 1.24
Consider a rod AB of length L which is fixed at both ends as shown in figure 1.24.
Let the temperature of the rod be raised by T and as the expansion is restricted, the
In this problem, static equilibrium equations alone are not sufficient to solve for unknowns
To determine the stress due to T, assume that the support at the end B is removed and
Increase in the length of the rod T due to free expansion can be found out using equation
1.22
T = T L = (T)L 1.23
Now, apply a compressive load P at the end B to bring it back to its initial position and the
PL
T = 1.24
AE
T =
PL
(T)L =
AE
P
Thermal stress, T = = (T)E 1.25
A
Minus sign in the equation indicates a compressive stress in the material and with
It is to be noted that the equation 1.25 was obtained on the assumption that the material is
Thermoplastic analysis assumes significance for structures and components that are
Example 6:
Figure 1.25
A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and aluminum as shown in figure 1.25.
The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200GPa and 11.7 x
10-6 per 0C respectively and for aluminum 70GPa and 21.6 x 10-6 per 0C respectively. If the
temperature of the rod is raised by 500C, determine the forces and stresses acting on the
rod.
Solution:
T = (T)L
( ) (
= 11.7 106 50 500 + 21.6 106 50 750 )
= 1.1025 mm
Let the force required to make their elongation vanish be R which is the reaction force at
the ends.
RL RL
= +
AE steel AE Al
Area of steel rod = [ 0.05] = 1.9635 103 m 2
2
4
Area of aluminium rod = [ 0.03] = 0.7069 103 m 2
2
4
500 750
0.7025 = R +
1.9635 103 200 109 0.7069 103 70 109
Compressive force on the rod, R = 42.076 kN
P 42.76 103
Compressive stress on steel, = = = 21.8MPa
A 1.9635 103
P 42.76 103
Compressive stress on steel, = = = 60.5MPa
A 0.7069 103
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developed product will function safely and economically during its estimated life time.
The stress developed in the material should always be less than the maximum stress it
During normal operating conditions, the stress experienced by the material is referred to as
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety = 1.26
Allowable stress
Ultimate load
Factor of safety = 1.27
Allowable load
Equations 1.26 and 1.27 are identical when a linear relationship exists between the load
This is not true for many materials and equation 1.26 is widely used in design analysis.
Factor of safety take care of the uncertainties in predicting the exact loadings, variation in
If the factor of safety is less, then the risk of failure is more and on the other hand, when
the factor of safety is very high the structure becomes unacceptable or uncompetitive.
Hence, depending upon the applications the factor of safety varies. It is common to see
uniform at sections located far away from the point of application of loads.
This observation is called Saint Venants principle and was discussed in section 1.3.
But, when the element has holes, grooves, notches, key ways, threads and other
abrupt changes in geometry, the stress on those cross-sections will not be uniform.
Experimentally it was found that the stress concentrations are independent of the material
size and its properties, and they depend only on the geometric parameters.
Figure 1.26
Consider a rectangular flat plate with a circular hole as shown in figure 1.26.
The stress distribution on the section passing through the centre of the hole indicates that
the maximum stress occurs at the ends of the holes and it is much higher than the average
stress.
Since the designer, in general, is more interested in knowing the maximum stress rather
than the actual stress distribution, a simple relationship between the max and ave in
Many experiments were conducted on samples with various discontinuities and the
relationship between the stress concentration factor and the geometrical parameters are
established, where
max
Stress concentration factor, K = 1.28
ave
P
Hence, simply by calculating the average stress, ave = , in the critical section of a
A
The variation of K in terms of r/d for the rectangular plate with a circular hole is given in
figure 1.26.
It is to be noted that the expression in equation 1.28 can be used as long as max is within
Example 7:
Figure 1.27
shown in figure 1.27. If the link AB is 30mm wide, determine its thickness for a factor of
safety 2.5. The ultimate strength of steel may be assumed to be 450 MPa.
Solution:
Drawing free body diagram of the link and the rod,
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Within the elastic limit, the work done by the external forces on a material is stored as
On removal of load, the deformation or strain disappears and the stored energy is
released. This recoverable energy stored in the material in the form of strain is called
Figure 1.28
Consider a rod of uniform cross section with length L as shown in figure 1.28.
An axial tensile load P is applied on the material gradually from zero to maximum
Area under the load-displacement curve shown in figure 1.28 indicates the work done on
the material by the external load that is stored as strain energy in the material.
Let dW be the work done by the load P due to increment in deflection d. The
When the material is within the elastic limit, the work done due to d,
dW = dU = Pd
The total work done or total elastic strain energy of the material,
W = U = Pd 1.29
0
Equation 1.29 holds for both linear elastic and non-linear elastic materials.
If the material is linear elastic, then the load-displacement diagram will become as shown
in figure 1.29.
Figure 1.29
The elastic strain energy stored in the material is determined from the area of triangle
OAB.
1
U= P11 1.30
2
P1L
where 1 = .
AE
Since the load-displacement curve is a straight line here, the load P1 can be expressed in
terms of stiffness and deflection as P1 = k1 . Then equation 1.30 turns out to be,
1
U= k12 1.31
2
Work done and strain energy are expressed in N-m or joules (J).
In order to eliminate the material dimensions from the strain energy equation, strain energy
Strain energy stored per unit volume of the material is referred to as strain energy density.
Strain energy density, u = d 1.32
0
Equation 1.32 indicates the expression of strain energy in terms of stress and strain, which
are more convenient quantities to use rather than load and displacement.
Figure 1.30
Area under the stress strain curve indicates the strain energy density of the material.
For linear elastic materials within proportional limit, equation 1.32 gets simplified as,
1
Strain energy density, u = 11 1.33
2
Using Hooks law, 1 = 1 , strain energy density is expressed in terms of stress,
E
12
u= 1.34
2E
When the stress in the material reaches the yield stress y , the strain energy density
2
Modulus of resilience, u R = Y 1.35
2E
Modulus of resilience is a measure of energy that can be absorbed by the material due to
Figure 1.31
If the material exceeds the elastic limit during loading, all the work done is not stored in the
This is due to the fact that part of the energy is spent on deforming the material
The area under the entire stress strain diagram is called modulus of toughness, which is a
measure of energy that can be absorbed by the material due to impact loading before it
fractures.
Hence, materials with higher modulus of toughness are used to make components and
Example 8:
Figure 1.32
A 25 kN load is applied gradually on a steel rod ABC as shown in figure 1.32. Taking
E=200 GPa, determine the strain energy stored in the entire rod and the strain energy
density in parts AB and BC. If the yield strength of the material is y=320MPa, find the
maximum energy that can be absorbed by the rod without undergoing permanent
deformation.
Solution:
2AB
Strain energy density in part AB, u AB =
2E
2
1 25 103
=
9
u AB
2 200 10 ( 0.024 )2
4
= 7.63 kJ/m3
2BC
Strain energy density in part BC, u BC =
2E
2
1 25 103
=
9
u BC
2 200 10 ( 0.016 )2
4
= 38.65 kJ/m3
U = u ABVAB + u BC VBC
= 7.63 103 ( 0.024 ) 1 + 38.65 103 ( 0.016 ) 0.8
2 2
4 4
U = 9.67J
P = y A BC = 320 106 ( 0.016 )2
4
P = 64.3kN
1 P
2 2
P
U= V +
AB VBC
2E A AB A BC
P 2 L AB L BC
= +
2E A AB A BC
(
)
2
64.3 103 1 0.8
= +
2 200 109 ( 0.024 )2 ( 0.016 )2
4 4
= 63.97J
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always in equilibrium. Hence, the vibrational and dynamic effects are negligible in static
loading.
Dynamic loading may take many forms like fluctuating loads where the loads are varying
with time and impact loads where the loads are applied suddenly and may be removed
immediately or later.
Collision of two bodies and objects freely falling onto a structure are some of the examples
of impact loading.
Consider a collar of mass M at a height h from the flange that is rigidly fixed at the end of a
As the collar freely falls onto the flange, the bar begins to elongate causing axial stresses
Figure 1.33
After the flange reaching its maximum position during downward motion, it moves up due
The bar vibrates in the axial direction with the collar and the flange till the vibration dies out
To simplify the complex impact loading analysis, the following assumptions are made.
The kinetic energy of the collar at the time of striking is completely transformed into strain
But in practice, not all the kinetic energy is stored in the material as some of the energy is
Hence, this assumption is conservative in the sense that the stress and deflection
The second assumption is that after striking the flange, the collar and the flange move
This assumption is reasonable provided the weight of the collar is much larger than that of
the bar.
The third assumption is that the stresses in the bar remain within linear elastic range and
But, in reality, the stress distribution is not uniform since the stress waves generated due
Using the principle of conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the collar is equated to
Assuming the height of fall h is much larger than the deformation of rod, and using
equation 1.34,
1 2 V
Mv 2 = max 1.36
2 2E
where v is the velocity of the collar at strike ( v = 2gh ) and V is the volume of the material.
The maximum stress in the bar due to the impact load of mass M,
Mv 2 E 1.37
max =
V
From above equation, it becomes clear that by increasing the volume of material, the effect
1 2 EA
Mv 2 = max
2 2L
Mv 2 L 1.38
max =
EA
If the load of the collar is applied gradually on the bar i.e., under static loading, the static
MgL
st =
EA
Substituting this in equation 1.38, relationship between the static deflection st and the
To represent the magnification of deflection due to impact load compared to that of static
max
Impact factor = 1.40
st
Alternately, the impact factor can be obtained from the ratio max .
st
The relationship between the stress st developed in the bar due to static loading and the
Est
st = Est =
L
Emax
max = E max =
L
E
max = 2hst
L
2hEst
max = 1.41
L
Now, the effect of suddenly applied loads on materials or structures that forms a special
In figure 1.33, if the collar is brought into contact on the top of the flange and released
The maximum stress produced in the bar due to suddenly applied load can be determined
Hence, the stress developed in a material due to suddenly applied load is twice as large as
Example 9:
Figure 1.34
A 50 kg collar is sliding on a cable as shown in figure 1.34 from a height h = 1m. Its free
fall is restrained by a stopper at the end of the cable. The effective cross-sectional area
and the elastic modulus of the cable are taken to be 60 mm2 and 150GPa respectively. If
the maximum allowable stress in the cable due to impact load is 450MPa, calculate the
minimum permissible length for the cable and the corresponding maximum deflection. Also
Solution:
Mv 2 E
Maximum stress due to impact load, max =
V
( 60 106 ) L
Minimum permissible length for the cable, L = 12.1 m
MgL
Static deflection, st =
EA
50 9.81 12.1
=
150 109 60 106
= 0.656 mm
Maximum deflection, max = 2hst
= 2 1000 0.656
= 36 mm
36
Impact factor, = max =
st 0.656
= 55
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Stresses
Stress at a point
Stress Tensor
Equations of Equilibrium
Introduction
2.1 stress at a point
Figure 2.1
Consider a body in equilibrium under point and traction loads as shown in figure 2.1.
After cutting the body along section AA, take an infinitesimal area A lying on the surface
consisting a point C.
The interaction force between the cut sections 1 & 2, through A is F. Stress at the point
C can be defined,
F
= lim 2.1
A 0 A
F is resolved into Fn and Fs that are acting normal and tangent to A.
Fn 2.2
Normal stress, n = lim
A0 A
Fs
Shear Stress, s = lim 2.3
A 0 A
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Figure 2.2
Consider the free body diagram of an infinitesimally small cube inside the continuum as
Stress on an arbitrary plane can be resolved into two shear stress components parallel to
the plane and one normal stress component perpendicular to the plane.
Thus, stresses acting on the cube can be represented as a second order tensor with nine
components.
xx xy xz
= yx yy yz 2.4
zx zy zz
Figure 2.3
Consider a body under equilibrium with simple shear as shown in figure 2.3.
( ) ( )
M z = yx d x d z d y xy d y d z d x = 0
xy = yx
Similarly, xz = zx and yz = zy .
Hence, the stress tensor is symmetric and it can be represented with six
xx xy xz xx xy xz
= yx yy yz = xy yy yz 2.5
zx zy zz xz yz zz
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Figure 2.4
Bx, By are the body forces like gravitational, inertia, magnetic, etc., acting on the element
Fx = 0 ,
xx yx
xx +
x
( )
dx d y 1 xx ( dy 1) + yx +
dy
dy ( dx 1) yx ( dx 1) + Bx ( dx dy 1) = 0
Similarly taking Fy = 0 and simplifying, equilibrium equations of the element in
xx yx
+ + Bx = 0
x y
2.6
xy yy
+ + By = 0
x y
equilibrium become,
xx yx zx
+ + + Bx = 0
x y z
xy yy zy
+ + + By = 0 2.7
x y z
xz yz zz
+ + + Bz = 0
x y z
When the right hand side of above equations is not equal to zero, then, they become
equations of motion.
Equations of equilibrium are valid regardless of the materials nature whether elastic,
In equation 2.7, since there are three equations and six unknowns (realizing xy = yx and
Hence, to solve for the unknown stresses, equilibrium equations are supplemented with
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Figure 2.5
Consider a bar under a tensile load P acting along its axis as shown in figure 2.5.
Take an element A which has its sides parallel to the surfaces of the bar.
It is clear that the element has only normal stress along only one direction, i.e., x axis and
all other stresses are zero. Hence it is said to be under uni-axial stress state.
Now consider another element B in the same bar, which has its slides inclined to the
Though the element has normal and shear stresses on each face, it can be transformed
into a uni-axial stress state like element A by transformation of stresses (will be discussed
in section 2.5).
Hence, if the stress components at a point can be transformed into a single normal stress
(principal stress as will be discussed later), then, the element is under uni-axial stress
state.
Figure 2.6
The given stress components cannot be transformed into a single normal stress along an
axis but along two axes. Hence this element is under biaxial / two dimensional stress state.
Figure 2.7
When the cubic element is free from any of the stresses on its two parallel surfaces and
the stress components in the element can not be reduced to a uni-axial stress by
transformation, then, the element is said to be in two dimensional stress/plane stress state.
Thin plates under mid plane loads and the free surface of structural elements may
Figure 2.8
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shear stress components vary as the orientation of plane through that point changes.
Under complex loading, a structural member may experience larger stresses on inclined
The knowledge of maximum normal and shear stresses and their plane's orientation
Hence, it is important to know how to transform the stress components from one set of
coordinate axes to another set of co-ordinates axes that will contain the stresses of
interest.
Figure 2.9
Consider a prismatic element with sides dx, dy and ds with their faces perpendicular to y, x
x 'x ' and x'y' are the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane inclined at an angle
dy dx
Dividing above equation by t.ds and using = cos and = sin ,
ds ds
xx + yy xx yy
x 'x ' = + cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
2.8
x 'y' =
(
xx yy ) sin 2 +
xy cos 2
2
Replacing by + 900, in x 'x ' expression of equation 2.8, we get the normal stress along
y' direction.
xx + yy xx yy
y'y' = cos 2 xy sin 2 2.9
2 2
Equations 2.8 and 2.9 are the transformation equations for plane stress using which the
stress components on any plane passing through the point can be determined.
Invariably, the sum of the normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes at a
point has the same value. This sum is a function of the stress at that point and not on the
orientation of axes. Hence, this quantity is called stress invariant at that a point
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Among those varying stresses, finding the maximum and minimum values and the
By taking the derivative of x 'x ' in equation 2.8 with respect to and equating it to zero,
d x 'x '
d
( )
= xx yy sin 2 + 2 xy cos 2 = 0
2xy
tan 2p = 2.11
xx yy
Here, p has two values p1, and p2 that differ by 900 with one value between 00 and 900
These two values define the principal planes that contain maximum and minimum
stresses.
Substituting these two p values in equation 2.8, the maximum and minimum stresses, also
2
xx + yy xx yy 2
max,min = + xy 2.12
2 2
The plus and minus signs in the second term of equation 2.12, indicate the algebraically
larger and smaller principal stresses, i.e. maximum and minimum principal stresses.
In the second equation of 2.8, if x 'y' is taken as zero, then the resulting equation is same
as equation 2.11.
To get the maximum value of the shear stress, the derivative of x 'y' in equation 2.8 with
dx 'y'
d
( )
= xx yy cos 2 2 xy sin 2 = 0
tan 2s =
(
xx yy ) 2.13
2 xy
Hence, s has two values, s1 and s2 that differ by 900 with one value between 00 and 900
Hence, the maximum shear stresses that occur on those two mutually perpendicular
planes are equal in algebraic value and are different only in sign due to its complementary
property.
1
tan 2p = 2.14
tan 2s
It is understood from equation 2.14 that the tangent of the angles 2p and 2s are negative
Hence, we can conclude that p and s differ by 450, i.e., the maximum shear stress planes
Figure 2.10
The principal planes do not contain any shear stress on them, but the maximum shear
stress planes may or may not contain normal stresses as the case may be.
Maximum shear stress value is found out by substituting s values in equation 2.8.
2
xx yy 2
max = + xy 2.15
2
max min
max = 2.16
2
Figure 2.11
A gear with a shaft is used to transmit the power as shown in figure 2.11. The load at the
gear tooth is 1kN. The diameter of the gear and the shaft are 40 mm and 20 mm
respectively. Find the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress on an element,
Solution:
The critical element of design interest lies on the top of the shaft, near to the bearing.
Transfer the load from the end of the gear to the centre of the shaft as a force-couple
M ( )
1 103 ( 0.125 )
Bending stress, max = y=
4
I ( 0.02 ) / 64
= 159 MPa
T 20 ( 0.01)
Shearing stress, xy = r= = 12.7Mpa
4
J ( 0.02 ) / 32
2 12.7
tan 2p =
(159 0 )
p1 = 4.50 ; p2 = 90 + 4.50 = 94.50
(159 + 0 ) (159 0 )
max =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 4.50 + 12.7 sin 2 4.50 )
= 160 MPa
(159 + 0 ) (159 0 )
min =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 94.50 + 12.7 sin 2 94.50 )
= -1 MPa
159 + 0 159 + 0 2
max = + + (12.7 )
2 2
= 160 MPa
min = -1 MPa
160 + 1
Maximum Shear Stress, max = = 80.5 MPa
2
The principal planes and the stresses acting on them are shown below.
Top
Though the transformation equations are sufficient to get the normal and shear stresses on
any plane at a point, with Mohr's circle one can easily visualize their variation with respect
to plane orientation .
Besides stress plots, Mohr's circles are used to plot strains, moment of inertia, etc., which
xx + yy xx yy
x 'x ' = cos 2 + xy sin 2
2 2
2.17
xx yy
x 'y' = sin 2 + xy cos 2
2
A little consideration will show that the above two equations are the equations of a circle
with x 'x ' and x 'y' as its coordinates and 2 as its parameter.
If the parameter 2 is eliminated from the equations, then the significance of them will
become clear.
2 2
xx + yy 2 xx yy 2
x 'x ' + x 'y' = + xy 2.18
2 2
For simple representation of above equation, the following notations are used.
1/ 2
xx + yy 2
xx yy 2
ave = ; r= + xy 2.19
2 2
Equation 2.20 represents the equation of a circle in a standard form. This circle has x 'x '
The coordinate for the centre of the circle is x 'x ' = ave and x 'y' = 0 .
Figure 2.12
Sign convention: Tension is positive and compression is negative. Shear stresses causing
Mohr's circle is drawn with the stress coordinates xx as its abscissa and xy as its
The plane on the element in the material with xy coordinates is called the physical plane.
Stresses on the physical plane M is represented by the point M on the stress plane
Figure 2.13
The intersecting point of line MN with abscissa is taken as O, which turns out to be the
Now, the stresses on a plane which makes 0 inclination with x axis in physical plane can
An important point to be noted here is that a plane which has a 0 inclination in physical
Hence, rotate the line OM in stress plane by 20 counterclockwise to obtain the plane M'.
The coordinates of M' in stress plane define the stresses acting on plane M' in physical
(
x 'x ' = PO + r cos 2p 2 )
2.21
x 'x ' = PO + r cos 2p cos 2 + sin 2p sin 2
xx + yy
Where PO =
2
2
xx yy 2
r= + xy
2
xx yy
cos 2p =
2r
xy
sin 2p =
2r
xx + yy xx yy
x 'x ' = + cos 2 + xy sin 2 2.22
2 2
This way it can be proved for shear stress x 'y' on plane M' (do it yourself).
Extension of line M'O will get the point N' on the circle which coordinate gives the stresses
This way the normal and shear stresses acting on any plane in the material can be
Points A and B on Mohr's circle do not have any shear components and hence, they
2
xx + yy xx yy 2
max,min = PO r = + xy
2 2
The principal plane orientations can be obtained in Mohr's circle by rotating the line OM by
These principal planes on the physical plane are obtained by rotating the plane m, which is
normal to x axis, by p and p+900 in the same direction as was done in stress plane.
2
xx yy 2
max =r= + xy
2
( or )
min
max = max
2
It is important to note the difference in the sign convention of shear stress between
analytical and graphical methods, i.e., physical plane and stress plane. The shear stresses
that will rotate the element in counterclockwise direction are considered positive in the
analytical method and negative in the graphical method. It is assumed this way in order to
Example:
For the state of plane stress given, determine the principal planes, the principal stresses
and the maximum shear stress. Also find the stress components on the element after it is
Solution:
Analytical solution:
2
100 + ( 60 ) 100 ( 60 ) 2
max,min = + ( 50 )
2 2
= 20 94.34 MPa
2 ( 50 )
Principal planes, tan 2p =
100 ( 60 )
P1 = -160
P2 = -160+900=740
114.34 - ( -74.34 )
Maximum shear stress =
2
= 94.34 MPa
100 + ( 60 ) 100 ( 60 )
x'x' =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 200 + ( 50 ) sin 2 200 )
= 49.14 MPa
100 + ( 60 ) 100 ( 60 )
y'y' =
2
+
2
( ) (
cos 2 1100 + ( 50 ) sin 2 1100 )
= -9.14 MPa
100 ( 60 )
x 'y' = -
2
0
( )
sin 40 50 cos 40
0
( )
= -89.72 MPa
Using the procedure discussed in the previous section, Mohr's circle is constructed as
below.
Top
Torsion
Introduction
Click here to check the Animation
Basic Assumptions
Assumptions
Torsion Formula
Stress Formula
Stresses on Inclined Planes
Angle of twist
Angle of Twist in Torsion
Maximum Stress
Torsion of Circular Elastic Bars: Formulae
Table of Formulae
Introduction:
Detailed methods of analysis for determining stresses and deformations in axially loaded
bars were presented in the first two chapters. Analogous relations for members subjected
to torque about their longitudinal axes are developed in this chapter. The constitutive
relations for shear discussed in the preceding chapter will be employed for this purpose.
The investigations are confined to the effect of a single type of action, i.e., of a torque
The major part of this chapter is devoted to the consideration of members having circular
cross sections, either solid or tubular. Solution of such elastic and inelastic problems can
be obtained using the procedures of engineering mechanics of solids. For the solution of
torsion problems having noncircular cross sections, methods of the mathematical theory of
elasticity (or finite elements) must be employed. This topic is briefly discussed in order to
make the reader aware of the differences in such solutions from that for circular members.
Further, to lend emphasis to the difference in the solutions discussed, this chapter is
subdivided into four distinct parts. It should be noted, however, that in practice, members
for transmitting torque, such as shafts for motors, torque tubes for power equipment, etc.,
are predominantly circular or tubular in cross section. Therefore, numerous applications fall
Top
Basic Assumptions
Top
Torsion Formula
Since shear strains varies linearly across the section,
max
= R
C
where is the shear strains at a point of raidus R, C is the radius of the member.
Torque, T = R dA
A
= GR dA
A
where = G , the shear stress at any point at a distance R (Refer Figure 6.1)
Figure 6.1
R
T= C max RdA
A
max
C
= R 2 dA
R dA = Ip
2
max I p
T=
C
TC
max =
Ip
and
TR
=
Ip
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Figure 6.2
The shear stress at a point, on the surface acting on a plane perpendicular to the axis of
Using transformation law for, stresses the state of stress at a point on a plane at 450 to the
1 = max
2 = max
Ductile materials have lesser shear strength than tensile strength and hence fail through
Brittle materials have lesser tensile strength than shear strength. Hence they fail through
Top
perpendicular to the axis remain plane even after loading. Isolating an element form such a
Figure 6.3
A line segment in the surface of the shaft, AB is initially parallel to the axis of the shaft.
Upon application of torque, it occupies a new position AB'. The segment OB now occupy
BB' = C d
Also
BB ' = dx max
d max
=
dx C
Since = G
max = G max
TC
max =
GIp
TC
max =
GI p
d T
=
dx GI p
This equation gives the relative angle of twist between any two sections of a shaft distance
dx apart.
To find the total angle of twist between any two sections 1 and 2, all rotations of all
Tdx
= 2 1 =
Ip G
Where
T = T (x)
Ip = Ip ( x )
G = G (x)
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C4 D 4
Ip = =
2 32
Figure 6.4
c4 b 4
Ip =
2
I p = 2R avg t
where
b+c
R avg = ,
2
4. (i) TC
max =
IP
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
R
= max
C
TR
=
IP
Assumptions
Stress Formula
Angle of twist
Maximum Stress
Top
Table of Formulae
1.
(Shear
stress)
2. (Max.
shear
stress)
(Max.
3. normal
stress)
4.
(angle of
twist)
5. (angle of
twist)
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Misconceptions
Misconception 1
Torsional shear produces shear stresses on the cross section as shown, thus,
Fact:
Misconception 2
If the bar is twisted, its length also changes.
Fact:
Misconception 3
If there is a small slit made along the bar shown. Since all the properties remain
almost the same, the bar will twist to the same extent.
Fact:
No.
Misconception 4
If a composite rod is subjected to torque T, each of the composite is inturn
Fact:
No.
Misconception 5
The total angle of the twist of the bar is same as the shear strain.
Fact:
No.
Misconception 6
For a bar of varying cross section, the same formula can be used!
Fact:
Yes, but for a bar with small variation and not for a bar with a steep variation.
Misconception 7
The bar becomes thinner as you twist it!
Fact:
No. From assumption2, we see that the cross section remains the same after
twisting.
Misconception 8
The shear stress is maximum at the skin but it is a free surface. Therefore,
Fact:
No.
Find the internal torque at any section for the shaft shown in the figure. The forces are
Figure:
Concepts Involved:
Force equilibrium
Solution :
Step 1
The 50N.m torque is balanced by the two torques of 35 and 15 N.m at A and B
Step 2
We obtain the free body diagram of the part of the shaft, by passing a plane perpendicular
to the shaft at any point between A and B. So we have Mx = 0, this implies TAB = 35N-m.
The conclusion reached is that resisting torque developed between shaft A and B is 35N-m
Step 3
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AC is 15 mm.
Concepts involved:
1) Torsional stress
2) Torsion formula
Formulae used:
J = 2 dA
A
Torsion formula
max = Tr/J
Solution:
Step 1:
The maximum internal torque resisted by the shaft is known from the previous problem to
be 50 N-m
Step 2:
Step 3:
Result variation:
Consider the case when diameter changes. Guess how max will change?
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3. Hollow cylinder
Consider a long tube of 25mm outside diameter, do, and of 20mm inside diameter di,
twisted about its longitudinal axis with a torque T of 45 N-m Determine the shear stresses
Concepts involved:
Torsional stress
Torsion formula
Formulae used:
( d o4 - di4 )
J = dA =
2
A 32
Torsion formula
max = Tr / J
Solution:
Step 1:
Calculate J
J = 2 dA =
( d 4
o - d 4
i ) =
( 20 4
-16 4
)
A 32 32
=22641mm4
Step 2:
Conclusion:
We see that hollow members are better transmitters of torsion than solid members.
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as shown in the figure when a constant torque T is being transmitted through it. The polar
Concepts involved:
Formulae used:
Tx
= dx
JG
Where,
= Angle of twist
Tx = torque at distance x
G = Shear modulus
Solution:
Step 1:
Tx = T and Jx = J
B L L
TA dx Tdx T TL
= = = dx =
Jx G JG JG JG
A 0 0
TL
i.e , =
JG
Note:
In applying the above equation, note particularly that the angle must be expressed in
radians. Also observe the great similarity of this relation equation =PL/AE, for axially
Kt = T/ = JG /L [N-m/rad]
This constant torque required to cause a rotation of 1 radian, i.e., = 1. It depends only on
the material properties and the size of the member. As for axially loaded bars, one can
The reciprocal of kt defines the torsional flexibility ft. Hence, for a circular solid or hollow
shaft.
ft = 1/kt = L / JG [ rad/N-m]
This constant defines the rotation resulting from application of a unit torque, i.e., T = 1. On
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angle-of-twist of the end A when the torque at B and at D is applied. Assume the shear
Concepts Involved:
Angle of twist
Formulae used:
Tx
= dx
JG
Where,
= Angle of twist
Tx = torque at distance x
G = Shear modulus
Solution:
Step 1:
= 1150 N-m
Step 2:
TAB = 0 N-m
Step 3:
The polar moments of inertia for the two kinds of cross sections occurring in this problem
d4
JAB = JBC = = x254/32 = 38.3x103 mm4
32
( do4 di4 )
JCD = JDE =
32
= (504 - 254) /32 = 575 x 103 mm4
Step 4:
To find the angle-of-twist of the end A, angle-of-twist formula is applied for each segment
and the results summered. The limits of integration for the segments occur at points where
E
Tx dx B TAB dx C TBC dx D TCD dx E TDE dx
= = + + +
A JxG A J AB G B J BC G C J CD G D J DE G
In the last group of integrals, Ts and Js are constant between the limits considered, so
As can be noted from above, the angle-of- twist for shaft segments starting from the left
end are : 0 rad, 9.8 x 10-3 rad, 1.0 x 10 -3, rad 12.5x10 -3
rad. Summing these quantities
beginning from A, gives the angle-of-twist along the shaft. Since no shaft twist can occur at
the built-in end, this function must be zero at E, as required by the boundary condition.
No doubt local disturbances in stresses and strains occur at the applied concentrated
torques and the change in the shaft size, as well as at the built-in end. However, these are
local effects having limited influence on the overall behavior of the shaft.
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6. Composite bars
Determine the torsional stiffness kt, for the rubber bushing shown in figure. Assume that
the rubber is bonded to the steel shaft and the outer steel tube, which is attached to
machine housing. The shear modulus for the rubber is G. Neglect deformations in the
Concepts involved:
Formulae used:
Tx
= dx
JG
Where,
= Angle of twist
Tx = torque at distance x
G = Shear modulus
Solution:
Step 1:
Due to the axial symmetry of the problem, on every imaginary cylindrical surface of rubber
of radius r, the applied torque T is resisted by constant shear stresses . The area of the
imaginary surface is 2 rL. On this basis, the equilibrium equation for the applied torque T
and the resisting torque developed by the shear stresses acting at a radius r is
T = (2 rL) r [area*stress*arm]
Step 2:
Get from the above relation and hence determine shear strain.
From this relation, =T/2r2L Hence, by using Hookes law, the shear strain can be
determined for an infinitesimal tube of radius r and thickness dr, figure, from the following
relation:
T
= =
G 2LGr 2
Step 3:
This shear strain in an infinitesimal tube permits the shaft to rotate through an infinitesimal
angle d. Since in the limit r + dr is equal to r, the magnitude of this angle is d = (dr/r)
The total rotation of the shaft is an integral, over the rubber bushings, of these
D/2 dr T 1 1
= d= =
2LG d/2 r3 LG d 2 D2
From which,
T LG
kt = =
1 1
2 2
d D
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Concepts involved:
In this method the problems are reduced to statical determinancy by removing one of the
redundant reactions and calculating the rotation o at the released support. The required
boundary conditions are then restored by twisting the member at the released end through
Formulae used:
o + 1 = 0.
where
d 4 -d 4
o
J = i
32
where
do = Outer diameter
di = Inner diameter
Solution:
Step 1:
There are two unknown reactions, TA and TE. One of them can be considered as
redundant, and, arbitrary, reaction TA is removed. This results in the free-body diagram
shown in the above figure. Then the end rotation is calculated as o =23.3x10-3 rad.
Step 2:
Step 3:
By applying TA to the unloaded bar, as shown in the above figure, end rotation 1 at end A
is found.
Ti Li
1 =
i Ji G i
450 800
= TA x103 +
575 x 10 x 80 x 10
3 3 3 3
38.3 x 10 x 80 x 10
= (147 x10-6 + 17 x 10-6 )TA = 164x10-6 TA rad
Where TA has the units of N-m.
Step 4:
Using compatibility condition and defining rotation in the direction of TA as positive, one
has -23.3x10-3+164x10-6TA=0
Step 5:
The torque diagram for the shaft is shown in the above figure. The direction of the internal
torque vector T on the left part of an isolated shaft segment coincides with that of the
positive x axis, it is taken as positive. Note that most of the applied torque is resisted at the
end E. Since the shaft from A to C is more flexible than from C to E, only a small torque
develops at A.
In this problem is indeterminate only to the first degree, it has three kinematics degrees of
the freedom. Two of these are associated with the applied torques and one with the
change in the shaft size. Therefore, an application of the displacement method would be
Identification of the redundant force is one of the key points in this type of problem. The
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torque tx, as shown in the figure. Determine the rotation of the bar along its length and the
Concepts involved:
Differential approach
Formulae used:
d2 x
JG = t x = t
dx 2 L o
tx = Distributed torque in a small infinitesimal element
T = Torque developed at the ends of the element due to the distributed torque tx
Solution:
Part 1:
By integrating the above equation twice and determining the constants of integration C1
and C2 from the boundary conditions, the required conditions are determined
d2 x
JG = t x = t
dx 2 L o
d t x2
JG = T = o + C1
dx 2L
Apply boundary condition to get C1 and C2
TB = T(L) = - to (L / 2)
t o x3
JG = T = + C2
6L
to L
= ( L ) = 0 hence C2 =
6
t o L2 t o x3
JG =
6 6L
The negative sign for TB means that the torque vector acts in the direction opposite to that
Part 2:
Except for the change in the boundary conditions, the solution procedure is the same as in
part (a).
d2 x
JG = t x = t
dx 2 L o
d t x2
JG = T = o + C1
dx 2L
t o x3
JG = T = + C1x + C2
6L
A = (0) = 0 hence C2 =0
t o L2 t o x3
JG =
6 6L
TA = T(0) = to (L / 6)
Top
terms of maximum shear stress and the volume of materials (Refer to the figure). Find the
rotation of an elastic circular shaft with respect to the built in end when a torque T is
Concepts involved:
Energy methods
Formulae used:
2
Us = dV
V 2G
Where,
= Shear stress
Solution:
Part 1:
The shear stress in an elastic circular shaft subjected to torque varies linearly from the
longitudinal axis. Hence the shear stress acting on an element at a distance from the
( max )
r
Then
2
Us = dV
V 2G
2
2
2
Us = dV = ma x 2 2 d L
V 2G V 2Gr
ma x 2 L c 3 ma x 2 L r 2
2 2
= d =
2G r 2 0 2G r 2 4
1
2
= ma x vol
2G 2
If there were uniform shears throughout the member, a more efficient arrangement for
absorbing energy would be obtained. Rubber bushings with their small G values provide
Part 2:
If torque T is gradually applied to the shaft, the external work We = (1/2) T , Where is
the angular rotation of the free end in radians. The expressions for the internal strain
energy Us, which was found in part (a), may be written in a more convenient form by
noting that max = Tr / J, the volume of the rod r2L, and J = r4/2. Thus
max 2 1
Us = vol
2G 2
2 r 2 1
= 2 r2L
2J G 2
2 L
=
2JG
Then from We = Us
Top
The formulae derived look very similar to beam and axial deformation formulae?
Is the derivation for composite axis symmetric bar subjected to torsion similar to
How do I solve for stresses in the case of impact torque on an axis symmetric bar?
In order to make calculation of stresses due to torsion easy, we need to make certain
simplifying assumptions on the deformation pattern which is realistic. It is has been found
from the rigorous solution procedure (elasticity solution) and from the experiments that the
circular cross section members subjected to pure torsion in the elastic range satisfy very
closely this condition of plane sections remain plane and rigid. By making this assumption,
the solution procedure becomes simple as shown in the basic concepts section in the
Top
For bars with non-axisymmetric cross section, the assumption of plane section remain
plane is not satisfied. Regions of the cross-section undergo deformations in the axial
direction leading to warping of the section. There are again certain simplifying
assumptions which are relaxation of the axisymmetric bar assumption that can be used to
Top
The formulae derived look very similar to beam and axial deformation formulae?
Yes, thats true. In all the three derivations pertaining to axial, beam and torsional
deformations, the assumption of plane section remains plane is used and it leads to very
Top
Is the derivation for composite axisymmetric bar subjected to torsion similar to the
Yes. Since plane sections remain plane assumption holds good for composite bar
subjected to torsion, similar principle as derivation for composite beam can be used to
solve for stresses in a composite bar subjected to torsion. (See 'Worked Examples" on
Top
If the material is non-isotropic (i.e. anisotropic), then the elastic modulii will vary and thus
the problem will be completely different with additional stresses appearing since there is a
coupling between shear stresses and normal stresses for an anisotropic material.
Top
Even, if the material goes to plastic range, plane sections remain plane assumption is
assumed to hold. Therefore, the strains can be found out from which distribution of
stresses can be derived from equilibrium principles. (refer to 'Advanced Topics: Inelastic
Top
For non-linear elastic materials again, the elastic modulii are different and are functions of
the strains. Therefore, while solving for stresses, appropriate constitutive law should be
Top
This emanates from the fact that the cross-section rotates as a rigid body because of axis
symmetry condition of the cross-sectional geometry and the anti-axis symmetry of the
torque. Since the cross-section rotates as a rigid body, the amount of rotation is linear with
Top
For stepped shafts, away from the abrupt change in the cross-section, the stresses can be
computed using the same formulae derived taking appropriate diameter of the shaft portion
in to consideration. (See: Worked out Examples: Stepped Shafts). At the region of change
in geometry, stress concentrations can occur due to abrupt change radius. (refer to 'stress
Top
How do I solve for stresses in the case of impact torque on an axis symmetric bar?
Stress concentration
Energy
Numerical solutions
5. Beams
Introduction
Bending of Beams
Theory of Bending
Introduction:
Apart from axial and torsional forces there are other types of forces to which members may
be subjected. In many instances in structural and machine design, members must resist
forces applied laterally or transversely to their axes. Such members are called beams. The
main members supporting floors of buildings are beams, just as an axle of a car is a beam.
Many shafts of machinery act simultaneously as torsion members and as beams. With
the system of internal forces necessary for equilibrium of any beam segment will be the
main objective of this chapter. For the axially or torsionally loaded members previously
considered, only one internal force was required at an arbitrary section to satisfy the
conditions of equilibrium. However, even for a beam with all forces in the same plane, i.e.,
a planar beam problem, a system of three internal force components can develop at a
section. These are the axial force, the shear, and the bending moment. Determining these
quantities is the focus of this chapter. The chapter largely deals with single beams. Some
discussion of related problems of planar frames resisting axial forces, shears, and bending
moments is also given. Only statically determinate systems will be fully analyzed for these
internal force components, will be introduced in later chapters as ceded and will rely on the
reader's knowledge of statics. In such problems at a section of a member there can be: an
axial force, two shear components, two bending moment components, and a torque.
Top
Supports:
(a) Rollers/Links:
(b) Pins:
Resists moments.
1) Simply supported - pinned at one end and roller at the other (Figure 5.1.2(a))
2) Cantilever - fixed at one end and the other end free (Figure 5.1.2(b)).
Fx = 0, Fy = 0 and M3 = 0
Employing these, the reactions at supports could be found out.
Axial force
Shear
Bending Moment
Find reactions at supports for the cantilever shown in figure 5.1.3(a) subjected to uniformly
distributed load.
Cut the cantilever along section A-A and obtain free body diagram as given in figure
5.1.3(b).
The segment of the beam shown in figure 5.1.3(b) is in equilibrium under the action of
Fy = 0
gives
V = wx
M = 0
wx 2
gives, M- =0
2
wx 2
M=
2
As Shown in Figure 5.1.5(a), sagging (beam retains water) moment is positive, other wise
5.1.5 Shear force and Bending Moment Diagrams (SFD & BMD)
Plot of shear and bending moment values on separate diagrams could be obtained.
SFD & BMD are essential for designers to make decisions on the shape and size of a
beam.
The worked out examples illustrate the procedure for plotting SFD and BMD by direct
approach.
Free body diagram of element of length dx is shown Figure 5.17, which is cut from a
Fy = 0 gives
V + wdx ( V + dv ) = 0
dv
ie =w 5.1.1
dx
M p = 0 gives
M + dM Vdx M ( wdx ) . ( dx / 2 ) = 0
dM
ie =V 5.1.2
dx
d2 M
=V 5.1.3
dx 2
Integrating 5.1.2
x
V = wdx + c1
0
Integrating 2
x
M = Vdx + C2 + M e
0
Top
From Figure 5.2.1, ab, cd efs are sections which remain plane and normal. Beam is
subjected to pure bending (no shear). Longitudinal top fibers are in compression and
Layer of fibres in between which is neither in tension or compression, is called the neutral
surface. Neutral axis is the intersection of such a surface with the right section through the
beam.
( )
Effect of shear stress in the plane xy xy on normal stress ( x ) is neglected.
Note: Even through pure bending is assumed, distribution of normal stresses at any given
cross section does not get significantly changed due to non uniform bending.
For pure bending of a beam, beam axis deforms into part of a circle of radius ; for an
element defined by an infinitesimal angle d , the fiber length is given by (refer figure
5.2.2)).
ds = R d
d 1
= = k , where
ds R
R - Radius of Curvature
k - Axis Curvature
ds ' = ( R y ) d
ds ds '
Strain, x =
ds
x = ky
Fx = 0 gives
Ek ydA = 0
i.e. neutral axis possess through the centroid of the cross section (Ref Figure 5.2.3.)
M = 0 gives
M z = E k y 2 .dA
= Ek Iz
This gives
M
k=
E Iz
M z y
x =
Iz
Mz C
max =
Iz
For beams of composite cross section x = Ei ky for the ith material in the composite.
y = yi - y0
yi is the location of neutral axis of the ith material. In the figure yi = yA, from this, we get
Ei yi dA
y0 = A
Ei dA
Where A the area of cross section of the corresponding material. The procedure for
Top
Find the reactions at the supports for a simple beam as shown in the diagram. Weight of
Figure:
Concepts involved
Procedure
Step 1:
Step 2:
In X direction
FX = 0
RAX = 0
In Y Direction
FY = 0
RAY+RBY = 260
MZ = 0
We get,
MA = 0
MB = 0
TOP
Find the reactions for the partially loaded beam with a uniformly varying load shown in
Figure
(a) (b)
Procedure:
The reactions and applied loads are shown in figure (b). A crude outline of the beam is
also shown to indicate that the configuration of the member is not important for finding out
the reactions. The resultant force P acting though the centroid of the distributed forces is
found out. Once a free body diagram is prepared, the solution is found out by applying the
Fx = 0
RAx = 0
MA = 0 Anticlockwise
+12 X 2 - RBy X 6 = 0
RBy = 4 kN downwards
MB = 12 * (6 - 2) - RAy * 6
=> RAy = 8 kN
Check Fy = 0
8 + 12 4 = 0 ok!
TOP
Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam shown due to the applied force.
Figure
Solution
At A, the reaction components is x and y directions are RAx and RAy. The reaction RB acting
at B and inclined force F can be resolved into two components along x and y directions.
Calculation:
MA = 0
12 X 3 RBy X 9 = 0
RBy = 4 kN = RBx
MB = 0
12 X 6 - RAy X 9 = 0
RAy = 8kN
Fx = 0
RAx 94 = 0
RAx = 13kN
So,
RB = ( 42 + 42 ) = 4 2 kN
Check:
Fy = 0
+ 8 12 + 4= 0 ok!
TOP
In the earlier Example, determine the internal system of forces at sections a-a and b-b; see
Figure
Figure
(b)
(a)
(d)
(c)
Solution:
A free-body diagram for the member, including reactions, is shown in Fig. (a). A free-body
to the left of section a-a in Fig. 5-20(b) shows the maximum ordinate for the isolated part of
and
A free-body diagram to the left of section b-b is shown in Figure. This gives
Vb = - 4 kN
And
Mb = -4 x 2 = - 8 kN-m
TOP
Construct shear and bending-moment diagrams for the beam loaded with the forces
Figure
Solution.
Taking an arbitrary section at a distance x from the left support isolates the beam segment
shown in Fig.(b). This section is applicable for any value of x just to the left of the applied
force P. The shear, remains constant and is +P. The bending moment varies linearly from
An arbitrary section applicable anywhere between the two applied forces is shown in
Fig.(c). Shear force is not necessary to maintain equilibrium of a segment in this part of the
beam. Only a constant bending moment of +Pa must be resisted by the beam in this zone.
Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this loading condition are shown in Figs (d) and
(e). No axial-force diagram is necessary, as there is no axial force at any section of the
beam
TOP
Plot shear and bending-moment diagrams for a simply supported beam with a uniformly
Figure
Solution
A section at a distance x from the left support is taken as shown in figure (b). The shear is
found out by subtracting the load to the left of the section from the left upward reaction.
The internal bending moment M resists the moment caused by the re-action on the left
less the moment caused by the forces to the left of the same section. The summation of
Similar expressions may be obtained by considering the right-hand segment of the beam,
while taking care of the sign conventions. The plot of the V and M functions is shown in
TOP
For the beam as shown in Fig 5, express the shear V and the bending moment M as a
Figure:
Fig (a)
Solution
in two parts for each of which the functions V and M are continuous.
M(x) = -8x + 1/2x[(x/3) * 8 *(x/3)] = -8x + 4/9x3 kN.m for 0 < x < 3
TOP
A parabolic beam is subjected to a 10kN force as shown above. Find axial force, shear
Solution :
We first find the equation of the beam and the point where section is cut. With origin at A,
x=
(4 3 +1 )
2 3
Now, we only have to resolve the force at the section along the normal and tangential
directions. But before that, we first have to find the support reactions.
Fx = 0 R Ax = 0
M A = 0 10 2 = R By 4 R By = 5kN.
By symmetry (since RAX = 0), R Ay = 5kN [or R Ay = 10 R By ]
3
Shear force = 5cos30 = 5 = 4.33 kN.
2
Axial force = 5cos30 = 2.50 kN(compression)
(4 3 +1 ) = M = 11.44 kNm
Mc = 0 5 2 3
The Reader can repeat the exercise for a general angle and check where each of
TOP
A constant load of 0 per unit length is applied on a simply supported beam as shown
a. Method of sections
b. Integration method
Solution:
Formulas used:
dv dm
=q = V.
dx dx
We first find the support reactions which are necessary for both the methods.
Fx = 0 R Ax = 0
0 L
By symmetry, R Ay = R By =
2
a. Method of section
0 L
Fy = 0 V = 2
0 x
L x x
M c = 0 M = 20 x 0 x 2 = 0 2 ( L x )
b. Method of Integration
dv
= q.
dx
Here, q = 0
dv
= 0
dx
Integrating V = 0 x + C1
0 L
wkt V at x = 0is . Putting x = 0in above equation,
2
L
We get C1 = 0
2
0
V= ( L 2x )
2
dm
= V = 0 ( L 2x )
dx 2
(
M = 0 Lx x 2 + C2
2
)
wkt, for a simply supported beam, bending moment is zero at the two ends.
M = 0 at x = 0 C2 = 0
M=
0
2
( ) x
Lx x 2 = 0 ( L x )
2
We see that the expression for shear force and bending moment is the same using the two
Points to ponder:
dm
The relation = V can be construed from two diagrams as below.
dx
As shear force decreases (with increasing x), the slope of the bending moment diagram
also decreases.
Further the bending moment is maximum when its derivative, the shear force is zero.
TOP
A beam with a hinge is loaded as above. Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagram.
Solution:
Concept: A hinge can transfer axial force and shear force but not bending moment. So,
Also, without the hinge, the system is statically indeterminate (to a degree 1). The hinge
Fx = 0 R Ax = 0.
M B = 0 R Ay 2 = 0 R Ay = 0 [ Bending moment at hinge = 0]
M D = 0 10 5 + 5 4 2 = R cy 4
R cy = 22.5kN
R Dy = 10 + 5 4 22.5 = 7.5kN
The shear force remains zero till the 10kN load is reached. It is then constant and equal to
-10 kN till it reaches the point C where it jumps up by the value of Rcy. From C to D it
decreases linearly at 5kN/m. From above considerations, the shear force diagram is as
below.
Let us draw the bending moment diagram from the shear force diagram, keeping in mind
the fact that the slope of bending moment diagram at any point must be equal to the shear
at that point. Further, we know that the bending moment is zero at end supports.
The bending moment remains zero till the 10kN force, as shear is zero. It then decreases
linearly at 10 kNm/m up to the point C. From the point C, it is parabolic till it finally reaches
zero at the right support D. Further, it reaches a maximum where shear is zero, keeping
1.5
M max = 7.5 1.5 5 1.5 = 5.625 kNm
2
TOP
The composite beam shown in figure is made up of two materials. A top wooden portion
and a bottom steel portion. The dimensions are as shown in the figure. Take youngs
modulus of steel as 210 GPa and that wood as 15 GPa. The beam is subjected to a
bending moment of 40 kNm about the horizontal axis. Calculate the maximum stress
Solution:
The solution procedure involves hiding an equivalent dimension for one of the materials
Ratio of modulii,
E wood 15
r= = = .00714
Esteel 210
= 7.14 10-2
= 120 r
= 8.568 mm
bi di3
12 + Ai yi
2
Moment of Inertia I =
Stresses in beams
M.y
( steel )max =
I
40 103 66.75 10-3
=
( )
4
13.5 106 10-3
= 197.78 MPa
( wood )max = ( steel )max r
= 14.12 MPa
TOP
Deflection of beams
Introduction
Introduction
The axis of a beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied forces. Accurate
values for these beam deflections are sought in many practical cases: elements of
accuracy under load; in buildings, floor beams cannot deflect excessively to avoid the
flight structures.
Top
Deflection of Beams
d2 y
k=
1
= dx 2
R 2 3 / 2
d y
1 + 2
dx
d2 y
k=
dx 2
Since, x = My / EI
and k = / y, and = x / E
k = M / EI
d2 y
M = EI
dx 2
where M = My
Hence,
d2 y
EI = M(x)
dx 2
dM
Since, V =
dx
d3 y
EI = V(x)
dx 3
dv
Since, w =
dx
d4 y
EI = w (x)
dx 4
Boundary Conditions
Refer figure 5.2.7(a) (d)
y(x1) = 0; y'(x1)=0;
y(x1) = 0; M (x1)=0;
M (x1) = 0; V(x1) = 0;
y'(x1) = 0; V (x1)=0;
Example:
Question: A Cantilever beam is subjected to a bending moment M at the force end. Take
flexural rigidity to be constant and equal to EI. Find the equation of the elastic curve.
d2 y
EI = Ma
dx 2
Integrating
EI dy/dx = Max + C1
at x = 0; dy/dx = 0
which gives C1 = 0
Integrating again,
Ma x 2
EIy = + C2
2
y = 0; at x = 0 gives
C2 = 0
Ma x 2
y=
2EI
Top
beam.
This method makes use of the Moment - Area theorems given below.
M d2 y
=
EI dx 2
M d dy
=
EI dx dx
Let dy/dx =
M d
=
EI dx
M
d = EI dx
Referring to figure down
Q
M
Q/P = Q P = EI dx
P
This is the first moment area theorem, Where P and Q are any two sections on the beam.
ie change in angle measured in radians between any two point P and Q on the elastic
curve is equal to the M/EI area bounded by the ordinates through P and Q.
dh = x . d
Q
h Q/P = dh
P
Q
= xd
P
Q
M
= EI x dx
P
If x P is the distance of centroid of the bending moment diagram between P and Q from P,
(Refer Figure)
then
h P / Q = Ax P
h Q /P = Ax Q
where A is the area of the BM diagram between P and Q. x p and x Q are as shown in
figure.
Top
over its span L as shown in figure. Develop the equation of the elastic line and find the
Figure:
Concepts involved:
Formulae used:
d2y/dx2 = M/EI
Solution:
Taking coordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for the bending moment at any point x.
Mx = wLx/2 - wx2/2
C1 - wL3/24
Thus C2 = 0 and the required equation for the elastic line becomes
To find the maximum deflection at mid- span, we set x = L/2 in the equation and obtain
| | = 5wL4/384EI
The maximum slope A at the left end of the beam can be found by setting x = 0 in the
dy
dx x = 0
=> A = wL3/24EI.
Top
A simply supported beam AB carries a triangularly distributed load as shown in the fig.
Find the equation of the deflection curve referred to the coordinate axes x and y as shown.
Figure:
Solution:
EI d4y/dx4 = - wx/L
To find the four constants of integration, we now note that the bending moment,
when x = 0 and when x =L. From these four boundary conditions, we find
C1 = wL/6, C2 = 0, C3 = -7wL3/360, C4 = 0
Substituting these values back into eq.2 and rearranging terms, we obtain
To find the maximum deflection d, we first set dy/dx = 0 and find x = 0.519l. Then using
= | d | = PL3/3EI
Top
figure. Locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic line and find the value of this
deflection.
Figure:
Solution:
Pa
Mx =
L x
Pb
Mx = (x - a).
L
Substituting these expressions for bending moment into deflection equation, we obtain for
the two portions of the deflection curve, the following two differential equations
Where C1, C2, D1, D2, are constants of integration. To find these four constants, we have
1. At x = 0 , y = 0
2. At x = L , y = 0
dy
3. is the same from equations (l) and (n)
dx x = a
4. ( y )x = a is the same from equations (m) and (o)
Using these we get, C1 = Pb/6L (L2 b2), C2 = 0, D1 = Pa/6L (2L2 + a2), D2 = Pa3/6EI
Using the constants as determined eqs. (m) and (o) defining the two portions of the elastic
EIy = -
6L
(
Pbx 2 2 2
)
L - b - x -------------------------------------(p)
Pb
( L/b ) (x-a) + (L - b ) x - x --------------------------(q)
3 2 2 3
EIy =
6L
For a > b, the maximum deflection will occur in the left portion of the span, to which eq.(p)
x = a ( a + 2b ) /3 = ( L - b )( L + b ) / 3
= ( L2 - b2 / 3)
Which defines the abscissa of the point having a horizontal tangent and hence the point of
( )
3/ 2
Pb L2 - b 2
y max =
9 3EIL
Top
Determine the deflection and the slope at the free end A of the cantilever beam AB
Figure:
Solution:
The bending moment diagram is shown in figure. Since the tangent to the elastic line at B
coincides with the undeflected axis of the beam, the required deflection d will be the
1 2L
d = PL L /EI
2 3
Likewise, the slope at A is the angle between tangents at A and at B and from Theorem 1,
we have
1
q = PL L / EI
2
= PL2/2EI ----------(2)
Top
Find the deflection d of point D from the cord line and the tangent at A.
Figure:
Solution:
The bending moment diagram is shown in following figure. The area of this diagram is
Pab/2L and the distance of its centroid C from B is 1/3(L +b) as shown. Taking the statical
moment of this area with respect to point B, we obtain the deflection B'B of B away from
Pab L + b
B'B =
2EI 3
Pab
A = (L + b) ------------------------------------- (1)
6EIL
We see also from the figure that the required deflection of point D from the cord line AB is
= (a * A) - d' -------------------------------------(2)
Where d' is the deflection of D away from the tangent at A. This deflection d' can be found
by using theorem 2 for the portion A1D1 of the bending moment diagram. The area of this
is Pa2b/2L and its centroid is at the distance a/3 to the left of D. Thus
Pa 2 b Pa 3 b Pa 2 b 2
= (L + b) = ------------------------------------ (4)
6EIL 6LEI 3LEI
Top
A prismatic cantilever beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load over the portion b of its
length as shown in the figure. Find the deflection of the free end A
Figure:
Solution:
The bending moment diagram is shown in the figure. Its area wb3/6 from the position of its
centroid C are found by reference to the figure. Now from the second theorem the
deflection will be obtained by dividing by EI the static moment of this area with respect to
wb3 3b
= a +
6EI 4
Top
dM
=v
dx
M1 y M1 M1Q
F1 = I
dA =
I y dA = I
A1 A1
M2Q
Q= y.dA - First moment of area about the neutral axis F2 =
I
A1
if M 2 = M1 + dM and F2 = F1 + dF
dM
then dF = Q
I
dF dM Q
Force per unit length, =
dx dx I
dM
Substituting for = V;
dx
VQ
q=
I
Here I is the moment of Inertia of the entire cross-sectional area around the neutral axis.
dF dM Q
=
dx dx I
Shear Stress,
1 dF
=
t dx
VQ
= (Refer figure)
It
q
=
t
Derive an expression for the shear stress distribution in a beam of solid rectangular cross-
The cross sectional area of the beam is shown in the figure. A longitudinal cut through the
beam at a distance y1, from the neutral axis, isolates area klmn. (A1).
Shear stress,
VQ
=
It
V
It
= y.dA
A1
d/2
V
=
Ib by dy
y1
V
=
( d / 2 )2 ( y1 )2 ---------------------- (1)
2I
Max Shear Stress occurs at the neutral axis and this can be found by putting y = 0 in the
equation 1.
Vd 2
max =
8I
3 V
=
2 bh
3V
=
2A
Top
A vertical shear force of 1KN acts on the cross section shown below. Find the shear at the
Solution:
We first find the distance of the neutral axis from the top fiber.
All dimensions in mm
20 100 10 + 20 100 70
y NA = = 40mm
20 100 + 20 100
Q = 20 x 100 x 30 = 6 x 104
V = 1KN
20 1003 2 100 20
3
I= + 20 100 30 + + 100 20 302
12 12
= 5.33 106
VQ 103 6 104 (103 )3 N
q= = = 1.125 104
( )
I 4 m
5.33 106 103
KN
= 11.25
m
Top
Solution:
3V
max =
2A
We first find the section of maximum shear force. We know this is at the supports and is
equal to
5 6
= 15KN
2
We also know that max.shear stress occurs at the centre (for a rectangular cross section)
3 15 103
So, max = = 9 Mpa
2 50 50 106
Top
The cross section of an I beam is shown below. Find the max.shear stress in the flange if it
Solution:
VQ
Formula used: =
It
V = 2KN
10 1003 100 103
I= + + 100 10 552 2 = 6.9 106 mm 4
12 12
Q = 50 10 55
( )
3
2 103 50 10 55 103
max = = 0.79 MPa
( 6.9 10 )(10 )
6 3 4
10 10 3
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