ACOUSTICSACOUSTICS Leo L. Beranek 1984 Edition Acoustic Laboratory Massachusetts Institute of Technology Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. 1993 Edition 975 Memorial Drive, Suite 804 Cambridge, MA 02138Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 86-70671 International Standard Book Number: 0-88318-494-X Copyright©1954, 1986, 1990, 1993, 1996, by the Acoustical Society of America All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be eproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by the Acoustical Society of America though the American Institute of Physics, Ine '500 Sunnyside Blvd, Woodbury, New York 11797 Printed in the United States of America PREFACE Acoustics isa most fascinating subject. Music, architecture, engineer- ing, science, drama, medicine, psychology, and linguistics all seek from it answers to basic questions in their fields. In the Acoustics Laboratory at MLL-T. students may be found working on such diversified problems as auditorium and studio design, loudspeaker design, subjective percop- tion of complex sounds, production of synthetic speech, propagation of sound in the atmosphere, dispersion of sound in liquids, reduction of noise from jetaireraft engines, and ultrasonic detection of brain tumors. The annual meetings of the Acoustical Society of America are veritable five- ring shows, with papers and symposia on subjects in all the above-named fields, Opportunites for employment are abundant today because man ‘agement in industry has recognized the important contributions that acoustics makes both to the improvement of their products and to the betterment of employee working conditions. There is no easy road to an understanding of present-day acoustics. First the student must acquire the vocabulary that is peculiar to the subject. Then he must assimilate the Iaws governing sound propagation and sound radiation, resonance, and the behavior of transducers in an Acoustic medium, Last, but certainly not of least importance, he must Jearn to understand the hearing characteristics of people and the reac- tions of listeners to sounds and noises. ‘This book is the outgrowth of course in acoustics that the author has taught to seniors and to first-year graduate students in electrical engineering and communication physies. The basic wave equation and some of its more interesting solutions are discussed in detail in the first part of the text. The radiation of sound, components of acoustical sys- tems, microphones, loudspeakers, and horns are treated in sufficient detail to allow the serious student to enter into electroacoustic design. ‘There is an extensive treatment of such important problems as sound in enclosures, methods for noise reduction, hearing, speech intelligibility, and psychoacoustic criteria for comfort, for satisfactory speech intelligi Dility, and for pleasant listening conditions The book differs in one important respect from conventional texts on acoustics in that it emphasizes the practical application of electrical circuit theory in the solution of a wide variety of problems. Wherever possible, the background of the electrical engineer and the communica- tion physicists utilized in explaining acoustical conceptsPREFACE ‘The high-fidelity expert will find the chapters onloudapesker enclosures, horus, and rooms particularly interesting because they show how the per formance of loudspeakers either in baffles oF attached to horns may be accurately and simply calculated. ‘These chaptere alco ilustrate the necessity of considering in design the overall system, including the amplifier, the loudspeaker, the baflle or horn and considering also the room in which they are to be operated. Numerical examples and sum- rary charts are given to facilitate application ofthis material to music- reproduction systems, Tn view of the incressed interest in noise control, the author has pt this subject in mind in waiting Chapters 1, 2, 4, and 10 to 18. ‘These chapters served as the basis of a special summer program on noise reduction at MILT. in 1958. ‘The material of Chapters 11 and 1 is new, and it is hoped that it will be of value to those interested in noise and its effect on human beings, Tn short, the engineer or scientist who wishes to practice in the field of coustios and who does not intend to confine his efforts to theoretical tatters must know the material of this text Problems for each chapter are included at the end ofthe text for use by thestudent. References to collateral reading in English are given in the text, although no attempt has been made to give a bibliography of the primary sources of material. Suggestions to instructors for best use of the text aro given immodintely after this preface. ‘The author wishes to express his deep appreciation to Francis M. Wiener and Rudolph H. Nichols, Jr for their assistance in the detailed review and editing of the text and the preparation of some original material. Many members of the Acoustics Laboratory at M.L:T. have read one or more chapters and have given valuable assistance to the author. Of these, particular mention is made of Mary Anne Summer- field, Walter A. osenblith, Kenneth N. Stevens, Jerome R. Cox, Jordan J. Baruch, Joanne J. English, and Norman Doeling ‘The illustrations are due to the highly capable and untiring efforts of Clare Twardsik. ‘The author is deeply indebted to his typist, Eliasbeth H. Jones, to his secretary, Lydia Bonazzoli, and to his wife, Phylis, who ‘made it possible for him to complete the text within a reasonably short span of time. Leo L. Beranex SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTORS ‘This text is divided into thirteen chapters, comprising thirty-two parts. Bach patt is intended to he approximately 1 week's work, although this will vary among students owing to differences in their previous training. If the entire class expects to take a full year of acoustics, the parts should be taught in sequence, with the exception of Part XXVIII, Meas- urement of Acoustic Levels, which may be referred to in associated labor ratory experiments and demonstrations throughout the course. If only ‘8 purt of the eluss plans to continue throngh both terms, thefundamental ‘material should be taught in the first term and the more applied material in the second, One suggested division, in this case, is as follows: Birst Term Second Term Part I. Introduetion Part V. Energy Density ‘and Intensity Part I. ‘Terminology Part IX. Circuit’ Theorems, Part HI. ‘The Wave Bqua- ergy and Power Part XI. Diroctivity Index Part IV tions of the and Directivity Wave Equation Factor Part VI. Mochanieal Cire Patt XIV, General Characters ae isties of Micro- — phones Pare VIt. Acoustical Part XV. Pressure gin) Microphones, Part VIL “Pransducers Part XVI. Gradient and Com- Part X.Directivity bination Micro Patterns phones oe Part XVII. Design Factors Af Part XL aiaion Impede leas aera ve ator Loudspeakers Part XIU. Acoustic Part XX. Bass Reflex Enclo- Hlements cae Part XVI. Basie Theory of Part XI Hora Driving Direot-radiator Units Lanulspeakers Part NXUL Hornsvill SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTORS First Term Second Term, Part XIX. Simple Enclosures Part XXV, Sound Transmis- sion through Walls Part XXII, Sound Fields in between Enclosures Small Regularly Part XXVI. Noise Control Pro- cedures and Noise Shaped Brelonures ‘ Part XXIV. Sound Fields in Pitt XXVIT Acmatic Tanemi Large Irregularly ‘at Seen Shaped Bnelowures PAC XXIX. Reciprocity of Transducers Part XVII. Measurement of Par XXXI. Speech Acoustic Levele Intelligiblity Part XXXII. Psychoacoustie Part XXX, Hearing Criteria A course in acousties should be accompanied by a set of well-planned JIaboratory experiments. For example, the material of the first few chap- ters will be more significant if accompanied by a laboratory experiment, (on noise measurement. ‘This will familiarize the student with the meas- urement of sound pressure and with the use of a frequency analyzer He will appreciate more fully the meaning of sound pressure, sound intensity, decibels, sound energy density, and power level; and he will understand the accuracy with which noise can be measured, A suggested minimum of 10 experiments, listed both numerically for a year's course and by term, is as follows: First Term Second Term No. 1. Noise measurement, No. 3. Free-feld calibration of ‘microphones No. 5. Design and testing of a loudspeaker baffle No. 8. Prediction and control of noise in a ventilating No.2. Measurement of the cone stants of an electro- ‘mechanical transducer No.4. Measurement of free-field response of a loudspeaker system No. 6. Study of sound fields ina No, 9, Audiometsic testing of small rectangular hearing enclosure No. 10. Application of psycho- acoustic eriteria in the design of an auditorium, No.7. Study of sound fields in a large irregular enclosus An assignment of two problems per week should provide sufficient application of the material of the text, ‘The short list of problems for each chapter should he supplemented by timely problems derived from the instructor's experience, CONTENTS PREFACE SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTORS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY rant I Introduction pane IL Terminology CHAPTER 2. THE WAVE EQUATION AND SOLUTIONS vant IIL The Wore Equation vant IV Solutions of the Wave Equation pant V_ Energy Density and Intenaty CHAPTER 3. ELECTRO-MECHANO-ACOUSTICAT. CIRCUITS Pant VI" Mechanieal Cirewite pat VIL Acoustical Cireuite part VIII Transducers rant IX Circuit Theorems, Bnergy, and Power CHAPTER 4, RADIATION OF SOUND vane X- Directiity Patterns vant XI Directivity Index and Directivty Factor CHAPTER 5. ACOUSTIC COMPONENTS pax XIT Rodiation Impedances vant XIII Acoustic Blomenta CHAPTER 6, MICROPHONES rant XIV. General Characeritice of Microphones pane XV Preseure Microphones vant XVI Gradiont and Combination Microphones CHAPTER 7, DIRECT-RADIATOR LOUDSPEAKERS vant XVII Basic Theory of Divect-radtotor Loudspeakers Pant XVIII Design Factors Affecting Direc-radiator Lowdepeater Performance 6 16 a a 62 0 1 a o 109 16 16 128, 14 a 150 18, 183 1832 CONTENTS JAPTER 8, LOUDSPEAKER ENCLOSURES vane XIN Simple Bnolonures pant XX Baswreler Bnelosures CHAPTER 9, HORN LOUDSPEAKERS. pant XXE_ Horm Driving Wits rawr -XXIL Horns CHAPTER 10. SOUND IN ENCLOSURES ant XXII Sound Fields in Small Regularly Shaped Enclosures pant XXIV Sound Fielda in Large Irregularly Shaped Bnelosures rant XXV_ Sound Tronemiseion throuph Walls between Enclosures CHAPTER 11, NOISE CONTROL pant XXVI Procedures and Sources vant XXVIL Acoustic Pronemission Pathe CHAPTER 12, ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS pane XXVIT Measurement of Acoustic Lele vant XXIX Reciprocity Calibration of Transducers CHAPTER 13. HEARING, SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY, AND PSYCHOACOUSTIC CRITERIA pane XXX Hearing Pant XXX Speech Inteligibility rant XXXII Poychoacoustic Criteria PROBLEMS. DIX J, DECIBEL CONVERSION ‘TABLES APPENDIX Il, CONVERSION FACTORS ‘APPENDIX IL APP! INDEX 208 208 239 259 250 268 285 285 298 at 392 saz 45 361 361 317 388 388 406 az 431 464 469 479 PREFACE TO THE PAPERBACK EDITION With the advent ofthe compact dise, with miniature high-fidelity systems ambulating everywhere, and with emphasis on combination voice and | in'a medium Gee Fig: 2 where the incremeefromlefciorahtatacpace rate | wound bremure» cheng in apece at 2 a op/or (re Pag 2) pace rato gradp = 128 4 522 4 2 where i,j and ae unit velar in the and diectins, respectively, and Pit fe remire ats pone Assume that the sides of the box are completely frictionless; i.e, any viscous drag between gas particles inside the box and those outside is negligible. ‘Thus the only forces acting on the enclosed gas are due to the pressures at the faces of the box. The difference between the forces acting on the two sides of our tiny’ box of gas is equal to the rate at which the force changes with distance times the ineremental length of the box: Forge seting bo acoerat he box Inthe | Fore ating ta aelrte the box in the positive x dretion = ~ (32.2) ay a | postive dieton = ~ [1 (222) ay ae te) | 4 (2249) see + (22 2) ae ay] an) Note that the positive gradient causes an acceleration of the box in the negative direction of 2 + Nonvector derivations of the wave equation are given in Rapleigh, “Theory of Sound,” Vol. 2,pp. I-15, Macmillan & Co.,[ih, London, 1806; P.M. Morse, “Vibra tion and Sound," 2d ed, pp. 217-225, MeCiraw-Hill Book Company, Ine., New York, 1948; L. B. Kinsler and A. R. Frey, “Fundamentals of Acoustic” pp. 118-137, John Wiley & Sons, Ine, New York, 1950; R. W. B. Stephens and A. F, Bave, “Wave Motion and Sound,” pp. 32-13, 400-406, Edward Amold & Co,, London, 1950; and other pes, A vector derivation of the wave equation ie given in two papers that must be read fogethor: W.J. Cunningham, Application of Vector Analysis tothe Wave Equation, J Acoust Soe. Amer, 22: 61 (1950); nd R. Vo Hartley, Note on “Application of ‘Vector Analysis to the Wave Equation,” J. Acous, So. Amer, 22: 511 (1950).18 THE WAVE EQUATION AND SOLUTIONS — (Chap. 2 f--2 aw fener a By Newton's aw, the foree per nit volume (/7) of Ba. (2) must be equal tothe tine rie of change othe momentum prunit vlan othe box. We have already assured tat our box i dorm packet thatthe sas of fhe gas within it lays constants "That is fo Neyo % sa a Dg Vat ae send FB an average velocity of the gus | where qis the average vector velocity of Jn the "box" in the direction, oi the | the gas in the box,” 9” is the average space average of the instantaneous den- | density of the gas in the box, and sity of the gas inthe box, and MC = p'V | AF = p'V isthe total mass of the gas in fi the otal mess ofthe gas in the bor, | the box, D/Dt ia not a simple partial erivative but represents the total rate of the change of the velocity of the par- ticular bit of gas in the box regardless of its position, Pa 29 ee) where tg and gar the component She set paride vest hanes in density ofthe gas due | "iF te veto prt vlsty nema nd wove isemal enough, then | enough, the stee! change of womestam stares danty 9h appro | fe pres n the ean be apa tnsnly ual tbe average dency, | indy the ate of change of omens Thee, Samat dned pointy Dq/DP = 9/95 and the instantaneous" ewity. pea be throsinated bythe average dealy po thn, ae “at p e 2 (2a) ‘The approximations just given are generally acceptable provided the sound pressure levels being considered are below about 110 db re 0.0002 microbar. Levels above 110 db are so large as to create hearing dis- comfort in many individuals, as we shall see in Chap. 13 at the end of this book, The Gas Law. If we assume an ideal gus, the Charles-Boyle gas law applies to the box. It is Py =RT es) where P is the total pressure in the box, V is the volume equal to Ar By 42, T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin, and R is a ‘constant for the gas whose magnitude is dependent upon the mass of gas, Pact 11 THE WAVE EQUATION 0 chosen. Using this equation, we can find a relation between the sound pressure (excess pressure) and an incremental change in V for our box. Before we can establish this relation, however, we must know how the temperature 7’ varies with changes in P and V and, in particular, whether the phenomenon is adiabatic or isothermal ‘At audible frequencies the wavelength of a sound is long compared with the spacing between air molecules. For example, at 1000 eps, the wavelength 4 equals 0.34 m, as compared with an intermolecular spacing of 10° m, Now, whenever a portion of any gas is compressed rapidly, its temperature rises, and, conversely, when it is expanded rapidly, its temperature drops. At any one point in an alternating sound field, therefore, the temperature rises and falls relative to the ambient, tem- perature. This variation oceurs at the same frequency as that of the sound wave and is in phase with the sound pressure, ‘Let us assume, for the moment, that the sound wave has only one fre- quency. At points separated by one-half wavelength, the pressure and the temperature Quctuations will be 180° out of phase with each other. Now the question arises, Is there sufficient time during one-half an alternation in the temperature for an exchange of heat to take place between these two points of maximally different temperatures? Tt has been established? that under normal atmospheric conditions the speed of trave) of a thermal diffusion wave at 1000 eps is about 0.5 1n/se ‘and at 10,000 epsit is about 1.5 m/see. The time for one-half an alterna- ‘ion of 1000 eps is 0.0005 sec. In this time, the thermal wave travels a distance of only 0.00025 m. This number is very small compared with one-half wavelength (0:17 m) at 1000 eps. At 10,000 eps the heat travels, 7.5 X 10-*m, which is a small distance compared with a half wavelength (1.7 X 10? m), It appears safe for us to conclude, therefore, that there is negligible heat exchange in the wave in the audible frequency range. Gaseous compressions and expansions of this type are said to be adiabatic, For adiabatic expansions, the relation between the total pressure and the volume is known to bet PV? = constant 26) where + is the ratio of the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure to the specifie heat at constant volume for the gas. This equation is 130 4 mass of gas i choren so that ite weight in grams is equal to ite molecular weight Genowa to chemists as the gram-molecular weight, or the mole, then the Yolume of thia mace st O°C and 0.76 m Hg is the sue for all gates and equals 0.02242 m?. ‘Then R= 8314 watt-see per degree centigrade per gram-moleculae Weight, If the mass of gas chosen ie times its molecular weight, thea e = 8.314 ‘Soe LL, Beranck, "Acoustic Measurements,” p. 49, John Wiley & Sous, Tne, Now York, 1940 "MW. Zemaasky, “leat and "Thermodynamics," 24 ed, pp. 104-114, MoGran- Hil Book Company, Inc, New York, 1,EQUATION AND SOLUTIONS — (Chap. 2 20 THE WAVE ‘obtained from the gas law in the form of Eq. (2.5), assuming adiabatic conditions. For air, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, é¢., gases with diatomic molecules, yal Expressing Eq, (2.6) in differential form, we have av an Let P=Petp V=Vetr (28) where Ps and Vs are the undisturbed pressure and volume, respectively, fand p and r are the incremental pressure and volume, respectively, owing ry ay vagesioe as ee opiet Beara oo _ o Fis, 22. Change in volume of the box with change in position. From (a) snd (6) I acen that the inesomentel change im volume of the box equals + = (96,/9¢) S to the presence of the sound wave. Then, to the same approximation as that made preceding Eq, (2.4) and because p « Po and 1 Vo, Ra-F 29) The time derivative of this equation gives Ag-72 ax ‘The Continuity Equation. The continuity equation is s mathematical expression stating that the total mass of gas in a deformable “box” must remain constant. Because of this law of conservation of mass, we are able to write a unique relation between the time rate of change of the ineremental velocities at the surfaces of the box. aot 11 THE WAVE EQUATION a Ea See a | et ibae ‘The diflerence of the two qvantitios above multiplied by the area ay 3z ives | the increment in volume + ot, Warsyar ane | Yeave eam) ved a1 Differentiating with respect to time | Diflrentiating with respict to. time veld, yields, 132) | a Fa vodivg 2.30) Where aj the instantincons particle | where it the instantaneous particle velocity velocity The Wave Equation in Rectangular Coordinates One-dimensionol Derivation Threedimensional Devnation "The one-dimensional wave equation ig | The three-dimensionsl wave equation obtained by combining the equation of | ix obtained by combining the equation of ‘mation (24a), the gus las (2.10), and the | motion (2-40), the gas law (2.10), andthe continuity equation (2.134), Combing | eontinuty equation (2.125). Combine: tom of (210) and (2.14) gives tion of (210) and (219) gives Dierotte (1 with pect o | Dierntate (2.4) wih rape to wre eet) a Piderevte a) with apes to | Ta the degen of ech sd of -% ace | 2 . ~ di gat ~ mar 220822 THE WAVE EQUATION AND SOLUTIONS — [Chap.2 One-dimensional Derivation ‘hveeimensionat Derivation Replacing the div (grad p) by Wp, wo get vip = podiv ¥ tp = pediv 8 (a7) interchangesbilty of the 2 | where vis the operator called the Lapla- and £ derivatives, and combining (2.152) | cian. Combining (2.199) and (2.17), we tnd (2162), we get ee ~ 52% ei v essay Let us, by definition set, we eat (2.19 oe (2.19) ‘We shall see later that cis the speed of propagation of the sound wave in the medium, We obtain the onedimensional wave | We obtain the three-dimensional wave cenwation caution re) vende aay Jn rectangle coordinates vip 2 4 OF 4 OP pe ME MP any We could als ave sited p and | We sould ao have eliminated p and retained in whih ease we would have | rsttnedq, im whith ease we would have 533 (222%) oy Law where 4g = grad (div q) when there is a (2220) | Co rotation in the medium, Equations (2.20) and (2.22) apply to sound waves of “small” magni- ‘tude propagating in a source-free, homogeneous, isotropie, frictionless gas at rest, The Wave Equation in Spherical Coordinates, ‘The one-dimensional ‘wave equations derived above are for plane-wave propagation along one dimension of a rectangular coordinate system. In an anechoic (echo- free) chamber or in free space, we frequently wish to express mathe- ‘matically the radiation of sound from a spherical (nondireetional) source of sound. In this ease, the sound wave will expand as it travels away. from the source, and the wave front alvrays will he a spherical surface. To apply the wave equation to spherical waves, we must replace the ‘operators on the left side of Eqs. (2.20) and (2.22) by operators appro priate to spherical coordinates, Assuming equal radiation in all directions, the wave equation in one= dimensional spherical coordinates is ap oe (223) Pert IV] SOLUTIONS OF THE WAVE RQUATION 23 Simple differentiation will show that (2.23) can also be written apr) _ 1 HG) ar Bae Ce) Itis interesting to note that this equation has exactly the same form as Eq (2.204). Hence, the same formal solution will apply to either equa tion except that the dependent variable is p(z,¢) in one case and pr(r,t) in the other case. ‘Example 21. In the steady stat, that ia, 2u/2¢ = jou, determine matheratially hhow the sound pressure in a plane progreetive sound wave fone ‘ould be determined fom ineasurement of partsle veloeity alone Solution. From Bq. (2-4a) we find in the steady state that where p and ware now rms Lively,” Written in diferent of the sound pressure and particle velocity, respme= form, 1 the particle velocity is 1 em /e0, wit 1000 radians/ste, and ais 0 em, then {8p = =30.005 X 1000 1.18 x a0 31059 newton mn? ‘We shall have an opportunity ia Chap, 6 of this test toate @ practical application ‘of these equations to the mesturement of particle vlocty hy a velocity microphone pant IV Solutions of the Wave Equation 2.3. General Solutions of the One-dimensional Wave Equation, ‘The ‘one-dimensional wave equation was derived with either sound pressure or particle velocity as the dependent variable. Particle displacement, or the variational density, may also be used as the dependent variable. ‘This can be seen from Eqs. (2.4a) and (2.18a) and the conservation of mass, which requires that the product of the density and the volume of a small box of gas remain constant. That is, 2'V = poVo = constant, (2.25) and so pave = —Vae (2.26) Let p= pte (2.27) where pis the incremental change in density. Then, approximately, from Eqs. (2.8) and (2.26), per = —Vep (2.28)a THE WAVE EQUATION AND SOLUTIONS —[Chep.2 Differentiating, ar _ Vode ee a asetl so that, from Eq. (2.132), 2 au et nese (2.29) Also, we know that the particle velocity is the time rate of change of the particle displacement. watt e220) Inspection of Eqs. (24a), (2.180), (2.29), and (2.30) shows that the pressure, particle velocity, particle displacement, and variational density are related to each other by derivatives and integrals in space and time. ‘These operations performed on the wave equation do not change the form of the solution, as we shall see shortly. Since the form of the solution is not changed, the same wave equation may be used for determining density, displacement, or particle velocity a well as sound pressure by substituting p, or &, or u for p in Eq. (2.20a) o p, &, oF q for p in (2.200), assuming, of course, that there is no rotation in the medium, General Solution. With pressure as the dependent vatiable, the wave ‘equuataon 38 ap _ lap Bet ae (2a) ‘The gencral solution to this equation is a sum of two terms, p-t-an(+3) 82) where fi and fs are arbitrary functions, We assume only that they have continuous derivatives of the first and second order. Note that hecause tand x occur together, the first derivatives with respect to z and t are exactly the same except for a factor of +e. ‘The ratio z/c must have the dimensions of time, so that e is a speed. From ¢ = yPe/pe (Eq. (2.19)] we find that 108\" 18, in airat an ambient pressure of 10° newtons/im? and at 22°C. ‘This quan- lity is nearly the same as the experimentally determined value of the speed of sound 344.8 [see Eq. (1.8)], 80 that. we recognize c as the speed at which a sound wave is propagated through the ait, From the general solution to the wave equation ‘observe two very important facts: ven in Eq, (2.82) we Pat IV] SOLUTIONS OF THE WAVE EQUATION 25 1. The sound pressure at any point x in space can be separated into ‘two components: an outgoing wave, f(t — z/c), and a backward-traveling, wave, fall + 2/0) 2, Regardless of the shape of the outward-going wave (or of the back- ward-traveling wave), it is propagated without change of shape. To show this, let us assume that, at ¢ = f,, the sound pressure at x — 0 is f(t). At a time ¢ = ty + t the sound wave will have traveled a dis- tance x equal to tye m. At this new time the sound pressure is equal to = fills + te ~ bec/e) = full). In other words the sound pressure has ropagated without change. ‘The same argument can be made for the backward-traveling wave which goes in the —z direction. It must be understood that inherent in Eqs. (2.31) and (2.92) are two assumptions. First, the wave is a plane wave, i, it does not expand laterally. ‘Thus the sound pressure is not a function of the y and coordinates but is a function of distance only along the x coordinate. Socond, it is assumed that there are no losses of dispersion (scattering of the wave by turbulence or temperature gradients, et.) in the air, so that. the wave does not lose energy as it is propagated. Dissipative and dis- persive cases are not treated analytically in this book, but are discussed briefly in Chaps. 10 and 11 Steady-state Solution. In nearly all the studice that we make in this ‘text we are concerned with the steady state. As is well known from the theory of Fourier series, a steady-state wave can be represented by a Jinear summation of sine-wave functions, each of which is of the form VO = V2 orl cos (st + 6 (2.330, For example, if ys is sound pressure, we write 2 = Spt) = Y V2 [pel 08 (ot + 0.) (2.380 where w, = 2rf,;f, = frequency of vibration of the »th component of the wave; 9, is the phase angle of it; and /2 |¢| (or |p") is the peak magnitude of the component. Because the wave is propagated without change of shape, we need consider, in the steady state, only those solutions to the wave equation for which the time dependence ateach point in space Js sinusoidal and which have the same angular frequencies w, as the source Borrowing from electsical-cieuit theory, we represent & sinusoidal funtion with a frequency w hy the real part of a complex exponential function, Thus, ata fixed point in space 2, we have the sound pressure, YG) = VIRe lolze"] (2.340) PUz,t) = V2 Re [plz )e (2.340)