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Logic Mo Va Ung Dung 02
Logic Mo Va Ung Dung 02
M u
Trong cuc sng, con ngi truyn thng tin cho nhau ch yu bng ngn ng t nhin.
Mc d ngn ng t nhin thng a ngha, khng chnh xc, v khng y , nhng n vn l
phng tin truyn thng tin mnh m v thng dng nht gia con ngi vi nhau. Vt qua tt
c cc hn ch ca ngn ng t nhin (thiu chnh xc, khng r rng vaguenees), con
ngi thng hiu ng v t khi hiu sai nhng iu m ngi khc mun ni vi mnh. y l
iu m my mc ni chung v my tnh ni ring khng th thc hin c mt cch hon ho.
Tham vng ca cc nh ton hc, logic hc v cng ngh thng tin l mun xy dng cho my
mc kh nng suy din v x l thng tin, tc l c kh nng hot ng nh b c ca con ngi
chng c th nhn nhng mnh lnh ca con ngi thng qua ngn ng t nhin v thc thi
nhng nhim v . Nh vy, vn t ra y l lm th no my tnh c th hiu v x l
c nhng tri thc din t bng ngn ng t nhin. t c iu ny, trc ht ngi ta
cn phi xy dng mt l thuyt logic ton cho php m t chnh xc ngha ca cc mnh
khng r rng, a ngha.
Logic ton hc c in nghin cu cc php suy lun vi cc mnh c gi tr chn l
(ng/sai) r rng. Chng hn ta c cc mnh trong logic c in:
p: hm nay tri ma , gi tr chn l ca p l T(ng) hay F (sai) l c th xc nh
c.
q: hm nay Trung ngh hc,s c gi tr chn l duy nht l T hoc F
r: tui ca Trung l 22 ...
Vi nhng mnh trn, logic c in c th p dng cc quy tc suy din, chng hn quy tc
modus ponens :
nu p q ng v p ng th q ng
do nu c lut tri ma th SV ngh hc th nu c p : hm nay tri ma l ng th s suy
ra q : hm nay Trung ngh hc l ng.
Tuy nhin trong thc t, c nhiu mnh cha nhng thng tin khng r rng, khng chnh
xc, chng hn ta thng gp nhng mnh :
p : A l ngi lp trnh gii
q : lng ca A l cao
r : A c cm tnh vi B
Nhng mnh trn y cha nhng thng tin khng chnh xc v khng y (gi l cc
thng tin m), chng hn: nh th no l lp trnh gii, cho nn khng th c gi tr chn l ca
p, hay lng ca A cao l bao nhiu, A cm tnh vi B n mc no ? Tt c nhng mnh
trn u khng th c gi tr chn l (ng/sai) r rng (gi l cc mnh m). Chng ta
L THUYT TP M
1.1.1 M t tp hp
Th d 1.3. Mt s kt qu so snh cc tp hp :
a/. {1, 2, 3, 4} {2, 1, 4, 5, 3}
b/. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}={5, 1, 2, 3, 4}
c/. Cho A = {1, 2, 3}th tp hp ly tha ca A l
2A = { , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}
Ta c | 2A| = 2 | A | = 23 = 8 phn t
Trong chuyn ny, t nay v sau, cho ngn gn, ta dng t tp thay cho tp hp.
A A ; X =; =X
Giao hon:
AB=BA
AB=BA
Kt hp:
(A B) C = A (B C)
(A B) C = A (B C)
Phn b:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
i ngu (cng thc Demorgan):
A B A B (1)
A B A B (2)
Lc lng ca hai tp hp:
| A | + | B | = |A B| + |A B|
nh ngha 1.1.
Mt quan h hai ngi R (hay n gin l quan h R) trn mt tp hu hn cc phn t X, l mt
tp con ca tch Decac X X, k hiu l R(X).
Nu hai phn t a, b X c quan h vi nhau theo quan h R th ta vit aRb hay (a, b) R(X).
Chng ta quan tm n cc tnh cht sau ca mt quan h hai ngi R trn tp X:
Phn x: Quan h R c tnh phn x nu: aRa, a X
i xng: Quan h R c tnh i xng nu: aRb bRa
Bc cu: Quan h R c tnh bc cu nu: (aRb v bRc) aRc
Mi mt quan h c th c mt s hoc tt c ba tnh cht trn. Mt quan h s c gi l quan
h phn x, quan h i xng hoc quan h bc cu khi n c tnh cht tng ng.
nh ngha 1.2.
Mt quan h hai ngi R trn X c gi l quan h tng ng nu R l quan h phn x, i
xng v bc cu; tc l: vi mi phn t a, b, c X th R tha cc tnh cht:
aRa, a X (Tnh phn x)
aRb bRa (Tnh i xng)
(aRb v bRc) aRc (Tnh bc cu)
Nu R l quan h tng ng trn X th mi cp phn t thuc R(X) c gi l tng ng
vi nhau (theo quan h R).
nh ngha 1.3.
Phn hoch ca tp hp X l tp P cc tp con ca X: P = {X1 , X2 , Xk }, trong Xi X ,
i = 1, 2, , k; X1X2Xk = X , XiXj = vi i j.
Mt quan h tng ng R trn tp hp X s chia tp X thnh cc lp tng ng, sao cho hai
phn t thuc cng mt lp l tng ng vi nhau (theo quan h R). Mt phn t a ca tp X
phi thuc v ng mt lp tng ng no , cha tt c nhng phn t tng ng vi a,
k hiu lp ny l C(a,R). Nh vy cc lp tng ng l cc tp con ri nhau ca X, v ph
kn tp X.
Do , mt quan h tng ng R trn mt tp hp s xc nh mt phn hoch trn tp hp
, v ngc li, mt phn hoch bt k trn mt tp hp s tng ng vi mt quan h tng
ng trn tp hp .
nh ngha 1.4.
Quan h R trn tp X c gi l quan h th t nu n c ba tnh cht: phn x, phn i
xng v bc cu.
Ta c R(X) = {(1,2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4), (1, 1) (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
nh ngha 1.5.
Bao ng P (P-closure) ca quan h R trn tp X, l mt quan h nh nht cha tt c cc
cp ca R, v nhng cp c suy dn ra t cc tnh cht trong P.
1.1.5 nh x trn cc tp hp
nh ngha 1.7
Cho nh x f t A vo B, khi :
a/. nh x f : A B c gi l n nh nu nh ca cc phn t khc nhau l khc nhau.
Ni cch khc: nh x f gi l n nh nu vi mi x1, x2 A, m x1 x2, th f( x1) f( x2)
b/. nh x f : A B c gi l ton nh nu f(A) = B.
Ni cch khc: nh x f gi l ton nh nu vi bt k y B, c t nht mt phn t x A tng
ng vi y, tc l c x A sao cho y = f( x).
c/. nh x f : A B gi l song nh nu f va l n nh va l ton nh.
Ch :
1. Nu f : A B l mt nh x song nh, th tn ti nh x ngc t B vo A, k hiu f -1: B A,
ng mi phn t y B vi mt phn t x A m y = f(x).
nh x ngc f -1: B A cng l mt song nh v ch nh x song nh mi c nh x ngc
2. nh x n nh cn c gi l nh x 1 1; nh x ton nh cn gi l nh x ln v nh
x song nh cn gi l nh x 1 1 v ln.
3. nh x f : A B cng c gi l mt hm t A vo B. Khi cc tp A, B l cc tp con ca
tp s thc R, th cc nh x c gi l cc hm s.
Th d 1.10.
a/. Gi A l tp cc sinh vin trong 1 lp, B = {0, 1, 2, , 100}, php tng ng f ng mi sinh
vin vi 1 gi tr trong B l im thi mn ting Anh ca sinh vin (thang im 100, khng c
Chng hn, xt v tr tham chiu l cc nhn vin trong 1 cng ty, gi A l tp nhng ngi c
mc lng t 6 triu n 8 triu ng, th A l 1 tp r, gm tt c nhng ngi c mc lng
S, m 6000000 S 8000000. R rng ai c lng 5.990.000 hay 8.010.000 l khng thuc
tp A.
Nu ta coi mc lng t 6.000.000 tr ln l mc thu nhp cao, th c nhng ngi c mc
lng thp hn 6.000.000 vi chc ngn n vi trm ngn ng vn c th c xem l thuc
tp hp nhng ngi c thu nhp cao. Tp A trn l tp hp theo ngha c in (tp r), cn
tp B : nhng ngi c thu nhp cao l tp m, mi phn t ca v tr tham chiu u c
gn mt gi tr ch mc thuc tp m ny, chng hn mt nhn vin c mc lng 6.800.000
nh ngha 1.8.
Cho U l mt v tr tham chiu, tp con m A trn U c xc nh bi hm thuc A, gn cho
mi phn t u ca U, mt gi tr A(u), vi 0 A(u) 1, ch mc m phn t u thuc v
tp m A. Ni cch khc, tp con m A trn U c xc nh bi nh x :
A : U [0, 1]
Tp con m A trn U xc nh bi hm thuc A : U [0, 1] c th c biu din nh sau :
Vi U l tp ri rc cc gi tr, U = {u1, u2, ...,un} tp m A trn U c biu din:
A = { A (u 1 )/u 1 , A (u 2 )/u 2 ,, A (u n )/u n | u i U, i = 1, 2, , n }
Vi U l min khng m c, tp m A trn U c biu din bng k php:
A= U
A (u ) / u
K php trong cch biu din th hai ny khng lin quan g n tch phn, ch c ngha rng vi
mi phn t u ca min v tr U (U l min lin tc hoc khng m c) u c gn vi
mt thuc ca u vo tp m A.
Nu hm A(u) cho kt qu 0 i vi phn t u U th phn t khng c trong tp cho, kt
qu 1 th phn t hon ton thuc tp cho. Cc gi tr trong khong m t 0 n 1 c
trng cho cc phn t m, tc l mc l thnh vin ca phn t i vi tp hp d cho.
Trng hp c bit, nu hm A(u) ch ly gi tr bng 0 hay 1, tc l A : U {0, 1}, th tp
con m A l mt tp con c in ca U. Nh vy, tp con c in (tp r) l mt trng hp
ring ca tp con m.
1.2.2 Cc c trng ca tp m
nh ngha 1.9.
Gi ca tp m A (Support) l tp cc phn t c gi tr hm thuc ln hn 0 trong tp m
A, c k hiu v xc nh nh sau:
supp(A) = {u | u U | A(u) > 0}
nh ngha 1.10.
Chiu cao ca tp m A (Hight) l gi tr ln nht m hm thuc c th ly trong tp m A,
c k hiu v xc nh nh sau:
h(A) = sup{A (u ), u U }
nh ngha 1.11.
Tp m A gi l chun ha nu chiu cao ca n h(A) = 1
Nh vy tp m A trn U c gi l chun ha, nu chc chn c t nht 1 phn t ca U l tht
s thuc A.
nh ngha 1.12
Ht nhn ca tp m A (Kernel) l tp cc phn t c gi tr hm thuc bng 1, c k hiu v
xc nh nh sau:
ker(A) = {u | uU | A(u) = 1}
Nh vy, tp m A c nhn khc rng khi v ch khi A l tp m chun ha.
nh ngha 1.13.
Lc lng ca tp m A c k hiu v xc nh nh sau:
|A|=
uU
A (u )
nh ngha 1.14
- nht ct ca tp m A (hay tp mc ca A) l tp cc phn t c gi tr hm thuc ln hn
hoc bng , vi [0, 1], c k hiu v nh ngha nh sau:
A = {u | uU | A(u) }
Ch rng - nht ct ca tp m A l 1 tp r, cc phn t ca A hon ton c xc nh.
1.2.3. S m v cc tp con m li
1.2.3.1 Tp m li v s m
nh ngha 1.15.
Mt tp con m A trn tp s thc R l tp m li nu vi mi cp phn t a, b R v vi
mi s thc [0, 1], hm thuc ca A tha mn:
A(a + (1 - )b) min {A(a), A(b)}
Tp con m A trn tp s thc c gi l mt s m, nu A l tp m li v chun ha.
Trong chuyn ny, chng ta ch yu nghin cu cc tp con m trn v tr tham chiu l tp
s thc R. Trong hu ht cc trng hp, khi v tr tham chiu l tp s thc R, ta c th ng
nht khi nim tp con m v s m.
Kiu ca tp m ph thuc vo cc kiu hm thuc khc nhau. c nhiu kiu hm thuc khc
nhau c xut. Di y l mt s hm thuc tiu biu.
h h
0 a m b u 0 a m b u
Hnh 1.2 Cc tp m tam gic.
0 a b c d u
Hnh 1.3. Tp m hnh thang
0 a b u
Hnh 1.4 Tp m L
Hm thuc trong th d 1.13 trn y c dng hm thuc L, vi a = 100, b = 500.
0 a b u
Hnh 1.5 Tp m Gamma tuyn tnh.
0 m u
Hnh 1.6 Tp m Singleton.
Trong hu ht cc trng hp ng dng l thuyt tp m th v tr tham chiu l tp s thc R
v cc kiu ca hm thuc thng gp cc dng trn, l nhng hm li tuyn tnh. Trong trng
hp tng qut, ta c hm thuc l cc hm li tng qut, c th tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn, cc
vn l thuyt tp m di y u c trnh by vi nhng hm li tng qut.
Chng hn, khi u l cc s thc, ta c th v th hm thuc A cng vi cc c trng ca tp
m A: gi , ht nhn, -nht ct nh hnh sau:
1.0
0 u
ker (A)
A
supp(A)
Hnh 1.7 Gi , ht nhn v - nht ct ca tp m A
1.3.1 So snh cc tp m
nh ngha 1.16.
nh ngha 1.17.
Hp ca hai tp m A v B trn U, k hiu A B, l mt tp m trn U vi hm thuc c k
hiu AB(u) v xc nh nh sau:
u U, AB(u) = max{A(u), B (u)}
nh ngha 1.18.
Giao ca hai tp m A v B trn U, k hiu A B, l mt tp m trn U vi hm thuc c k
hiu A B(u) v c xc nh nh sau:
u U, AB(u) = min{A(u), B (u)}
nh ngha 1.19.
th hm thuc ca tp m A v tp m A nh sau:
A A U.
y l im khc nhau quan trng gia cc tp con c in v cc tp con m.
2. Cc tnh cht khc i vi phn b ca tp con c in vn ng cho cc tp con m, tc l
nu A, B l cc tp con m trn U th ta c :
Mt s tnh cht v phn b (ph nh):
A A; U = ; = U
Cc cng thc i ngu (cng thc De Morgan):
A B A B (1)
A B A B (2)
Th d 1.14. Tr li cc tp m A, B trong th d 1.11:
A l tp hp cc cn h rng. A = {0.4/u3; 0.5/u4; 0.6/u5; 0.8/u6; 0.9/u7; 1.0/u8}
B l tp hp cc cn h thch hp cho 4 ngi. B = {0.4/u3; 1.0/u4; 0.7/u5; 0.5/u6}
Khi ta c:
A B = {Cc cn h thch hp cho 4 ngi hoc rng}
= {0.4/u3; 1.0/u4; 0.7/u5; 0.8/u6; 0.9/u7; 1.0/u8}
A B = {Cc cn h thch hp cho 4 ngi v rng}
= {0.4/u3; 0.5/u4; 0.6/u5; 0.5/u6}
A = {Cc cn h khng rng}
= {0.6/u3; 0.5/u4; 0.4/u5;0.2/u6; 0.1/u7}
A A = {0.4/u3 ; 0.5/u4 ; 0.4/u5 ; 0.2/u6 ; 0.1/u7}
nh ngha 1.20.
Cho A v B l hai tp con m c cc hm thuc A v B trn cc v tr tham chiu tng ng
U v V, khi tch Descartes ca A v B l mt tp con m k hiu l A B trn v tr tham
chiu U V, vi hm thuc l A B c xc nh nh sau:
(u,v) UV, AB (u,v) = min{A(u), B( v)}
Tng t nh trong l thuyt tp hp c in, ta c th m rng nh ngha tch Decac cho k tp
m trn cc v tr tham chiu c lp:
Bi tp chng 1
a/. A A ; X = ; = X
b/. A B = B A ; A B = B A
c/. (AB) C = A (BC) ; (AB) C = A (BC)
d/. A (BC) = (AB) (AC) ; A (BC) = (AB) (AC)
e/. A B A B ; A B A B
f/. | A | + | B | = |A B| + |A B|
2. Cho A, B l cc tp con c in ca tp v tr X. C th dng hm thuc biu din cc tp
con A, B nh sau:
1 if u A 1 if u B
x X , A ( x) v x X , B ( x)
0 if u A 0 if u B
Hy xy dng cc hm thuc biu din cc tp AB ; AB v A .
3. Cho A, B, C l cc tp con c in ca tp v tr X. Hy dng hm thuc chng minh cc
cng thc sau, bng cch ch ra rng vi mi cng thc th hm thuc ca tp hp v tri bng
hm thuc ca tp hp v phi.
a/. A(BC) = (AB) (AC) ; A (BC) = (AB) (AC)
b/. A B A B ; A B A B
4. Vi nhng tri thc cho trong th d 1.13:
a/. Hy xy dng v v th hm thuc ca tp m B l khong cch n bi bin ca nhng
ngi nh khng gn bi bin. Hm thuc ny c phi l hm li khng?
b/. Hy xy dng v v th hm thuc ca tp m C l khong cch n bi bin ca nhng
ngi nh cch bin khong 300 n 400 m, chp nhn sai s n 50 m.
c/. Xc nh tp m ch khong cch ca nhng ngi nh khng gn bi bin, nhng cch bi
bin khong 300-400m.
5. Cho A l tp con m trn tp v tr U, chng minh rng vi mi , [0, 1], nu th
A A , vi A v A l cc nht ct mc v ca tp m A.
Cc mc ph hp c xp loi nh sau:
- hon ton ph hp: mc ph hp 1;
- rt ph hp: mc ph hp0.8;
- kh ph hp: mc ph hp 0.6;
- tng i ph hp: mc ph hp 0.4;
- t ph hp: mc ph hp 0.2
- khng ph hp: mc ph hp: 0;
Gi A v B l cc tp con m nhng ngi tha tiu chun A v B tng ng. Vit biu din ca
cc tp con ny.
a/. Tm tp con m ca U nhng ng vin tha t nht mt trong hai tiu chun
b/. Tha c hai tiu chun.
c/. Khng tha tiu chun A.
d/. Tm nht ct mc ca tp m nhng ng vin tha c 2 tiu chun, vi = 0.6 v = 0.8.