VD Barg | Classical A conterapocary perspective ” & MG. Asson 9-5 WAVE PULSES AND GROUP VELOCITY In this and the preceding chapter we mainly considered monochromatic ‘waves, that is, waves having a simple harmonic time variation (ic, a definite frequency). The wave equation requires the wave to also have a simple harmonic spatial variation, These waves have no beginning ot end, and ¢o they may not accurately represent an actual wave that has a finite extent, The ‘corresponding phase velocity u, is not usually directly observable. In practice, a pulse, or wave group, is formed its size and its progress through space can be measured. A pulse is a combination of waves having different wavelengths and frequencies. A spectrum of monochromatic com- Ponents add constructively or destructively in space to form the pulse, In ‘materials, usually the different components propagate at different velocities. ‘We will see that the pulse may approximately retain its form, but its group velocity is generally slower than the phase velocity. A general superposition of monochromatic waves traveling along the z direction can be expressed as EG, = J (Qe ak (0-81) Be, = foamer-ran where &() and 4@(K) are in general complex functions of k and the integra- tion extends over all wave numbers (ie, 00 < k < + co). Bach frequency ‘may correspond to a different phase velocity described by the dispersion relation @ = a(X). This function satisfies o{—K) = a(k) since the phase velocity vp = o(k)/k for a wave moving toward positive z has opposite sign to the v, for a wave moving toward negative z. In order to satisfy Maxwell's equations, the amplitudes for each wave number must satisfy 80 =%-a)=0 aH = ax 6® (0-82) ‘The general wave packet in Equation (9-81) contains the mono- chromatic solution of wave number ky asa special case in which &(k) is lec tricity and Magne bistgiven by the delta function, SK) = 8 05k — ke) When Equation (9-83) is inserted into Equation (9-81) and the dk inte sation carried out, Equation (9-81) reduces to Ela, ) = geno Nero 0 = (eink: For a superposition of wave numbers distributed = about some central value:ky, a wave pulse of finite exrént oan ‘result, ae Assume for simplicity that &(k) is Plane-polarized along the same.5 Gicction forall wave numbers and that &(4) is nonzero only in oe interval Akneat k = ko, a8 in Figure 9-12(a). First, iet us investigate the shape of the - wave pulse at t = 0: 4 El, 0) = fete dk (9-85) ; Making the separation Kak + (kha) etm glergit-ae (9-86) we find that f lz, 0) = ee fe BU ay 0-87), ihe integral in Equation (9-87) represents a superposition of the amplitudes 4(k) weighted by the complex exponential factor, At s = 0 ee jisume that the &(k) add to give a large value; such is the case forthe (kin fabte 9-12(a) For nonzero 2 the phase factor introduces destruonee toe ferences, which become more complete as z becomes lange: Comet Sasuetence occurs only if the argument of the exponential is less than unity. Since jk ~ ko| < Ad, then the size Az of the pulse is related to AL by (aay) 21 (0-88) For a Gaussian distribution in wave number the modulation shape in co- ordinate space is also Gaussian, a8 illustrated in Figure 9-126). Uishs state-ofthe-art, minimum pulse lengths now approsch 9 19-45 in duration or 6 > 10”*em in length, still much larger than light ‘wavelengths, and hence are still essentially monochromatic. ‘We have examined the shape of a wave pulse at the fixed time 1 0; ‘ow let us see how the pulse propagates in time. For waves in empty space(©) Coordinate space SS=MIGURE 9-12 Wave group, for (a) a given distribution of waves in wave number £8(8) and (b) the corresponding distribution in coordinate space © = clk, and the electri field, from Equation (9-81), is He) = femere ak 9-89) where &(k <0) = 0 for a wave moving in the +2 direction. From the ob- servation that E(z,t)is only a function of z — ct, Bez, 1) = Ble — ct) (9-90) we may conclude that the pulse propagates without change of shape in empty space with velocity c, Alternatively, if 6(k > 0) = 0, the pulse would propagate toward negative z.GuAPTR 9. opnics AND WavEguIDES When a wave propagates in a nonabsorptive material of index n, we ‘have seen in the first section of this chapter that (9-91) Where the phase velocity o, (and hence also 7) can depend on the wave number, = a(t) 0-9) fiiseussed in Chapter 4. By Equations (0-91) and (2-92) the frequency isa function of k, so a superposition of harmonic electri field waves 1 HG) = f etper=-ean ak (9-93). Again assuming that 6(2) is localized about k = ky > 0, asin Figure 9-12(a), ‘o(f) can be approximated in this vicinity by AK) 0g + (ke ~ o)og (9-94) where the group velocity is 0-95) ‘The phase of Equation (9-93) can then be' written as . Ke ~ oft = Eko + (k ~ ke — [oop + gk — ole = kot — wot + (k~ kale = u2) (0-96) The electric field of Equation (993) becomes Bla t) = eG. — 0) 0-97) with Ge — 4) = J (Wet HoNE— de (9-976) The wave pulse has been expressed asa carrier plane wave modulated Py alactor G thats large only near z = ot and isa function only of bt. Broup Nelocity o,. If higher terms in the expansion in Equation (994) are important, the group will distort as it propagates. In a vacuum, c» ~ ek and Sex doldk = 6, $0 the group moves at the speed of light, as we saw pre- “ously in Equation (9-90). For ordinary transparent substances inthe sates Saitsecon 9-6 WAVEGUIDES 409 plical range of frequencies, og < vp Li. ax) is 20 {nereasing function of K]; cenit uatien is normal dispersion. For most transparent sbsiances the index aa vation increases through the visible region so that lve fight refracts ‘more strongly than red. Trac could observe the details ofthe pulse, and not just the envelope, ie would see (in a normally dispersive material) the carrier Wa¥e constantly Moving through the pulse and passing out the front