Construction Equipment

Contents
Contents............................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to construction equipment ....................................................... 2
Chapter 2: Chasis Components ......................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3: Electronic components and their functions ................................................ 50
Chapter 4: Repair and maintenance of construction equipment .................................. 60
Chapter 5: Management of construction equipment ................................................... 80
1
Chapter 1: Introduction to construction equipment
Note on Introduction to Construction equipment
Found mistakes?? Report Here

Note
Things to remember
Introduction
It is a known fact that we find a wide variety of construction machines on every
construction sites, which make the construction jobs easier, safer and quicker. Good
project management in construction must strongly pursue the efficient utilization of
labor, material, and equipment.
The use of new equipment and innovative methods has made possible extensive changes
in construction technologies in the recent decades. The choice of the appropriate type
and size of construction equipment often affects the needed amount of time and effort
and thus the job-site productivity of a project.
Equipment is used for various construction works such as highway projects, irrigation,
buildings, power projects etc. About 15-30% of the total project cost has been found to
be invested towards equipment and machinery.
It is therefore very important for the site managers and construction planners to be
acquainted with the characteristics of the major types of equipment mostly used in
construction.
Advantages of Utilizing Construction equipment
1. Increase the rate of output through work progress with the optimum effectiveness
and inefficient methods.
2. Minimize the overall construction costs especially for big contracts.
3. Performs activities which cannot be done manually or to do them more
economically and much quicker.
2
4. Eliminate the heavy labor-intensive work by human thus dropping fatigue and
eliminates various other hazards and health issues.
5. Maintain the planned production rate where there is a shortage of skilled or
unskilled labor.
6. Preserve the high-quality standards often required by todays design and
specifications (technical standards).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Based on the application, construction machines are classified into different categories
which are discussed below.
1. Earth-moving equipment
2. Earth-compacting equipment
3. Hauling equipment
4. Hoisting equipment
5. Conveying equipment
6. Aggregate production equipment
7. Equipments used in Concrete Construction.
3
8. Pile-driving equipment
Fig 1. Classification of Construction EquipmentSome of the Construction equipment are

discussed below:
Grader
A grader, also commonly called as a road grader, a blade, a maintainer, or a motor grader,
is a construction equipment with a long blade used to make a flat surface. Typical models
have three axles, with the engine and cab located above the rear axles at one end of the
vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in between these
axles. It is generally used for light or medium works. Grader shapes the ground and
spreads the fluffy material.
Fig 2. Grader
4
In engineering, the purpose of using grader is to "finish grade" (refine, set precisely) the
"rough grading" done by other heavy equipment or engineering vehicles such as scrapers
and bulldozers.
Application:
1. Graders are generally used in the construction and maintenance of the dirt roads
and the gravel roads.
2. They are used to prepare the base course in the construction of paved roads to
make a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on.
3. Graders are also used to set native soil foundation pads to finish grade before the
construction of large buildings.
4. It is also used for grading and finishing the upper layer of the earthen formations
and embankments. They usually operate in the forward direction.
Loaders
A loader is a heavy equipment machine usually used in construction, primarily used to lift
material (such as asphalt, dirt, demolition debris, feed, snow, gravel, logs, raw minerals,
recycled material, rock, woodchips, and sand) into or onto another type of machinery or
vehicles(such as a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railcar). A bucket is joined
to its arms, which can be raised, lowered and dumped through the mechanical control.
Fig 3. Loader
Application:-Land filling, road Maintenance, etc.
Skid-Steer Loader: A skid loader or skid-steer loader is a small rigid frame, the engine-
powered machine having lift arms used to attach a wide variety of labor-saving tools and
attachments. Skid-steer loaders are typically four-wheel vehicles (though sometimes they
are equipped with tracks) with the wheels mechanically locked in synchronization on each
side, and the left-side drive wheels can be driven independently of the right-side drive
wheels.
5
Crawler Loader: The crawler loader has the stability of the crawler tractor with the
abilities of a wheel loader. However, to build a reliable crawler loader more than simply
attaching a loader bucket onto a crawler tractor is needed. It must be designed with its
precise purpose in mind to make sure that it has the strength to withstand heavy
excavating.
Excavators
Excavators are the heavy construction equipment that consists of a boom, a stick, a
bucket and a cab on a rotating platform which is known as the "house". The house sits on
the top of the undercarriage with tracks or wheels. Excavators are also known as diggers.
Fig 4. Excavator
Application
1. Digging of trenches, holes, foundations
2. Material handling
3. Cutting of brush with hydraulic attachments
4. Forestry work
5. Demolition
6. General grading
7. Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes
8. Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining
9. River dredging
10. Driving piles, in conjunction with a pile driver
Bulldozers
6
A bulldozer is a crawling equipment equipped with a substantial metal plate called blade
used to thrust large quantities of soil, sand, debris, or other such material during
construction work and typically armed at the rear with a claw-like device (known as a
ripper) to loosen the densely-compacted materials.
Fig 5. Bulldozer
They are used for moving earth or soil up to a distance of about 100m and act as a self -
propelling tractor and pusher to scraper machines. They can be either track-mounted or
wheel-mounted. The heavy blade attached to the tractor thrusts the material from one
place to another.
Classification of bull dozer
The bulldozers can be classified according to position of blades, mountings, and control
1. Position of blades
Bull dozers having the blade perpendicular to the direction of movement
Angle dozers in which the blade is set at a certain angle with the direction of
movement of the vehicle.
2. Based on the mountings
Wheel mounted
Crawler mounted
3. Based on the control
Cable controlled
Hydraulically controlled
Applications:
7
1. For dispersal of the earth fills
2. For opening up pilot roads through mountainous regions.
3. Clearing the debris in construction sites.
4. Maintaining haul roads
5. Clearing land from the trees and stumps by uprooting them.
6. Back-filling channels at construction sites by dragging the soil from one place to
another
Rollers
Rollers are the construction equipment that is used for the compaction of soil, gravel,
sand, crushed stone layers, etc. Its working principle is based on vibration,impact loading,
kneading and application of direct pressure on the different layers.
Applications:
Road construction
Pavements
Agricultural purposes
The four most commonly used rollers are;
1. Vibratory Roller
2. Tamping roller or sheep foot roller
3. Smooth wheel rollers
4. Pneumatic tired roller
Vibratory Roller
Vibratory rollers have two smooth wheels/ drums and the vibrators. One drum is fixed at
the front and another one on the rear side of the vibratory roller.Both wheels/drums have
same diameter, length and also same weight.Vibratory roller covers all the area under the
wheel. For the efficient operation of the vibratory roller, they are installed with the
vibrator. The vibration of vibrators positions the particles by first disturbing even the
positioned or arranged ones.The weight of wheels put on direct pressure on the layer.
During the reversed motion of the roller, vibrator is turned off. At that time only static
weight acts directly on the soil layer.
8
Fig 6. Vibratory Roller
Sheep foot roller/ Tamping roller
Sheep foot roller is also called stamping roller.The front steel drum of sheep foot roller is
imbedded with many rectangular shaped boots having equal sizes that are fixed in a
hexagonal pattern. Because of the boots on drums the coverage area of sheep foot roller
is less i.e.,about 8- 12%. In sheep foot roller, compaction is done by static weight and
kneading of the respective layer. This makes this roller best suited for clay soils. The
contact pressure of sheep foot roller varies from 1200 to 7000Kpa.
Fig 7. Sheep foot roller

Tamping foot roller has four wheels and on each wheel, kneadingboots are fixed. Tamping
roller has more coverage area than the sheep foot roller i.e., about 40- 50%. The contact
9
pressure of tamping roller varies from 1400 to 8500KPa. It is best suited for using on fine-
grained soils.
Smooth wheel roller
Smooth wheel roller is same as the vibratory rollers. The only difference is the vibratory
equipment. Smooth wheel roller does not have the vibrator attached to the drum. For
this reason, smooth wheel roller are well suited for rolling of weaker aggregates, proof
rolling of subgrades and in compacting asphalt pavements. Compaction of clay or sand is
not a good choice to be done with smooth wheel roller. This is so because there are many
empty voids in clay soil and sand, which cannot be reduced without vibrators.
Pneumatic tired roller
Pneumatic tired roller consists of a number of rubber tires at the front and at the rear end
of the roller.Empty spaces in between the two tires that make 80% coverage area under
the wheels. Pneumatic roller has the capacity to exert contact pressure ranges from 500
to 700Kpa. Pneumatic tired roller is generally used for highways, construction of dams
and for both fine-grained and non-cohesive soils. It can also be used for smoothening of
finishing bitumen layer on highways, roads, etc.
Fig 8. Pneumatic tired roller

Crushers
Crushers are used mainly to reduce the size of large stone or rock to smaller uniform sized
aggregates necessary for concrete mix. The crushing Process includes of:
10
Pressure,
Impact,
Attrition
A combination of these operations.
Types of Crusher
1. Jaw crushers: It is one type of the primary crushers. It operates by letting stone
flow into space between the two jaws, one of which is stationary and other is
movable, which together make up the crushing surfaces. The distance between the
two jaws reduces as the stone travels downward under the influence of gravity and
finally passes through the lower opening. The moveable jaw is capable of exerting
a pressure that is high enough to crush the hardest rock. The movable jaw is
suspended on bearings on the crusher frame from a shaft mounted.
2. Gyratory crusher: This is also a type of primary crusher. This type of crusher
contains a hardened steel head having a long conical shape, with a trough shaft
suspended in a bearing at the top, and an eccentric base connection linked to
gears. Thus, as the rotation of the cone occurs, the gap between itself and the
walling changes from a maximum to the minimum for each cycle. The rock is feed
into the chamber at the top and as it moves downward, crushing is done and finally
emerges through the bottom gap.
3. Cone crusher: Cone crusher are used as a secondary or tertiary crusher. These
crushers are capable of producing large quantities of uniformly fine crushed stone.
The cone is shorter with smaller inlet and outlet openings as compared with the
gyratory crusher.
4. Roll crusher: Roll crushers also fall under the category of the secondary or tertiary
crushers. This crusher consists of a heavy cast iron frame equipped with two
counter-rotating rollers mounted on a separate horizontal shaft. The crushed rock
from the primary crusher is feed through the gap between the two rollers for
further crushing. Usually, one roller has a fixed axis while the other can be adjusted
to give the required setting. The crusher is very compact, lightweight and low in
cost.
5. Hammer mill: Hammer mill is one of the impact crushers mostly used as a primary
or secondary crusher. It consists of a housing frame, a horizontal shaft extending
through the frame, the number of frames and hammers attached to the frame and
11
one harder steel breaker plates. As the stone is feed to the mill, the hammers are
driven by a motor, move at the high speed and brake the stone into small pieces
and driving them against the hard plate, further decrease their size.
Asphalt Equipment
Asphalt equipment, also known as asphalt paver, is an equipment that is used to pave
asphalt on the road to be pitched in a uniform way. There are mainly two types of Asphalt
equipment. They are:
1. Tracked Asphalt Paver
2. Wheeled Asphalt Paver
Fig: Asphalt paver

Some Terminologies used in Construction equipment
Earthmover
An earthmover is a term used to define any piece of heavy construction equipment that
is used to move or dig dirt or earth. These machines include bulldozers, backhoes, and
other earth moving equipment. The term earthmover is a more general term that implies
the function of the equipment rather than naming the actual equipment.
Bulldozer
A bulldozer is a type of heavy construction equipment that has a metal blade for pushing
large amounts of dirt, sand, or debris for construction works. Most of the dozers have
tracks and few are wheeled.
Cat skinner
12
The term cat skinner is generally used to describe a person who operates a dozer. The
word "cat" is derived from the Caterpillar Tractor, which is a dozer manufacturer
company.
Articulated truck
Articulated trucks are used mostly in construction work for booming large loads over
rough terrain. Articulated trucks are equipped with a drive system that shows the number
of wheels and axles it has. Most of the articulated trucks are six wheelers on three axles.
Skidder
In the heavy construction equipment field, the word skidder may have two different
meanings. In some case, the term skidder is used to refer to the person who is in charge
of the construction team constructing a skid road. In other sense, the word skidder means
the engine that hauls cable for skidding logs.
Boom
The boom is a section or strut, pivoted or hinged at the lower end, at a location fixed in
height on a frame, pole or vertical member, with its upper end supported by chains, ropes
or rods to the upper end of the frame, mast or vertical member. When pertaining to a
revolving shovel, a beam hinged to the deck front, supported by cables; also, any heavy
beam that is hinged at the one end and carries a weight-lifting device at the other.
Dumpers
Dumper is a small vehicle generally diesel powered mainly used to carry heavy materials
to various construction sites like roads, buildings, ports etc.
13
Chapter 2: Chasis Components
Note on Introduction to Hydraulic Units 1

Note
Things to remember
Hydraulic System
Fig 1. Schematic diagram of simple hydraulic system

The hydraulic systems comprise of a number of parts for its proper functioning. The
component of the hydraulic system are storage tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure
regulator, hydraulic cylinder, control valve, piston, and leak proof fluid flows pipelines.
The schematic diagram of a simple hydraulic system is shown in figure 1. It comprises of:
Storage tank
A movable piston connected to the output shaft in an enclosed cylinder
Electric pump
Filter
14
Pressure regulator
Control valve
Leak proof closed loop piping.
The output shaft transfers the motion/force while all other parts help to control the
system. The fluid tank is a storage for the liquid used as a transmission media. The liquid
used as transmission media is generally high-density incompressible oil. To remove dust
or any other unwanted particles from the oil, it is filtered before pumped by the hydraulic
pump. The capacity of the pump is governed by the hydraulic system design. These pumps
normally deliver constant volume in each revolution of the pump shaft. Hence, the fluid
pressure can increase indefinitely until the system fails. To avoid such circumstances the
pressure regulator is used which redirect the excess fluid back to the storage tank. The
direction of movement of the piston is controlled by changing liquid flow from port A and
port B. The movement of the cylinder is controlled by using control valve which directs
the fluid flow. The fluid pressure line if connected to the port B the piston rises and if it is
connected to port A the piston lowers down. The valve is used to stop the fluid flow in
any of the port. The leak proof piping is also very important due to safety, environmental
hazards and economical aspects. Other accessories such as travel limit control, electric
motor starter, flow control system and overload protection may also be used in the
hydraulic systems.
Pumps
Hydraulic pumps function according to the displacement principle. In hydraulic pump,
there is the existence of mechanically sealed chambers in the pump. Through these
chambers, fluid moves from the inlet (suction port) of the pump to the outlet (pressure
port). The sealed chambers make sure that there is no direct connection between the two
ports of the pump. As a result, these pumps are best suited to operate at high system
pressures and are ideal for hydraulics.
Different Types of Hydraulic pump
Hydraulic pumps are designed and manufactured on the basis of different functional and
hydraulic system requirements, such as required range of pressure, operating medium,
type of drive, etc. There is a large range of design principles and configurations behind
hydraulic pumps. Therefore, not every pump can fully satisfy all sets of requirements to
an optimum degree. There are three types of hydraulic pumps:
1. Hydraulic Gear Pumps
15
Internal gear pump
External gear pump
Gear ring pump
Screw spindle pump
1. Hydraulic Vane Pumps
Single chamber vane pump
Double chamber vane pump
1. Hydraulic Piston Pumps
Radial piston pump
Axial piston pump
Note: Gear pumps operate with fixed displacement volume, whereas vane and piston
pumps may operate with fixed as well as variable displacement volumes.
Application of Hydraulic pump
Hydraulic pumps are the device that is used to transfer power through the hydraulic
liquid. These pumps have various applications in automobiles, automatic transmissions,
controllers, material handling systems, compressors and household items.
A backhoe uses an engine driven hydraulic pump to drive the articulating parts of
the mechanical hoe.
The hydraulic pumps are commonly used in the automotive vehicles, especially in
power steering systems.
The hand operated hydraulic pump is used in a hydraulic jack where many strokes
of the pump apply hydraulic pressure to lift the ram.
The lift system of the tractor is operated by the hydraulic pumps. These are used
in automatic transmissions and material handling systems in industries.
Many precise controllers are developed by using hydraulic pumps. The commonly
used compressor is operated by reciprocating pumps.
The hydraulic pumps are also used in routine household systems like power lift and
air-conditions. Therefore, it can be said that the hydraulic pumps have significant
applications in industries as well as one's routine life.
16
Control Valves
In a hydraulic system, the hydraulic energy from a pump is converted into motion and
force by the means of an actuator. The control of these motion and force is one of the
most important functions in a hydraulic system and is carried out by the control valves.
The appropriate selection of control valves makes sure of the desired output and safe
functioning of the system. So, to control the hydraulic outputs, different types of control
valves are required.
There are basically three types of valves employed in hydraulic systems:
1. Directional control valves
Check valve
Directional spool valve
Directional poppet valve
2. Pressure control valves
Control task: Variable throttle valve
1. Pressure relief valves
2. Pressure reducing valves
3. Pressure drop valves
4. Pressure difference valves
5. Pressure valves with additional electric switch-off
Switching task: Constant throttle valve
1. Pressure shut-off valves
2. Pressure sequence valves
3. Flow control valves
Throttle valve: flow p dependent
Control valve: flow p independent
Classification based on actuation mechanism
1. Manual actuation
17
In this type of control valve, the spool is operated manually. Manual actuators are push
button hand lever, and pedals etc.
2. Mechanical actuation
The DCV spool can be operated by using mechanical elements such as roller and cam and
rack and pinion, roller and plunger etc. In these arrangements, the end of the spool is of
roller or a pinion gear type. The plunger or rack gear or cam is attached to the actuator.
So, the mechanical elements gain some motion relative to the actuator (cylinder piston)
which can be used for the actuation.
3. Hydraulic actuation
This type actuation is usually known as pilot-actuated valve and a schematic is shown in
Figure. In this type of actuation, the hydraulic pressure is directly applied on the spool.
The pilot port is located on one end of the valve. Fluid entering from pilot port operates
against the piston and forces the spool to move forward. The needle valve is used to
control the speed of the actuation.
4. Solenoid actuation
The solenoid actuation is also known as electrical actuation. The schematic of solenoid
actuation is shown in the figure below. The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic
force which pulls the armature into the coil. This movement of armature controls the
spool position. The main advantage of solenoid actuation is its less switching time.
Fig 2. Solenoid actuated Valve

5. Pneumatic actuation
DCV can also be operated by applying compressed air to a piston at either end of the valve
spool. The construction of the system is similar to the hydraulic actuation as shown in
18
Figure. The only difference would be the actuation medium. The actuation medium is the
compressed air in pneumatic actuation system.
Hydraulic Motors
A hydraulic motor converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy i.e. a rotating
shaft. Torque and rotation are generated by utilizing the hydraulic pressure and flow.
Hydraulic motors can be used for many applications, such as winches, crane drives, self-
driven cranes, mixer and agitator drives, excavators, roll mills, etc.
The design of a hydraulic motor and a hydraulic pump are very much similar. Hence, some
pumps with fixed displacement volumes can may also be used as hydraulic motors.
Different Types of Hydraulic Motors
The hydraulic motor should be geared to hydraulic system requirements; the issues such
as load, range of load, speed, serviceability, etc. must be taken into consideration. There
are different types of hydraulic motors, which are listed below:
Hydraulic Gear Motors
Hydraulic Gear Motor
Epicyclic Gear Motor
Hydraulic Piston Motors
Axial Piston Motor
Radial Piston Motor
Hydraulic Vane Motors
Balanced Vane Motor
Part-turn Actuators
Rotary Actuator
Rack and Pinion Actuator
The power generated by a hydraulic motor is determined by the flow and the pressure
drop of the motor. The displacement and pressure drop of the motor determines the
torque it produces. The power output is therefore directly proportional to the speed of
the rotor. Generally, the motors range from high speed motors of up to 10,000 rpm to
low speed motors with a speed of 0.5 rpm.
19
It should be noted that low speed hydraulic motors are designed in such a way that large
torques are produced at low speeds. High speed motors possess better operational
characteristics at the speeds that are at least higher than 500 rpm.
Hydraulic Cylinder
Hydraulic cylinders generates mechanical energy from hydrostatic energy. They are taken
as motors or actuators capable of producing work. However, hydraulic cylinders differ
from hydraulic motors in the sense that they carry out a linear movement instead of a
rotary movement. Thus, the cylinders are also termed as linear motors.
The maximum cylinder force F depends on the maximum operating pressure p and the
effective area of the piston A. At constant pressure, a cylinder with a larger effective
area A will produce a larger force F. At higher pressures, the force F will also become
larger.i.e.
F=PA
Hydraulic cylinders are needed to perform certain types of work: for example, in
applications where loads must be lowered, lifted, locked or moved.
Different Types of Hydraulic Cylinders
There are two functional types of hydraulic cylinder: double-acting and single-acting
cylinders. Only rapid traverse cylinders and telescopic cylinders are available in both
single-acting and double-acting types. Due to their function, it is possible to categorize
hydraulic cylinders as below:
Single Acting Cylinders
Push action cylinders
Pull action cylinders
Telescopic cylinders
Rapid traverse cylinders
Double Acting Cylinders
Differential cylinders
Double rod cylinders
Telescopic cylinders
20
Rapid traverse cylinders
Tandem cylinders
Single-acting cylinder has one effective area, located at the bottom side, which exerts
force in one direction only. In most of the hydraulic systems, these are designed as
plunger cylinders and an external force is applied to return the piston to its starting
position: e.g. upstroke presses, lifting devices, etc.
If there is no force to return the piston to the starting position, springs must be used. This
is only possible with small cylinders due to the limited force and stroke length of the
return springs. Examples of spring return single-acting cylinders are assembly tools and
installation work.
Telescopic cylinders are used for hydraulic lifting applications, or where large amplitudes
are necessary but the space available is limited, e.g. tipper trucks. The single or double-
acting differential cylinder is normally used in industrial and mobile hydraulic systems.
Hydraulic Filters
Every minute, approximately one million particles that are larger than 1 micron (0.001
mm or 1 m) can enter into a hydraulic system. These particles can damage the hydraulic
system components because hydraulic oil can easily get contaminated. The wear of
hydraulic system components depends on this contamination, and the presence of metal
parts in hydraulic system oil (iron and copper are mainly powerful catalysts) accelerates
the degradation of hydraulic parts.
Hydraulic filters remove dirt and particles from the fluid in a hydraulic system.
A hydraulic filter helps to remove the dust particles and clean the oil on a continuous and
regular basis. The performance of hydraulic filter is measured by its contamination
removal efficiency, i.e. high dirt-holding capacities. Almost every hydraulic system has
more than one hydraulic filter.
Different Types of Hydraulic Filters
The different types of hydraulic filters as mentioned below:
Suction filters
Pressure filters
Bypass filter systems
Return line filters
21
Fillers and breathers
Filter elements
Accumulators
A hydraulic accumulator holds fluid under pressure and serve a number of functions
within a hydraulic system.
Accumulators can take a fixed amount of fluid under pressure and store it. The fluid is
then released when a specific task is to be performed in the hydraulic system.
Accumulators can offer several functions, such as:
Energy storage
Compensation fluctuations of temperature
Emergency operation
Compensation of leakage oil
Cushioning of pressure shocks which may occur during sudden switching of the
valves
Swell compensator (in marine hydraulics)
Dampening vibrations
Accumulators normally contain two compartments: one of the compartments is filled
with gas and the other compartment, connected to the hydraulic circuit, is filled with the
fluid. The accumulator shell is made up of carbon steel, stainless steel or aluminum.
Depending on the separating elements, there are three types of hydraulic accumulators:
Bladder accumulators
Piston accumulators
Diaphragm accumulators
Accumulator Accessories
Accumulators are the pressure vessels and therefore must be handled with more care.
For the safe mounting of the accumulator, special fixing elements are available. Also, an
accumulator should never be installed without safety and shut-off control block.
22
There are special testing devices to test pressure of the nitrogen gas. Testing should be
done at least once a year. Mobile nitrogen charging devices are available to refill the gas
or change the pressure of the prefilled gas.
Note on Hydraulic Units and General Maintenace

Note
Things to remember
Hydraulic reservoirs
Hydraulic systems require a finite amount of liquid fluid that must be stored for reusing
continually as the circuit works. Hence, part of any hydraulic circuit is a storage reservoir
or tank. This tank may be either a part of the machine framework or a separate stand-
alone unit. In each case, reservoir design and implementation are very much important.
The efficiency of a well-designed hydraulic circuit can be significantly reduced by the poor
tank design. A hydraulic reservoir not only provides a place to put fluid. A well-designed
reservoir also dissipates heat, allows air bubbles to come to the surface and dissipate, and
allows time for contamination to drop out of the fluid. It may provide a positive pressure
to the pump inlet and thus makes a convenient mounting place for the pump and its
motor, and valves.
Hydraulic Hose
Hydraulic hose is an important part of a hydraulic system. The flexibility of hose enables
components to be placed in the most efficient or convenient places, because the hose has
the ability to bend around corners, through tight spaces, or across long distances.
Hydraulic hose construction
Modern hydraulic hose normally consists of at least three parts: an inner tube which
carries the fluid, a reinforcement layer, and a protective outer layer.
The inner tube must have a certain flexibility and should be compatible with the type of
fluid it carries. Generally, used compounds include synthetic rubber, PTFE, sometimes
called Teflon, and thermoplastics. The reinforcement layer has one or more sheaths of
braided wire, spiral-wound wire, or textile yarn. The outer layer is weather-, oil-, or
abrasion-resistant, depending on the type of environment the hose is designed for.
Fittings and Couplings
23
If the components within hydraulic systems never had to be removed, connections could
be brazed or welded or permanently fixed to maximize the reliability. However, it is
certain that connections must be broken to allow servicing or replacing components, so
removable fittings are essential for all but the most specialized hydraulic systems. To this
end, fitting designs have advanced significantly over the years to improve performance
and to make the installation convenient, but the overall function of these components
remains nearly the same.
Fittings seal the fluid within the hydraulic system by one of two techniques: all-metal
fittings depend on metal-to-metal contact, while O-ring type fittings contain pressurized
fluid by compressing an elastomeric seal. In either case, tightening threads between
mating halves of the fitting (or fitting and component port) forces two mating surfaces
together to form a high-pressure seal.
Hydraulic seal
Hydraulic cylinder seals are used to seal the opening between various components in the
hydraulic cylinder. There are mainly two types of hydraulic seals in the system:
Dynamic seals
Dynamic seals seal between components that are in relative motion. In a hydraulic
cylinder, the rod sealing system seals dynamic reciprocating motion between the
piston rod and head, while the piston sealing system seals dynamic reciprocating
motion between the piston and cylinder bore.
Static seals
Static seals to seal between components fixed together without relative motion.
Hydraulic cylinders use static seals in various places depending on the design and
construction. The most common are static seals between the piston and piston rod
and between the head and cylinder bore tube.
Hydraulic Fluids
Hydraulic fluids that are available nowadays serve multiple purposes. The main function
of a hydraulic fluid is to provide energy transmission through the system that enables
work and motion to be accomplished. Hydraulic fluids are also served for lubrication, heat
transfer, and control of the contamination. When selecting a lubricant, the viscosity, seal
compatibility, base stock and the additive package should be considered. Three common
types of hydraulic fluids available in the market nowadays are:
water-based,
24
petroleum-based, and
Synthetic
General Maintenance of Hydraulic System
Hydraulic attachments on construction equipment are held in position by a trapped
column of oil in the cylinders and lines. If the hydraulic oil escapes, the attachment will
fall.
Follow these tips before servicing construction equipment hydraulic systems.
Before making any adjustment or repairs on the hydraulic system, it should be
made sure that the ground, blocking, or cribbing is supporting the attachment, not
the oil.
The hydraulic system may have to hold pressure for a long period of time after the
engine has been shut down. Removal of plugs or lines can result in oil and the
component shooting out with very high explosive force. So the system pressure
should always be released before making repairs or adjustments.
Pressurized hydraulic oil leaking out of the system through a leak can be almost
invisible. The oil leak should never be searched with the bare hands. A pressurized
oil leak can penetrate through the skin and cause severe injury. A piece of
cardboard or wood should be used when searching for suspect leaks.
Pressurized hydraulic tanks become heated during operation; this can cause high
pressure to build up in the tank. Too-quick removal of the cover can cause the hot
air and oil to escape quickly. The oil may be very hot and can cause severe burns.
So the pressure should be bled off before removing the cover. The manufacturers
instructions should be consulted.
Pressurized oil leaks spraying on a hot engine can cause disaster. Accumulated oil
and fuel from leaks on the machine can even result in a fire that can spread with
very explosive speed. The machine should always be kept clean and free of leaks.
One should never try to service or repair a hydraulic system if he/she does not
know about that system. This can cause serious injuries or death.
One should never work under a hydraulic attachment which is supported on the
oil system.
One should never take chances.
25
The manufacturers instructions should always be followed for correct procedures, and
one should never work under hydraulic attachments that are supported by the oil.
Steps in maintenance of the hydraulic machine
Basic hydraulic system components are identified
Operation of various hydraulic pumps is described
Hydraulic system, valves, and pressure controls are serviced and troubleshot
Knowledge of hydraulic schematic symbols is applied
Knowledge of hydraulic circuits is applied
Hydraulic cylinders are serviced and rebuilt
Note on Transmission 1

Note
Things to remember
Clutch
A clutch is a device which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted at will
to second shaft, which has an axis that is coincident with that of first. Clutch lies in
between engine and gearbox. When the clutch is engaged, the power is transmitted from
the engine to the rear wheels through the transmission system and the vehicle moves
when the clutch is disengaged, the power does not flow to the rear wheels and the vehicle
stops, while the engine is still running.
Clutch is disengaged in the following cases:
1. Starting the engine,
2. Shifting the gears,
3. Idling the engine
Clutch is engaged only when the vehicle is to be moved and is kept engaged while
the vehicle is moving.
26
Principle of Operation of a Clutch
The clutch operation is based on the principle that when two friction surface are brought
into contact with each other and hard-pressed they are integrated due to friction
between them. If one is in motion the other will also come into motion.
Fig 1. Components of a Clutch

One of the surfaces is considered as driving member and the other as driven member.
The driving member of a clutch is the flywheel which is mounted on the crankshaft, and
the driven member is the pressure plate which is mounted on the transmission shaft.
Friction surfaces (clutch plates) are in between the two members i.e. driving and driven.
On the engagement of the clutch, the engine gets connected to the transmission
(gearbox) and the power starts to flow from the engine to the rear wheels through the
transmission system. When the clutch is disengaged by applying force on a clutch pedal,
the engine gets disconnected from the transmission and as a result, the power does not
flow to the rear wheels while the engine is still running.
Mechanical Transmission
The mechanical drive train of the construction equipment is similar to that of the
automatic transmission in a sense that a transmission is used in combination with a
torque converter and shifting is carried out hydraulically when the operator moves the
range selector lever.
27
1. Planetary Gearsets
Some power shift transmissions use planetary gear sets to perform the same functions as
the transmission just described (Figure-2). A planetary gear set consists of three members
i.e. sun gear, ring gear, and a planetary pinion carrier that holds the planetary gears in
proper relation with the sun and ring gear. The planetary gears can move freely around
the sun gear or inside the ring gear.
Fig 2. Planetary Gear sets

To increase or decrease the torque, there are six different possible methods of connecting
this gear set to the power train. Direct drive can be achieved by locking any two members
together, and neutral can be obtained by allowing all the gears to turn freely.
In actual application, planetary gear sets are used as single or multiple units, depending
on the number of speed (gear) ranges desired. Power for turning the drive sprockets on
tracked equipment may flow through a planetary gear arrangement that provides
28
maximum reduction. The sun gear makes the planetary gears revolve in the stationary
ring gear and move the carrier in the same direction in which the sun gear is rotating. The
carrier is connected to the hub on which the sprocket is mounted, causing it to rotate
with the carrier. This arrangement produces the maximum torque and speed reduction
obtainable from a planetary gear set.
2. Planetary Steering
Some tracked equipment may be steered by a system that associates planetary steering
and pivot brakes. The planetary steering system differs from the one previously described
in the sense that the planetary pinion gears are two gears of different sizes, machined
into one piece ( Figure-3). Two sun gears are also included. One sun gear is splined to the
sprocket pinion shaft, and the other is machined on the steering brake hub. The sun gear,
which is machined to the steering brake hub, performs the identical function as the ring
gear in a conventional planetary system. Bushings are present to isolate the sprocket
drive shafts and the steering brake hubs from the bevel gear carrier and the planetary
carrier. Lubrication is provided from the oil sump that lies below the assembly.
Fig 3. Planetary Steering

When the tracked equipment moves in a straight path, its steering brakes are held in the
applied position with the help of heavy coil springs. Braking prevents the steering brake
hub and sun gear from rotating and forces the large planetary pinion gears to move
around the sun gear. Then the power is transmitted to the sun gear on the sprocket drive
shaft from the smaller planetary pinion gears.
29
When a gradual turn is being made, the operator moves one of the steering levers back
far enough to release the steering brake on one end of the planetary system. When the
operator releases the brake, the planetary pinion gears stop moving around the sun gear
on the steering brake hub. This hub now rotates with the planetary carrier, and there is
no power transmission to the sprocket drive shaft.
3. Steering Clutches
Steering clutches are used in the clutch-brake system, where both tracks directly are
driven by the output of a single power source. Since they are physically connected to each
other, the tracks must turn at the same speed and the vehicle will follow the straight path.
To allow the turns, a clutch is provided to disconnect each track from the engine, allowing
that track to slow and the vehicle to turn fairly softly. A brake allows the disengaged track
to be slowed to take a more accurate turn, even to the point of stopping the track.
This system is very simple and easy to drive; however, it is not very much efficient. Braking
one track slows down the vehicle and a large portion of the power produced by the engine
is wasted to be converted into heat. While this is not a big deal in case of a small vehicle,
but a large vehicle having a large engine can produce a tremendous amount of heat in a
very short time. The braking one track also slows the vehicle down significantly, which is
a big deal in the case of military vehicles where speed is paramount.
Hydraulic transmission system:-
Fluid coupling -: A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device that is used to transmit rotating
mechanical power from one shaft to another. It has been used in automobile
transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch.
How fluid coupling can be act as a mechanical clutch?
In automotive applications, the pump typically is connected to the flywheel of the engine.
The turbine is coupled to the input shaft of the transmission. While the transmission is in
gear, as engine speed increases torque is transmitted from the engine to the input shaft
by the motion of the fluid, providing propulsion to the vehicle. So, the performance of the
fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual
transmission.
Construction of a Fluid Coupling:-
It consists of a pump-normally known as impeller and a turbine generally known as rotor,
both being enclosed suitably by a casing .They face each other with an air gap between
them. The impeller is suitably coupled to the prime mover while the rotor has a shaft fixed
30
to it by bolts. This shaft is further connected to the driven machine by the means of a
suitable arrangement. Oil is filled in the fluid coupling through the filling plug provided on
its body.
Torque Converter :-
Torque converter is a hydraulic transmission which escalates the torque of the vehicle
decreasing its speed. It provides a continuous deviation of ratio from low to high. The
important characteristic of a torque converter is its capability to multiply torque when
there is a large difference between input and output rotational speed, thus functioning
same as reduction gear. Cars with an automatic transmission have no clutch to disconnect
the transmission from the engine. So, they use a torque converter that functions same as
that of clutch.
Construction
There are four components inside the very robust housing of the torque converter. They
are:
Pump
Turbine
Stator
Transmission fluid
The figure below shows the parts of the torque converter: turbine, stator, and pump (left
to right).
Fig 4. Components of Torque Converter
31
The housing of the torque converter is bolted to the flywheel of the engine, so it turns at
the same speed the engine is running at. The pump inside a torque converter is of the
centrifugal type. As it spins, fluid is thrown to the outside. As fluid is thrown to the outside,
a vacuum is formed that draws more fluid in at the center. The fluid then enters the blades
of the turbine, which is coupled to the transmission. The turbine causes the transmission
to spin, which provides motion to your car. The turbine contains the blades that are
curved. This means that the fluid, that enters the turbine from the outside, has to change
the direction before it exits the center of the turbine. This directional change causes the
turbine to spin.
Powershift Transmission
Powershift transmissions shift under full power from the engine. In a manual shift
transmission, engine torque must be disconnected before a gear selection is completed.
A powershift transmissionby means of clutch packs and planetary gearing or
countershaft gears in constant meshshifts without interrupting drive torque or
synchronizing gears. Most manufacturers use a fluid coupling with powershift
transmissions. A fluid coupling, such as a torque converter, can absorb variations in a
torque load during shifting, but in some instances, a clutch is also used to input engine
torque to a powershift transmission. When a driveline clutch is used, it is limited to
starting the vehicle from a stationary position. Depending on the application of the
vehicle, many manufacturers have eliminated the use of both the torque converter
and/or the clutch assembly. Instead, slow and smooth oil modulation to the clutch packs
allows engine torque to be transmitted directly to the first gear clutch pack and planetary
gear set. Powershift transmissions do not need to break torque from the engine during
shifts while the vehicle is in motion.
32
Fig 1. Transmission in Construction equipment
Hydrostatic Drive Train
The hydrostatic drive is an automatic fluid drive that transmits engine power to the drive
wheels or tracks by using fluid under pressure. Mechanical power from the engine is
converted to the hydraulic power by a pump -motor team. This power is then again
converted back to mechanical power for the drive wheels or tracks.
The pump-motor team is the core of the hydrostatic drive system. Generally, the pump
and motor are joined in a closed hydraulic loop; the return line from the motor is
connected directly to the intake of the pump, rather than to the reservoir (Figure 2). A
charge pump maintains the system pressure, using supply oil from the reservoir.
33
Fig 2. Pump and motor in Hydrostatic drive
The hydrostatic drive functions as both a clutch and transmission. The final gear train then
can be simplified with the hydrostatic unit supplying infinite speed and torque ranges as
well as reverses speeds. To understand hydrostatic drive, we must understand two
principles of hydraulics:
Liquids have no shape of their own.
Liquids are incompressible.
The basic hydrostatic principle is as follows
Two cylinders connected by a line are both filled with oil. Each cylinder has a piston.
When a force is applied to any one of the pistons, the piston moves against the oil.
Since the oil is not compressible, it acts as a solid connection and moves the other
piston in the same direction.
In a hydrostatic drive, numerous pistons are used to transmit power, one group in the
PUMP transferring power to another group in the MOTOR. The pistons reside in a cylinder
block and revolve around a shaft. The pistons also move in and out of the block remaining
parallel to the shaft.
34
Fig 3. Squash plates in Hydrostatic drive
To provide a pumping action for the pistons, a plate called a swash plate is present in both
the pump and motor (Figure 3). The pistons move against the swash plates. The angle of
the swash plates can be changed, so the volume and pressure of oil pumped by the
pistons can be varied or the direction of the oil reversed. A pump or motor with a movable
swash plate is called a variable -displacement unit. A pump or motor having a fixed swash
plate is called a fixed displacement unit. Basically, there are four pump-motor
combinations:
Variable displacement pump driving a fixed displacement motor.
Fixed displacement pump driving a fixed displacement motor.
Variable displacement pump driving a variable displacement motor.
Fixed displacement pump driving a variable displacement motor.
Remember: The three factors that control the operation of a hydrostatic drive are:
Rate of oil flow gives the speed.
Pressure of the oil gives the power.
Direction of oil flowgives the direction.
35
The pump is driven by the engine of the vehicle and is linked to the speed that is set by
the operator. It pumps a fixed stream of high -pressure oil to the motor. Since the motor
is linked to the tracks or drive wheels of the machine, it gives the machine its travel speed.
Differential
The term differential is derived from the term to differentiate to show a difference. The
actual speed needs of each wheel can be split by the differential without interrupting the
power sent to the wheels.
Construction
The crown gear is bolted to the differential case halves, as shown in Figure 4. The
breakdown of the parts in the differential assembly is shown in the exploded view. The
four legs of the spider are bolted into corresponding holes in the differential case halves.
Four pinion gears are mounted to the spider legs, which are in mesh with the teeth of the
two side gears.
Fig 4. Exploded view of Differential system

The differential case is held in place with tapered roller bearings on each end that are
adjusted with a preload when the running pattern is set up. The flow of power is sent to
the carrier assembly from the crown gear where the flow of power is divided and sent to
the axles. The side gears have internal splines that mesh with the internal splines of the
axles. The carrier assembly is flange-mounted to the banjo housing. The axles are inserted
into the ends of the banjo housing and mesh internally with the side gears.
Differential Operation
36
If a U-turn is performed with a loader, you would see the differential action that takes
place inside a conventional differential. If the inside wheel slows down 10%, the outside
wheel will speed up 10%.
As an example, a loader with a 10-foot width makes an 180-degree turn. The inside wheel
is traveling on a 10-foot (3.05 m) radius and the outside wheel is traveling on a 20-foot
(6.1 m) radius. If you perform the calculations, you will see that the inside wheel actually
travels a distance of 31.5 feet (9.6 m), while the outside wheel travels over twice that
distance, 63 feet (19.2 m). This shows why a differential is necessary on off-road
equipment.
Without differential action, the tires would take a real beatingnot to mention the strain
on the drive axle components. The inside wheel has more resistance when making the
turn; this causes unequal torque to be applied to the side gears in the differential. This
change in resistance forces one axle to slow down thus forcing the differential pinions to
walk around the side gear. This movement, in turn, causes the opposite side gear to speed
up an equal amount. There is a downside to this design. If one wheel loses traction, the
differential will operate the same as if in a turn. The same amount of torque is sent to
both wheels, but it can only be equal to the amount that is required to turn the wheel
with the least amount of resistance.
Fig 5. Transmission system

Final Drive
The term final drive, as the name suggests, is the final stage in a series of reductions that
begin at the engine flywheel, flow through the torque converter and transmission, and
end at the final drive (wheels or tracks). Figure 6 shows a typical final drive assembly used
on a motor grader. The term can actually be applied to four types of drive systems: chain
37
drives, pinion drives, planetary drives, and straight axle drives. Final drives receive torque
from the transmission, reducing its speed and increasing the torque through the use of
various gear and chain drive arrangements.
Fig 6. Final Drive

The main purpose of a final drive is to increase torque and decrease speed; however,
some manufacturers take advantage of this arrangement to drop the power flow lower
to the ground, such as in a bulldozer or grader. The advantages of this include reducing
the drive speed and stresses and increasing the available torque at the drive wheels to
move large loads.
General maintenance of Power Train
Demonstrate knowledge of hydrostatic power train
Service and repair final drives
Service power shifts transmissions
Service and inspect drive lines
Service and maintain mechanical transmissions
Note on Undercarriage

Note
Things to remember
38
Track chain
Track chain is made up of many track sections and each track section is made up of two
track links, a hardened pin, and a bushing. These individual track sections are
interconnected to the link assembly (see Figure 1). The two track links used in each section
have provisions for attaching a track shoe and also provide a rail for the track rollers to
maintain accurate track alignment. Sealed tracks have a solid pin. Sealed and lubricated
tracks have a hollow pin, which provides a path for lubricating the pin and bushing of the
next track section. When installing a center-drilled pin, the cross drill hole must be
installed toward the rail of the link, which keeps the pin in compression to resist the
possibility of crushing. The pins and bushings are press-fit into the links.
Fig 1. Track chain
39
Fig 2. Track shoe
Idlers
Depending on the track design, the equipment could have one or two idlers per track
section. If the equipment has an elevated sprocket system, there will be two idlers: a front
idler and a back idler. Equipment that has a conventional oval track requires only one
idler. The purpose of an idler is to help guide the track through the track rollers and to
help support part of the weight of the equipment. Figure 3 shows an example of a typical
idler assembly. Besides providing alignment, the idler maintains the correct tension and
slack on the track. The tension on the track is adjusted by moving the idler back and forth
on the track frame with the use of hydraulic pressure.
40
Fig 3. Idler
Equipment with oval tracks can have a two-position idler, with one position that is used
when drawbar work is required. This position minimizes the amount of track that is in
contact with the ground, resulting in less track wear. When equipment must operate with
heavy implements attached to the front, the use of the lower mount for the idler places
more track on the roadway; this makes the equipment more stable but accelerates track
wear. Too much track tension con-tributes to accelerated wear due to increased loading
on the track components.
Drive sprocket
The sprocket, as shown in Figure 4, is not mounted to the track frame but is attached to
the final drive. Its job is to transfer drive torque to the track. The teeth on the outside of
the sprocket act like gear teeth. They engage the track links and propel the equipment on
the continuous track loop. Older equipment often has a one-piece sprocket assembly; the
use of individual bolts on segments is a recent innovation. On older models, the old
sprocket had to be cut off and a new one welded in its place. Many equipment owners
replaced the welded version with a weld on adapter ring; a new sprocket could then be
bolted on, saving a considerable amount of time. Operating on different types of terrain
requires that the segments be quickly interchangeable.
41
Fig 4. Drive Sprocket
On modern equipment, changing sprocket segments is quick and easy; position the track
so that the segment that requires changing is on the inside (away from the track links),
unbolt the old segment, and bolt in and torque the new one. Rotate the track a few feet
and repeat the procedure until all the segments are replaced.
Rollers
Modern track design utilizes two different types of track rollers to maintain track
alignment. The bottom rollers are track rollers; they support the weight of the equipment
and ensure that the weight of the equipment is distributed evenly over the bottom of the
track. The track rollers are spaced closely together, and generally a large number of them
are mounted to the bottom side of the track frame.
The two types of track roller designs are single flange and double flange. Single flange
rollers are located closest to the sprockets. Double flange rollers maximize the track
stability and alignment. The surface of the track rollers is hardened to the same Rockwell
scale as that of the track links. Cooling and lubrication are provided by the oil sealed in
the housing. Because of the twin flanges, double flange track rollers are used to maximize
track alignment. There are several design configurations of track rollers. Figure 5 shows
the parts breakdown of a typical Caterpillar track roller.
42
Fig 5. Parts breakdown of a typical
Caterpillar track roller
Carrier rollers are located above the frame rail. The main purpose of the carrier roller is
to support the weight of the top portion of track as it rolls between the idler and the
sprocket. These rollers normally have a single flange at the center of the roller that helps
in controlling track sag and whipping during operation. A secondary function of the carrier
rollers is to maintain proper alignment on the upper section of the track between the idler
and sprocket.
These rollers also have a hardened surface that has equal hardness as that of the track
link surfaces; this can have a slightly negative impact on the life of the track links. Some
equipment manufacturer cantilever mount the carrier rollers to reduce material build-up.
43
Figure 6 shows an exploded view of a typical carrier roller. The retaining ring on a carrier
roller fastens the end collar to the roller shell and is held in position on the support shaft
by a groove. The bearings are held in place in the carrier shell by the end collar and seals,
which also prevent oil from leaking out of and the dirt getting into the bearings. The two
roller bearing assemblies allow the carrier roller to freely roll on the shaft. The shaft has
mounting points to secure the carrier roller to the track frame. A plug and O-ring seal the
lubrication opening in the shaft. The retainer plate, which mounts to the shaft, holds the
tapered roller bearings inside the carrier housing. A roller cover provides a seal on one
end and is fastened with bolts to the end of the carrier shell.
Fig 6. Exploded view of a typical carrier roller

Tires and Rims
This section describes the most common types of tires and rims found on off-road
equipment. Maintenance and replacement procedures can vary greatly between
different types of tire and rim combinations. The explanations and examples provided in
this section cover general practices and do not replace the specific manufacturers and
site-specific procedures that must be followed when servicing tires and rims. Off-road tire
and rim requirements on equipment vary greatly and are dependent on factors such as
44
ground surface conditions. Steep hills, along with loads and speed, influence the type of
tires chosen.
The cost of off-road tire replacement can add a significant expense to the work performed
if the appropriate tires are not selected and properly maintained. Selecting the
appropriate tires and rims for equipment and work performed will result in longer tire
life, minimizing down time as well as reducing tire costs. The ply rating and tread type
also play a role in safe, efficient operation of the equipment. Maintaining correct
operating procedures observing speed and load limitations results in maximum
effectiveness with minimal tire damage as well as preventing unscheduled down time
Heavy Equipment Undercarriage General Maintenance
Inspect undercarriage and components
Demonstrate suitable use of ground engaging equipment
Perform track tension adjustments
Demonstrate appropriate blocking/cribbing techniques.
Note on Implements and tools

Note
Things to remember
Attachments and tools
The implements and tools used in construction equipments are given below:
Booms Forks
Blades Grapples
Buckets Rippers
C-Frames Sticks
Cab Assemblies Sweepers
Canopies Thumbs
45
Counterweights Track Groups
Couplers Winches
Dump Boxes
Buckets
Buckets come in many shapes and sizes. Most can be easily replaced or changed quickly
on the fly. The shape of the bucket and the teeth or penetration edge is greatly
influenced by the material that is to be excavated or moved. A bucket designed for moving
loose gravel should not be used to dig into the hard material. As the material to be worked
becomes harder, typically buckets become slimmer and more elongated. Loaders,
backhoes, and excavators typically have standard buckets that can be used for a wide
range of material types and uses. Buckets can have jaws or apparatus for grasping
irregularly shaped loads such as concrete chunks with rebar protruding or jaws that can
be used to cut structural members for a demo.
The size of the bucket and ultimate payload must be matched to the power of the
equipment. Weight represents the safe operational pounds that the excavating, hauling,
or moving unit can accommodate. Placing a large bucket on a piece of equipment with a
small capacity engine will not be efficient. This will overburden the equipment and wear
the engine out prematurely. Manufacturers suggestions should be followed for the
bucket size selection. A broad bucket requires more power to push through the material
than a narrow bucket. However, broad larger buckets are ideal for loose sand or gravel
moving. Buckets vary in width, depth, and structure depending on the match to the power
of the machine and the type of material that is excavated or moved. Narrow sleek buckets
with teeth are designed for penetration of a hard digging surface. The buckets used for
moving material are typically wider and may not have teeth. The need for penetration
power is dependent upon the density of the digging surface. Most equipment models
have a standard bucket or range of types and sizes specified for that machine. The bucket
typically is included as part of the purchase price. Most equipments have specially
designed bucket and attachment systems so that the bucket can be changed easily and
quickly. The figure shows basic bucket shapes and teeth designed for the type of digging
work to be done.
46
Fig 1. Types of Bucket
Bucket 1 is for digging in moderate to hard abrasive materials. Pieces welded on the side
near the teeth help penetration and holding the load. Bucket 2 is for digging fragmented
rock, frozen ground, and highly abrasive compacted materials. It is taller and thinner than
bucket 1. The extra pieces on the front bucket edges protect the bucket sides. Bucket 3 is
for digging hard rock and work areas where the material is undisturbed or poorly
prepared. The thin streamline curved design and sharp irregular teeth configuration make
penetration easier. Bucket 4 is for bank forming, ditch cleaning and finishing, and loose
material movement. There are no teeth on bucket 4.
Blades
Like buckets, blades should match the expected work task. A typical blade configuration
is like a C from top to bottom. As the blade is moved forward and tilted, the bottom of
the blade acts as a cutting edge and the top edge rolls the materials forward. It is like the
material boiling in front of the blade. Different types of materials accumulate in front
of the blade differently.
47
Fig 2. Common dozer blades
Angle (A): Used primarily for side casting material; excellent for drainage ditch excavation,
wider than an S-blade; used for fine grading and surface removal; not recommended for
rock or hard digging surfaces.
Cushion (C): Used primarily with scrapers for on the go push loading; can be used for
lighter excavation and other general tasks.
Universal (U): Used for moving big loads over longer distances; curved shape and side and
top extensions reduce the spillage of loose material; best suited for lighter materials.
Straight (S): Used primarily for shallow surface removal, land clearing; designed to push
dirt for short distances, stumps, and demo; versatile, lightweight and maneuverable,
handles a wide range of materials.
Rippers
48
Excavator rippers are ideal for breaking hard ground and in demolition applications. Rip
the ground in one hit and reduce your fuel consumption at the same time with a CAT
ripper for your excavator or bulldozer. A CAT ripper is shown in the figure below:
Fig 3. Ripper
49
Chapter 3: Electronic components and their functions
Note on Graphical symbols

Note
Things to remember
JOYSTICKS
The key control device in modern heavy and agricultural equipment is the joystick. The
first generation of joysticks were analog input-only devices. That has changed. Although
the primary function of a modern joystick is to drive input commands or messages, it is
also an output device, enabling the management system to provide real-time, tactile
feedback to the machine operator. Todays joysticks are also digital devices and although
the general operating principle of a digital joystick is similar to its analog predecessor, the
outputs are delivered at higher speeds and much greater precision.
Engine and System Controllers
Onboard vehicle computers are referred to as engine/ electronic control modules (ECMs)
(SAE recommended acronym for engine controllers) or engine/ electronic control units
(ECUs) (SAE recommended acronym for all other chassis system controllers).
ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT
An electronic control unit (ECU) is a modular housing containing a microprocessor, data
retention media, and, usually, an output or switching apparatus. The ECU is a system
controller. It is usually mounted close to the components it manages, although in heavy-
equipment applications, a requirement is to protect the devices from dirt. Figure 19-1
shows ECUs mounted behind the firewall on a piece of equipment.
Todays equipment uses several system controllers to manage the engine, transmissions,
hydraulics, climate control, and just about everything else. All these ECUs need to
communicate with each other. To facilitate this communication, each controller is
connected to a communications network known as a data bus. The data bus may either
be hard wire (J1939 uses a two-wire network channel) or optical.
50
Graphical symbols of hydraulic / pneumatic elements and equipment
Symbol Designation Explanation
Supply System
One direction of rotation

Air compressor only with constant
displacement volume
Compressed air from the

compressor is stored and
Air receiver
diverted to the system
(Reservoir)
when
required
One direction and two

direction of rotation with
constant displacement
volume
Hydraulic pump

variable displacement
Rotary Actuators
51
volume
Pneumatic motor


volume
Hydraulic motor

Service Units
This device is a
Air filter combination of filter and
water separator
Dryer For drying the air
52
For lubrication of
connected devices, small
Lubricator amount of oil is added to

the air flowing through
this
device
Regulator To regulate air pressure
Combined filter,
FRL unit regulator
and lubricator system
Direction Control Valves (DCVs)
Two closed ports in the

closed
2/2 way valve
neutral position and flow
during actuated position
In the first position flow

takes place to the
cylinder
In the second position
3/2 way valve
flow
takes out of the cylinder
to
the exhaust (Single acting
53
cylinder)
For double acting

4/2 way valve cylinder
all the ports are open
Two open positions and

4/3 way valve one closed neutral
position
Two open positions with

5/2 way valve
two exhaust ports
Non Return Valves
Check valves Allows flow in one

direction and blocks flow
in
Spring loaded check
other direction
valves
When any one of the

input
Shuttle/OR valve
is given the output is
produced
54
Only when both the
inputs
AND valve
are given output is
produced
For quick exhaust of air

to
Quick exhaust valve
cause rapid extension/
retraction of cylinder
Flow control valves
Flow control valve To allow controlled flow
To allow controlled flow

in
Flow control valve with
one direction and free
one way adjustment flow
in other
Pressure Control Valves
Non relieving type
Pressure relieving valve
Relieving type with

overload being vented
out
55
Maintains the reduced
pressure at specified
Pressure reducing valve
location in hydraulic
system
Allows pump to build

pressure to an adjustable
pressure setting and then
Unloading valve
allow it to be discharged
to
tank
Controls the movement

of
vertical hydraulic
Counter balance valve cylinder
and prevents its descend
due
to external load weight
Actuators
Spring loaded cylinder

with
Single acting cylinder
retraction taking place by
spring force
Both extension and

retraction by
Double acting cylinder
pneumatic/hydraulic
force
Sensors
56
Anything that signals input data to a computer system can be described as a sensor.
Sensors may be simple switches that an operator toggles open or closed to ground a
reference voltage, modulate a reference voltage (V-Ref), be powered up either by V-Ref,
or require power-up outside of the V-Ref circuit.
Types of Sensors
Sensors may generate their own voltage, receive a constant reference voltage (usually 5
V known as V-Ref), or be powered up at a higher voltage.
1. Thermistors. Thermistors precisely measure temperature. They are used to signal
oil, air, fluid, and ambient temperatures. The two types of thermistor are defined
by whether resistance increases or decreases when the temperature rises:
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC): Temperature goes up, resistance goes
down.
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC): Temperature goes up, resistance goes up.
The ECU receives temperature data from thermistors in the form of analog voltage
values.
2. Variable capacitance (pressure) sensors. These three-wire sensors are supplied
with reference voltage and usually designed to measure pressure or linear position
values. The medium whose pressure is to be measured acts on a ceramic disc and
moves it either closer or farther away from a steel disc, varying the capacitance of
the device and thus the voltage value returned (signaled) to the ECU.
3. Potentiometers. The potentiometer is a three-wire (V-Ref, ground, and signal)
variable resistor. Once again, these receive a reference voltage and output a signal
proportional to the motion of a mechanical device. Potentiometers are voltage
dividers. The moving mechanical device moves a contact wiper over a variable
resistor. As the wiper is moved over the variable resistor, the resistance path is
altered, with the supply voltage being divided between the signal (sent to the ECU)
and ground. Potentiometers are used in some types of equipment such as joysticks
and throttle position sensors (TPSs).
4. Piezoresistive pressure sensor. These are some-time referred to as Wheatstone
bridge sensors because of the printed circuit used to output its digital signal. They
are more accurate than variable capacitance sensors and are primarily used in
engines, usually as a boost pressure sensor: for that reason, they are only briefly
mentioned here.
57
Switches
Switches complement the sensor circuit and can usually be classified as command inputs.
Switches may be electromechanical or smart; that is, they use signals rather than
analog voltage values to signal a change in status. Switches can be subdivided into three
groups:
1. Switches grounding a reference signal (V-Ref). A good example would be that of
a coolant level sensor. V-Ref from the ECU grounds through the coolant in the
upper radiator tank. If the coolant level drops below the sensor level, the reference
signal loses its ground, which after a preprogrammed time period, for example, 8
seconds, signals a fault alert.
2. Manual switches control electrical circuit activity. Many versions of this type of
switch are used by the operator to control machine functions. A good example is
the standard ignition key.
3. Smart switches use digital signals to indicate a change in status: these signals may
be initiated by a ladder switch (resistor bank) or by an integral processor. The
signals produced by a smart switch may be automatically generated by a change in
status condition or be generated by a mechanical action such as an operator
toggling a switch.
Actuators
A wide range of actuators are used on machine control systems. Most are fairly simple in
terms of their operating principles. Here are some of them in brief.
Solenoids. A simple solenoid consists of a coil and an armature. The coil is usually
stationary and the armature moves within it. The armature can be integral with devices
such as hydraulic poppet valves, spool valves, and levers that effect mechanical
movement. They are widely used in machine hydraulics and engines. A simple solenoid
has two status conditions: off or on. In most cases, the armature is spring-loaded to
default to the mechanical off position when no current is flowed through the coil. When
an ECU driver energizes the coil, the magnetic field that builds mechanically moves the
armature. Because solenoids use electro-magnetism, they respond more slowly due to
the time required to build and collapse electromagnetic fields: This limits their use in
applications that require fast response and frequent cycling.
Proportioning Solenoids. Proportioning solenoids are coil and armature devices that
function similarly to a solenoid except that they are capable of precise linear or rotary
positioning. To ensure the accuracy of the position, most proportioning solenoids have a
58
means of signaling actual position while the ECU driver at-tempts to control current flow
to the proportioning solenoid to maintain desired position. An example of a linear
proportioning solenoid would be the oil control spool valves widely used in machine
electronics.
Piezo Actuators. Piezo actuators have an advantage over solenoids because of their
super-fast response rates. The mechanical response of a piezo actuator occurs the instant
it is hit with its electrical trigger. The first generation of piezo actuators was bulky due to
the size of the stack of piezo wafers required, but this is changing fast. Not only is the
physical size of these actuators being reduced (to date, they tend to be a little bulkier
than solenoids) but they also require lower electrical actuation pressures (voltages) and
current drawn than solenoids. Piezo actuators are often used in the rumble packs
integrated into joysticks for sensory feedback, covered a little later in this chapter.
Stepper Motors. A stepper motor is a brushless electric motor capable of the precision
positioning of a shaft (and whatever is connected to it). A normal direct current (DC)
electric motor spins when current flows through its electromagnetic fields. Stepper
motors use multiple toothed electromagnets arranged around a rotor gear integral with
the motor shaft. All but one of the toothed electromagnets are slightly offset from the
gear teeth on the rotor: This means that when the rotor gear teeth are perfectly aligned
with one of the toothed electromagnets, they are slightly offset from the teeth on the
others. When the next electromagnet in the rotation is energized, the rotor gear moves
slightly to realign the magnetic field and completes a step. Typically, four
electromagnets are used spaced 90 degrees apart in the rotation. In this way, the rotor
can be precisely aligned to any position in the rotation. The precision increases with the
number of teeth in the rotor and, correspondingly, on the electromagnets.
Stepper motors are used for precision positioning of valve and door/gate controls on
machines, such as those used in exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) mixers. Because a
constant DC current flow creates heat (and therefore resistance variables), they are
regulated by pulse width modulation (PWM) to reduce resistance generated heat in the
controller.
59
Chapter 4: Repair and maintenance of construction equipment
Note on Maintenance of Construction equipment 1

Note
Things to remember
Introduction
Maintenance can be defined as an activity carried out for any equipment to ensure its
reliability to perform its expected functions. Maintenance is also defined as any activity
carried out on an asset in order to ensure that the asset continues to perform its expected
functions, or to repair any equipment that has failed to operate properly, or to keep the
equipment in running condition, or to bring it back to its favorable operating condition.
Over the years, many new strategies have been applied as a maintenance strategy which
is intended to overcome or eliminate the problems related to equipment breakdown.
OBJECTIVES AND GOALS
Maintenance objectives fall into two categories: the primary objective and the secondary
objective. The primary or basic objective of maintenance is to repair and upkeep
production equipment to make sure that it is kept in a safe and well operating condition
so that production targets can be obtained on time, in the budget, and in good quality as
per the planning. The secondary objective of maintenance is to carry out approved
maintenance and repair tasks to the extent that such maintenance tasks do not minimize
the planned operating hours per year upon which the equipments hourly rental rates are
anticipated. Objectives aid to ensure that the intended maintenance work can be carried
out effectively and efficiently. The basic objectives of a well-planned maintenance policy
are as follows:
Reduce work cost
Eliminate unnecessary maintenance
Reduce overall maintenance cost
Reduce repair parts inventory
60
Extend the service life of construction equipment
Increase productivity
Reduce lost production caused by failure during normal shift
Increase overall profit generated by equipment
Types of maintenance programs
Generally, there are two major types of maintenance: unscheduled maintenance and
planned or preventive maintenance.
Unscheduled maintenance is carried out to get the construction equipment that breaks
down during the scheduled shift back to its normal operating condition. The main aim of
this type of maintenance is to reduce equipment downtime after failure. This type of
maintenance is also called non-predictable maintenance as they are not predictable. As a
result, it is a daunting task to implement a balanced or rational unscheduled maintenance
program or policy. The equipment manager must compromise on the cost of idle time for
mechanics on the job waiting to repair a piece of equipment versus the cost of an idle
crew waiting for the mechanics to arrive at the construction site. This type of maintenance
is normally called reactive maintenance since the manager has to respond to
unscheduled maintenance requirements, trying to bring the tools, repair parts, and
expertise together in a fashion which will get the broken machine up and run as quickly
as possible. The substitute to regularly reacting to unpredictable equipment failure is to
reduce them by implementing a sound and well-planned preventive maintenance
program on the job site.
The fundamental objective of preventive maintenance (PM) is to reduce unplanned
equipment failure by spending a regular period of time to inspecting the equipment and
making sure that minor problems are solved before they lead to major failures. It
specifically involves timely inspection, lubrication, and replacement of worn parts, oil,
filters as well as other equipment engine fluids. It is done with the purpose of extending
the life of the engine parts by minimizing wear, reducing cases of equipment breakdown,
and hence increasing the overall productivity of the equipment and associated teams by
maximizing equipment availability. The term predictive maintenance has been used more
recently to describe this type of approach to maintenance. Predictive maintenance
attempts to schedule maintenance tasks based on the past performance of engine parts
so that parts are replaced just before they fail or begin to adversely influence the
performance of the engine. It is expected that the future performance will be similar to
past performance. It must be considered that the main goal of preventive and predictive
61
maintenance is to minimize the time and money spent on this type of maintenance i.e.
unscheduled maintenance.
1.Reactive Maintenance
Reactive maintenance is normally the run it till it fails mode of maintenance. No actions
or efforts are taken to carry the maintenance of the equipment as the designer primarily
intended to ensure the design life is utilized. Recent studies of 2000 show that this is still
the predominant mode of maintenance in the United States. The referenced study shows
the average maintenance program as follows:
Reactive more than 55%
Preventive 31%
Predictive 12%
Others 2%
More than 55% of maintenance resources and activities of an average facility seems to be
still reactive.
Advantages
Less staff.
Low cost.
Disadvantages
Increased labor cost, especially if overtime is needed.
Increased cost due to unplanned downtime of equipment.
The cost involved with repair or replacement of equipment.
Inefficient use of staff resources.
Possible secondary equipment or process damage from equipment failure.
2.Preventive Maintenance
Basic philosophy
Schedule maintenance activities at predetermined time intervals.
Repair or replace damaged equipment before obvious problems occur.
62
Preventive maintenance is defined as follows: Actions are taken on a time- or machine-
run-based schedule that detects, prevent, or lessen the degradation of a component or
system with the purpose of sustaining or extending its useful or service life through
controlling degradation to an acceptable level.
Advantages
Flexibility allows for the adjustment of maintenance periodicity.
Cost effective in many capital-intensive processes.
Energy savings.
Reduced equipment or process failure.
Increased component life cycle.
Estimated 12 18% cost savings over reactive maintenance program.
Disadvantages
Labor intensive.
Catastrophic failures still likely to occur.
Potential for incidental damage to components in conducting unneeded
maintenance.
Includes performance of unneeded maintenance.
3. Predictive maintenance
Basic philosophy
Schedule maintenance actions at predetermined time intervals.
Repair or replace damaged equipment before noticeable problems occur.
Predictive maintenance is defined as follows: Measurements that help to detect the onset
of system degradation (lower functional state), hence allowing causal stressors to be
eliminated or controlled before any significant deterioration in the component physical
state. Results show current and future functional capability.
Fundamentally, predictive maintenance differs from preventive maintenance on the basis
that maintenance is done according to the actual condition of the machine rather than
on some preset schedule. Preventive maintenance is time-based. Tasks such as changing
lubricant are done on the basis of time, like calendar time or equipment run time. For
63
example, oil in the vehicles is changed every 10,000 to 20,000 Km. traveled. This is
effectively basing the oil change needs according to equipment run time. The actual
condition and performance capability of the oil is not considered. It is changed because it
is on the schedule. This methodology would be same as the preventive maintenance task.
If on the other hand, the operator of the car discounted the vehicle run time and had the
oil analyzed at some periodicity to find out its actual condition and lubrication properties,
he/she may be able to extend the oil change time until the vehicle had traveled 40,000
km. This is the basic difference between predictive and preventive maintenance, whereby
predictive maintenance is the required maintenance task based on quantified
material/equipment conditions.
Advantages
Allows for preemptive corrective actions.
Increased component operational life/availability.
Decrease in costs for parts and labor.
Decrease in equipment or process downtime.
Better product quality.
Improved worker morale.
Improved worker and environmental safety.
Estimated 8% to 12% cost savings over preventive maintenance program.
Energy savings.
Disadvantages
Increased investment in staff training.
Savings potential not readily seen by management.
Increased investment in diagnostic equipment.
4. Reliability Centered Maintenance

Basic philosophy
Utilizes predictive/preventive maintenance methods with root cause failure
analysis to find out and pinpoint the exact problems,along with advanced
64
installation and repair techniques, including potential redesign or modification
of equipment to eliminate the occurrence of the problems.
Reliability centered maintenance (RCM) magazine gives the following definition of RCM:
RCM is a process used to determine the maintenance requirements of any physical asset
in its operating context. Generally, RCM methodology deals with some important issues
not dealt with by other maintenance policies. It recognizes that all equipment in a facility
does not have equal importance to either the process or to facility safety. It identifies that
equipment design and operation differs and that different equipment is more prone to
failures from different degradation process than others. It also advances the structuring
of a maintenance program recognizing that a facility does not possess unlimited financial
and personnel resources and that the use of both is to be prioritized and optimized. In
brief, RCM is an efficient approach to evaluating a facilitys equipment and resources to
best mate the two and result in a high degree of facility reliability and cost-effectiveness.
RCM highly depends on predictive maintenance but also recognizes that the maintenance
tasks on equipment that is inexpensive and not important to facility reliability may best
be done with a reactive maintenance approach.
Advantages
Lower costs by eliminating unnecessary maintenance or overhauls.
Can be the most efficient maintenance program.
Minimize frequency of overhauls.
Able to focus maintenance activities on critical components.
Reduced probability of sudden equipment failures
Incorporates root cause analysis.
Increased component reliability.
Disadvantages
Savings potential not readily seen by management.
Can have significant startup cost, training, equipment, etc.
Maintenance Maintenance
Signification
Strategy Approach
65
Breakdown
Fix-it when broke Large maintenance budget
Maintenance
Periodic component
Preventive Scheduled
replacement
Maintenance Maintenance
Predictive Condition-based Maintenance decision based on

Maintenance Monitoring equipment condition
Proactive Detection of Sources

Monitoring and correcting
Maintenance of Failures
failing root causes
Repair or Replace
One of the equipment managers most critical duties is to determine whether to repair or
replace the component of construction equipment. Since profit maximization is sought
by a contractor, productivity improvements built into new equipment might cause a
manager to procure the new one and dispose of the old one. This case may arise even if
the maintenance is managed very well and the productivity of the old equipment is
comparatively high while the cost of operation is comparatively low. Maintenance
management and its effect play a vital role in the ultimate decision since the residual
value of the currently owned equipment derive from how it has been operated and the
efficiency of maintenance.
Lubricants, uses, storage and their specification
Lubricants are materials especially used for lubricating mating parts to reduce friction so
that the life of equipment will be increased.
Functions of lubricants:
1. Lubricate the mating parts to reduce friction
2. Cool the aggregates
3. Clean or separate metal chips or foreign material from lubricant to prevent rapid
wear
4. Seal (piston rings and cylinder)
5. Works as working medium to transfer energy.
66
Uses of lubricants
Lubricants are used in various aggregates:
1. Engine oil
2. Air filter oil
3. Transmission or gear oil(gear box, differential)
4. Hydraulic oil ( hydraulic system)
5. Grease (chain, wheel and axle bearing, grease cup etc.)
Storage of lubricants
Two types of storage of oil:
1. Outdoor storage
2. Indoor storage
1. Outdoor storage of oil:
The temporary shelter should be provided to protect the oil drum or packing or
container.
Tarpaulin (cover) should be spread over the drum to protect from different
weather condition.
Drums of different grades of oil should be kept separately giving brand name and
specification.
Before removing bung (cap) of a drum, should dry and wipe them thoroughly and
clean surrounding surfaces.
Keep away from storage of other inflammable material.
Dont allow to smoking near storage area.
The oil drum should be put on wooden planks to keep them above the ground
which prevents rusting of an underside of a drum.
The wooden planks should be given slight slope for draining of water and other
liquid.
The drum should be set securely so that it should not slide down.
Should inspect regularly to detect leakage and prevent it.
67
The drums should be stored in maximum in three layers, better in two layers.
The Wooden ramp must be used to remove the drum from an upper level.
2. Indoor storage of oil
The oil drum should be put on wooden planks to keep them above the ground
which prevents rusting of underside of drum
Racks and cupboards should be properly arranged for keeping oil packing or small
containers.
Racks or cupboards must be provided for storing oil can, grease guns, clocks etc.
Metal trays should be provided with a container to catch drips oil.
Oil drum should be covered while taking from store to workplaces to avoid any
contamination with dust or dirt.
Metallic pad or suitable tool should be used to pick up or draw grease.
Drums of different grades of lubricant should be kept separately giving brand name
and specification for easy identification.
Keep away from storage of other inflammable material
Dont allow to smoking near storage area
Specification of lubricants
Approved engine oils are divided into the following MTU Quality Categories:
Oil category 1: Standard quality / Single and multi-grade oils
Oil category 2: Higher quality / Single and multi-grade oils
Oil category 2.1: Multi-grade oils with a low ash-forming additive content (low
SAPS oils)
Oil category 3: Highest quality / Multi-grade oils
Oil category 3.1: Multi-grade oils with a low ash-forming additive content (low
SAPS oils)
Selection of viscosity grades
Selection of the viscosity grade is based primarily on the ambient temperature at which
the engine is to be started and operated. If the relevant performance criteria are observed
68
the engines can be operated both with single grade and multi-grade oils, depending on
the application. Standard values for the temperature limits in each viscosity grade are
shown in (Figure 1). If the prevailing temperature is too low, the engine oil must be
preheated.
Fig 1. Grading of Lubricants
Example:
For Petrol engine
SAE 20W40 API SL _ used for petrol engine
SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers
20W- 40 viscosity index- used in all seasons
W- winter (20w- used in winter seasons)
40 used in summer seasons
API- American Petroleum Institute
S- Spark Ignition Engine
L grade : SA,SB,SC,SC,SESL
For Diesel engine
SAE 20W50 API CF4 multi-grade for diesel engine
SAE 80,90. Gear oil
SAE 46.hydraulic
69
Note on STRATIGIES FOR MAINTENANCE OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Note
Things to remember
MAINTENANCE COST
In latest years, there is a rising concern on the subject of higher maintenance cost and
productivity of maintenance. According to some company, maintenance is the largest
single manageable expenditure in the plant: in many companies, exceed their annual net
profit. Although many agree that maintenance strategies such as preventative and
predictive maintenance policy have been shown to produce a saving of up to 25%, a study
has shown that still 1/3 of this maintenance cost can be saved. Basically, maintenance
cost can be categorized into two main groups. The first one referred as direct costs are
easy to justify and to report. These direct costs consist of items such as labor, services,
material, and maintenance overhead cost are the cost tabulated and shown as
maintenance costs. The other Type of maintenance costs is hidden costs or indirect costs
which are difficult to measure. This hidden cost of maintenance are classified as the six
big losses:-
1. Losses due to breakdowns and unplanned plant shutdown
2. Idling and minor stoppages
3. Excessive set-up, changeovers and adjustments losses
4. Running at reduced speed
5. Quality defects and
6. Startup losses
INVENTORY CONTROL
Inventory can help organizations in various ways. The basic types of inventories include
raw materials inventory, finished goods inventory, work-in-process inventory, supplies
inventory, transportation inventory, and replacement parts inventory.
In the case of raw materials inventory, items are purchased from suppliers for use in
production processes. Finished goods inventory is concerned with finished product items
70
not yet delivered to customers. The supplies inventory is concerned with parts/materials
used to support the production process. Usually, these items are not an element of the
product.
1. ABC Classification Approach for Maintenance Inventory Control
The ABC classification approach gives information for routine and non-routine
maintenance. Consequently, it allows different levels of control based on the items
relative importance. The ABC approach is based on the reasoning that a small percentage
of items usually dictates the results achieved under any condition. This reasoning is often
referred to as Pareto principle, named after Vilfredo Pareto (1848 1923), an Italian
economist and sociologist.
The ABC approach classifies in-house inventory into three classes(i.e., A, B, and C) based
on annual dollar volume. The following approximate relationship between the percentage
of inventory items and the percentage of annual dollar usage is observed:
A: Of the items, 20% are responsible for 80% of the money usage.
B: Of the items, 30% are responsible for 15% of the money usage.
C: Of the items, 50% are responsible for 5% of the money usage.
The following three steps are associated with the ABC classification approach:
1. Determine the item characteristics that can influence inventory management
results. Often, this is the annual dollar usage.
2. Group items based on the criteria established above.
3. Practice control relative to the group importance.
After the classification of inventory items, control policies can be established. Some of
these policies associated with each classification are as follows:
Classification A items: These are high-priority items. Practice tight control including
frequent review of demand forecasts, complete accurate records, periodic and
frequent review by management, close follow-up, and expediting to minimize lead
time.
Classification B items: These are medium priority items. Practice regular controls
including good records, regular processing, and normal attention.
Classification C items: These are low-priority items. Practice simple controls, but
ensure they are sufficient to meet demand.
71
Keep plenty of low-cost items, and use the money and control effort saved to minimize
inventory of high-cost items.
Economic Order Quantity Model
The economic order quantity model may be traced back to 1915 and is one of the most
widely known inventory control methods. Some assumptions associated with the model
are as follows:
Constant and known demand
Instantaneous receipt of inventory
Constant and known time between order placement and receipt of the order
Infeasible quantity discounts
Stock-outs can be avoided by placing orders at the right time
Two variable costs: holding cost and ordering or setup cost
72
73
Other Inventory control Models
1. VED analysis: It is based on the criticality of items.
V- Vital items: without which production come to halt
74
E Essential items: without which dislocation of production works occurs
D Desirable items: without which no immediate loss in production
2. SDE analysis: Analysis is based on availability position of each items.
S Scare items: short supplies: imported good
D Difficult items: cannot be procured easily
E Easily available items
3. MNG analysis:
M Moving items: more consumable items
N - Non-moving items: in consumed in last 1 year
G Ghost items: no transaction of items during year- nonexisting item
4. FSN (fast, slow, non-moving)
Basis: Issue from stores:
Application: obsolescence control
5. HML (High, Medium, Low)
Basis: unit price of material
Application: to delegate purchasing power
6. VEIN (Vital, Essential, Important, Normal)
Basis: equipment criticality;
Application- Maintenance
8. FAN (Failure analysis):
Basis: design and issue of material
Application: reliability engineering
9. GOLF (Government, Ordinary, Local, Foreign):
Basis: Source of origin of material;
Application: purchase strategy
Spare Parts policy
75
Spare parts policy must be based on the characteristics of spares demands and cover six
main types of decision such as form, source, when to stock, standardization, ordering
method and budget
1. Forms :
Spare machine or equipment: in case of critical machine, ratio of spare parts prices
to machine prices, lead time for getting spares
Spare assemblies: quick replacing method for protection against stop cost: engine,
gearbox, electric motor, pumps, filters
A Recent development is a unit exchange: overhauled engine, gearbox etc.
Spares parts: lowest protection against stop cost however the cheapest form of
proving spares.
2. Source :
Repair: welding, brazing, metal spraying, electroplating of worn metallic surfaces
by regrinding.
Make: simple components can be made: Copper pipes, rubber hose, electrical
components, paper gaskets
Buy: buy parts from the supplier or from his agent: the cheapest source of supply
spares.
Borrow : borrow or buy from the other users of the same machine : aeroplanes
3. Whether to stock : to decide which items to stock and which to order on demand
4. Standardization: standardize some machines assemblies and parts to use them in
different models of machines to reduce spare provisioning cost and stop cost:
pumps, motors, gears, bearings, nuts, bolts etc.
5. Ordering methods: it affects the both the cost of spares and the investment or
capital tie-up in stocks:
Stock controlling order: fixed order quantities of different parts in medium
quantities with a low total cost per year.
Schedule ordering or maximum: many times orders or periodically revised delivery
schedule for high annual value item required in large numbers.
76
Base stock control: A base stock is fixed for every items .An order is placed just
after items are issued from store.
Order on demand: spare parts are ordered on demand for short lead times items
and predictable items.
6. The spares budget: effective spare parts policy reduces budget spent of spares. If
we store more items than needed then money will be blocked and if we have less
stock then more money will spend due more stop time.
More budget: stock more, stock equipment, assembled unit etc.
Less budget: more items can store than equipment and assembled unit
A Model for Estimating Spare Part Quantity
There are a number of factors that tend to increase the amount of maintenance-related
inventory and, ultimately, the cost of maintenance. Careful consideration of these factors
can help reduce inventory costs and, in turn, the cost of maintenance. Some of the factors
are as follows:
Cost of production downtime
Lack of parts standardization
Poor attention to inventory or order quantities
Maintenance scheduling requirements
Existence of multiple storage depots
Inadequate attention paid to the economics of quantity purchasing
Undependable suppliers
Nature and condition of facilities
The factors that tend to decrease maintenance-related inventory include good service
from suppliers, infrequent equipment breakdown, availability of cash, and the cost
associated with storeroom activity.
Safety inspection special care and precautions required for repair and maintenance of
components of construction equipment
Safety inspections:
1. Park construction equipment safely
77
2. Perform daily and periodic physical checkup:
1. Engine cooling and lubrication system
2. Leakage and top up hydraulic system (breakage of hoses, oil seal, loose nut etc.
3. Leakage of transmission oil (if manual transmission system)
4. Check brake and clutch fluid
5. Inspect hydro -drive system
6. Inspect steering system
7. check steering fluidInspect wheel: tire pressure, tyre tread, wheel nuts
8. Undercarriage: cleanliness, breakage, greasing etc.
3. Daily operational or functional inspection:
1. Operation of engine and transmission system
2. Operation of undercarriage system
3. Operation of steering and brake system
4. Operation of boom, stick, bucket, stabilizer, blade, ripper etc before performing
jobs.
5. Operation of lighting system etc.
Special care and precautions
1. Provide safety education and training to technical team or skilled or semi-skilled
mechanics
2. Wear proper clothing and protective devices
3. Use proper tools for checking pressurized hydraulic system
4. Always park the equipment on a level solid ground firmly and support it from
rolling off.
5. Put down the bucket, moldboard, boom etc. for inspections when park or retract
all arms and lower the attachments to the ground.
6. Carry out servicing, adjustment or repairs when equipment is in stop condition
78
7. Use strong strut or bar to support raised arm, bucket etc. during maintenance if
you needed to work with raised arm.
8. Be care of falling from boom, stick, and bucket.
9. Engage boom lock and slew lock before traveling on the road while running
equipment for testing
10. Before testing the park brake makes sure the area around the equipment is clear
of people.
11. Do not test equipment with damaged hoses.
12. Removed the starter key to prevent any one starting the engine.
13. Disconnect the battery.
79
Chapter 5: Management of construction equipment
Note on Equipment policy

Note
Things to remember
Equipment acquisition:
Equipment can be acquired by purchasing, leasing and hiring.
PURCHASING:
It is the activities for getting the right material to the right place at the right time, in the
right quantity and quality at the right price from reliable source.
Methods of purchasing:
1. Receiving requisition
2. Review requisition
3. Selection of suppliers
4. Place order
5. Monitoring
6. Receive orders
a.Receiving requisitions:
All department of company demand materials or equipments to the purchasing
department according to their needs to perform their functions.
Receiving requisitions should include:
What to buy
how many items
when to provide
80
name of indenter (representative of foreigner company, product, a person)
estimated cost
b.Review requisition:
Before taking final decision, it is done to get materials or equipments for following
purposes:
Buy in best price,
Get alternative materials for longer life,
Redesigning and revision of specifications for getting latest version of equipments
for more efficient, more production etc.
c.Selection of suppliers:
To select the supplier from short list, consider following factors:
Quality of their products
Product price
Delivery schedule
Services (repair maintenance, sales spares etc.)
Technical assistance (installation, commissioning)
Training program
Lead time
d.Placing orders:
After selection of suppliers and negotiation of prices, orders of materials or equipments
are placed formally to purchase. Determine the following:
Items numbers and quantity
Quality of products
Fix delivery schedule
Delivery place etc.
e.Monitoring :
81
Monitoring of purchasing order is for controlling delivery schedule. Delivery schedule may
change due to suppliers production delay and change orders with in his own firm.
Untimely deliver of materials or equipments create problems such as:
Decrease production
Increase stop cost etc.
Purchasing methods
f.Receive orders:
Receipt contracted item numbers and quantity
Receipt contracted quality
Receipt material or equipment in an acceptable condition and provide payment.
Final price can be discount for large quantity and for prompt cash payment.
LEASING
Over the past several years there has been a growing trend of leasing as a way to finance
construction equipment. It is normally easier to gain financial approval for equipment
under a lease program than through conventional purchase financing. In the simplest
form, an equipment lease is simply a rental agreement. Rent is paid for the equipment
during the rental period. Once the agreement is over, the equipment is returned to the
owner. In a true lease, the lease payments are considered as an expense of the lessee.
The lessee does not own the equipment and it is not shown as an asset on financial
statements. The most significant factor that affects the decision of renting or leasing is
the duration of time the equipment will be required. Leasing is normally considered more
favorable when there is requirement of equipment for more than 6 months. Most leases
run from 18 to 24 months. For large and expensive equipments, leases can run as long as
up to 84 months.
Leasing arrangements are a form of finance in which third party acquires an asset, usually
a bank, finance company, or dealer and then leased to the end user for a predetermined
agreed upon period of time. This arrangement means the leasing party never actually has
title to the asset for the term of the lease, although it is allowed to use the asset during
that period. In the normal capital equipment lease, the term of the lease will be equal to
the operating life of the asset and the repayments will be set up by the cost of the asset
spread over that time, plus a certain profit margin for the lessor. Leasing does not have
any impact on a companys current or debt-to-worth ratios, thus presentation a more
82
positive financial condition for bonding purposes. Leasing gives rise to a more orderly
planned equipment replacement strategy, reducing the maintenance costs before they
become excessive. Leasing also eliminates the works such as used equipment disposal or
resale for the user. Leasing of construction equipment allows for more flexibility dealing
with cyclical and regional variations at a work level.
Many leasing companies offer seasonal leases which are termed as skip leases that allow
the user to skip the scheduled payments during busiest months, thus minimizing cash flow
concerns during seasonal periods when the work is low.
Step-up leases start with lesser payments that increase over time, allowing the user to
generate revenue while initial payments are lesser.
Deferred payment leases allow the user to defer initial payments until cash flow is started.
There are two common types of equipment leases offered by most equipment dealers.
They are:
The finance lease is a lease that allows the contractor to make lease payments over a
period of time and purchase the machine for a bargain purchase or mandatory amount
at the end of the lease term. The lessee typically retains the tax benefits. The term for
new equipment ranges between 12 and 60 months.
The tax lease typically offers a lower monthly payment than a finance lease. At the end
of the lease term, the contractor has three options: buy the equipment at a fair market
value, extend the lease for a new fixed term or month-to-month basis, or return the
equipment to the dealer.
RENTING
Renting is gaining popularity as an option for contractors when it comes to acquiring
equipment. In CITs 2006 Construction Industry Forecast, respondents as in the past, cited
limited need for the equipment as the primary reason for renting. The forecast highlights
that as equipment fleets grow older, more contractors are finding it necessary to use
rental equipment to back up the equipment they own.
The most obvious disadvantage of straight-out equipment rental is that there is no option
for accruing equity. Equipment rental has no impact on the balance sheet. It does,
however, impact cash out-of-pocket. Rental payments reduce the companys earnings as
an operating expense and since the equipment is not owned, there is no impact on
depreciation. Dealer equipment rental programs offer many of the same advantages or
83
benefits of lease programs. The contract period for rental provides complete flexibility,
with contract periods as brief as a day or a week or as long as a month or a year.
One of the greatest risks any business can incur is that of having a large portion of its
capital tied up in nonproductive assets. Construction equipment sitting idle in a yard or
warehouse still demands outlays for insurance and maintenance, and depreciation may
continue just about as fast as if the equipment were working. Most contractors rent
approximately 25% of their total equipment requirements. This follows an 80/20 balance
for equipment specification and purchase. A contractor purchases or leases equipment
that is appropriate for 80% of the work performed and rent for the other 20% of the work.
Most rental companies calculate their rates on a monthly basis. Weekly rates are usually
about three times the daily rates. Similarly, monthly rates equal about three times the
weekly rates.
On an hourly basis, renting is typically the most expensive of the three acquisition
solutions. However, it is ideal for work activities not performed on a regular the basis,
because it minimizes idle time for seldom-used equipment. Renting is the best solution
when equipment will be utilized for a short duration.
Note on Comparison between leasing and purchasing

Note
Things to remember
Comparison between leasing, Renting and purchasing
Advantages of Purchasing
1. Use and possession: The owner has absolute control of the use and disposition of
the equipment.
2. Flexibility: The owner can sell the equipment, trade it, or use it until it is not
economical to repair without having to respond to any creditor. Ownership gives
the user complete flexibility regarding servicing, maintaining, and insuring the
equipment.
3. Price: The buyer with cash is usually able to get better discounts due to a stronger
financial position in the deal.
84
4. Tax benefits: The owner can take advantage of depreciation and interest tax
benefits associated with equipment ownership.
5. Pride of ownership: Ownership can lead to better care and maintenance.
Disadvantages of Purchasing
The purchase option for equipment acquisition generally becomes more economically
attractive if there is a high utilization rate throughout the useful life of the equipment.
This point is extremely important, because the inability to use the machine enough to pay
for its cost is the greatest risk and disadvantage of purchasing. Whether the equipment is
working or not, the owners financial obligation to the lender continues. Borrowing large
sums of money is sometimes necessary to purchase large heavy equipment tying up
company capital and borrowing power. If the machines working capabilities are limited,
the types of work activities that can be undertaken by the machine are limited. This is not
necessarily a disadvantage, but a limitation. Many construction activities are redundant
and similar each time therefore the same machine can be used. Other responsibilities (not
necessarily disadvantages, unless mismanaged) of owning include licenses, proper
registration, all associated paperwork, insurance, maintenance, transport, storage, and
provision of a qualified operator. All of these requirements of equipment ownership have
to be managed, tracked, and con-trolled. The administration of equipment management
costs should be included in the charge for use of the equipment.
Advantages of Leasing
1. Lower rates and lessee cannot claim tax benefits. When the lessee cannot take
advantage of tax benefits associated with equipment ownership, such as
depreciation and interest, the leasing is more attractive. The lessor can purchase
the equipment, claim the tax benefits, and lease the equipment to the lessee. The
tax benefits are passed to the lessee in the form of lower lease rates.
2. Cash flow improvement. Compared with a loan, a lease typically gives the lessee
a more favorable cash flow, especially during the first years of use.
3. Carry on off-balance sheet for financial accounting purposes. The lessor assumes
title to the equipment with interest expense capitalized into the lease when the
equipment is delivered and accepted by the lessee.
4. Impact on lessees income. During the early years of a properly structured lease
usually there is less effect on income depreciation and interest payments related
to the purchase of the equipment.
85
5. Fixed-rate lease payments. The lessee can know the exact amount of future
payments and avoid the risks inherent in fluctuations in the cost of funds. By
knowing this amount information, the lessee can predict future financing
equipment costs and cash needs more accurately.
6. Faster amortization of the equipment. The lessee under an operating lease may
be able to amortize the cost of the equipment faster through tax-deductible
rentals than through depreciation and after tax cash flow.
7. Hedge against inflation. Future lease rentals are paid in inflated currency. The
lessor (bank) can borrow long to minimize the effect of inflation and pass on this
protection to the lessee in the form of long-term level lease payments.
8. Payments coordinated with lessees cash flow. Payment schedules can be
coordinated with earnings generated from the use of the equipment by the lessee.
This flexibility may not be available with other financing methods.
9. Long-term financial availability. Leases can be structured for most of the useful
life of the equipment. The lease contract can exceed the period of time normally
available on a term loan. Lessors can offer lease terms due to faster return of
capital from cash flow generated by tax benefits.
10. Convenience. For leasing contracts below $5 million, documentation may be
simpler and more flexible than other sources of financing.
11. Full financing. Leasing can provide the lessee 100% financing. The amount can
include shipping and installation charges. A typical equipment loan may require an
initial down payment.
12. Earnings from the retained capital. A lease allows retentions of lessees capital
that can be used elsewhere in the lessees business.
13. Obsolescence. Leasing avoids equipment obsolescence for the lessee. If
equipment becomes obsolete faster than its depreciation life, leasing may be more
attractive.
14. Uncertain residual value. The more risk associated with the residual value of the
equipment, the more attractive leasing becomes.
Disadvantages of Leasing
Leasing is ideal for acquisition of equipment for long-term use and ultimate purchase.
Disadvantages are limited. The reputation and the reliability of the lessor and terms of
86
the lease agreement should be verified prior to entering into a lease. There are many
types of leases and conditions can vary based on the market or the lessor. In some
instances the total sum of all leasing rates can reach a total amount greater than the cost
of the new equipment.
Advantages of Renting
1. Minimum equipment for the job. Equipment ownership becomes particularly
expensive when the equipment is idle and not utilized. When ownership of the
basic equipment is combined with rental as needed, idle time is minimized.
2. Right equipment for the job. Ownership encourages inefficiency through use of
wrong size or type of equipment for a given job. Renting can minimize this hidden
cost.
3. Warehousing or storage. Warehousing facilities are seldom needed for rental
equipment, thus reducing overhead.
4. Breakdowns. The rental service will typically replace equipment if there is a break-
down, thus minimizing downtime due to repairs.
5. Maintenance. Full maintenance is covered on a day-to-day basis. The user needs
no repair shop, no spare parts supply, no mechanics, and no maintenance records.
6. Equipment obsolescence. The rental service may provide the latest types and
models of equipment that are faster and more productive than the older models.
7. Disposal cost. Selling used and obsolete equipment is not required.
8. Cost control. Cost is easier to monitor and control with rented equipment. The true
cost of an owned equipment is often difficult to determine.
9. Inventory control. Contractors have less inventory loss when equipment is rented.
The presence of continuous billing on any rented item tends to establish
accountability for that item.
10. Taxes and licenses. Personal property taxes and license costs are eliminated on
rented equipment. Leasing cost is 100% deductible.
11. Conservation of capital. The lessees capital is available for other uses or
investment. Contractors should analyze cash requirements and consider renting
equipment as a method of conserving working capital.
87
12. Increase in borrowing capacity. Rented equipment does not result in a liability on
the balance sheet. Debt ratios will improve, making the lessee firm seem stronger
financially.
13. Cost estimating and bid preparation. Renting can increase estimating accuracy
because all repair and downtime costs become more predictable.
14. Short-term jobs. Renting is the most economical solution for short-term and
specialty jobs.
15. Transportation costs. Renting is the best way to avoid transporting equipment
from project to project, thus reducing transportation costs. This is especially
beneficial when dealing with heavy equipment requiring special hauling
equipment.
16. Equipment testing. Allows use of equipment in the field without purchase, leading
to a better understanding of equipment capabilities and suitability for the work.
Disadvantages of Renting
The greatest disadvantage of renting is the resultant higher unit cost to perform the work.
Typically the hourly rental rate is more than the lease or ownership rate. Higher unit cost
will typically result in a less competitive estimate when bidding against someone who
owns their equipment.
THE BUY, LEASE, OR RENT DECISION
Table shown below is adapted from Coombs and Palmers book, Construction Accounting
and Financial Management. The table suggests the optimal approach for equipment
acquisition based on customer needs or criteria.
88
As stated before, the buy, lease, or rent decision is most influenced by how long the
equipment is needed. A short period of utilization favors renting and a longer period
favors leasing or purchase. Along with the discussed financial analysis and comparison
there are many non-quantitative areas to be considered prior to the decision:
Work volume
Nature and types of construction projects
Client requirements and expectations
Reputation and company perception to potential clients
Funding capabilities
Long-term financial goals
Relationship with equipment supplier
Company ownership policy
A study of the acquisition and finance alternatives comes after identification of the need
for a piece of equipment. This evaluation is a key component in the financial planning of
the construction firm.
Note on Estimation of total equipment cost
89
Note
Things to remember
Total equipment cost
Total equipment costs comprise two different costs: ownership costs and operating costs.
Excluding for the one-time initial capital cost of buying the equipment, ownership costs
are the fix cosedts that are incurred every year, regardless of whether the equipment is
in operating condition or idle. Operating costs are the costs that are incurred only when
the equipment is in use. Each cost has different features of its own and can be calculated
using different methods. None of these methods can give the exact costs of owning and
operating equipment for any given set of conditions. This is due to the involvement of a
large number of variables, which is due to the uncertain nature of the construction
business. So, these estimates should be considered as close approximations while doing
the calculations of ownership and operating costs.
1. OWNERSHIP COST
Ownership costs are the fixed costs. Almost all of the ownership costs are annual in nature
and comprise of:
Initial capital cost
Depreciation
Investment (or interest) cost
Insurance cost
Taxes
Storage cost
a.INITIAL COST
On an average, the initial cost makes up about 25% of the total cost invested during the
equipments useful life. This cost is incurred for getting equipment into the construction
site, and having the equipment ready for the use. Many types of ownership and operating
costs are calculated using initial cost as the basis, and generally, this cost can be calculated
accurately. Initial cost consists of the following costs:
90
Price at factory extra equipment sales tax
Cost of shipping
Cost of assembly and erection
b.DEPRECIATION
Depreciation signifies the decline in market value of the equipment due to age,
deterioration, wear, and obsolescence. The following may be the causes of depreciation
on any equipment:
Physical deterioration from wear and tear of the machine
Economic decline or obsolescence over the passage of time
In the evaluation of depreciation, some factors are clear while other factors have to be
estimated. Normally, the asset costs are known which consist:
Initial cost: The amount needed to acquire the machine or equipment
Useful life: The number of years it is expected to be of the utility value
Salvage value: The anticipated amount the asset will be sold at the end of its useful
life
However, the exact length of the useful life of the asset and the precise amount of salvage
value are always uncertain, which will be known only when the asset is disposed of. Any
assessment of the depreciation, therefore, necessitates these values to be estimated.
Among various depreciation methods, the straight line method, double declining balance
method, and sum of years digits method are the most usually used in the construction
equipment.
c. INVESTMENT (OR INTEREST) COST
Investment cost signifies the annual cost (converted into an hourly cost) of capital
invested in an equipment. If any borrowed funds are utilized to purchase a piece of
equipment, the equipment cost is just the interest charged on these funds. However, if
the machine is purchased with the company assets, an interest rate equal to the rate of
return on company investment should be charged. So, investment cost is calculated as
the product of interest rate multiplied by the equipment value, which is then converted
into cost per hour of operation.
91
The average annual cost of interest should depend on the average value of the equipment
during the useful life of the equipment. The average value of equipment can be
determined from the following equation:
Where P is the average value, IC the total initial cost, and n the useful life in years.
The above equation assumes that the equipment will have no salvage value at the end of
its useful life. If the equipment has salvage value at the end of its useful life, the average
value can be obtained from the following equation:
Where P is the average value, IC the total initial cost, n the useful life (years), and S the
salvage value.
d.INSURANCE TAX AND STORAGE COSTS
Insurance cost signifies the cost incurred due to accident, theft, fire, and liability insurance
for the equipment or machine. Tax cost signifies the cost of licenses for the equipment
and property tax. Storage cost consists the cost of rent and maintenance for storage yards
of the equipment, the wages and salary of guards and employees involved in getting
equipment in and out of storage, and the associated direct overhead costs.
The cost of insurance and tax for each item of equipment are generally known on an
annual basis. In this condition, this cost is divided by the number of operating hours during
the year to obtain the cost per hour for these items. Storage costs are also generally
obtained on an annual basis for the whole equipment fleet. Insurance and tax costs may
also be known on the fleet basis. It is then necessary to prorate these costs to each item.
This is normally done by changing the total annual cost into a percentage rate, then
dividing these costs by the total value of the equipment fleet. By doing this, the rate of
insurance, tax, and storage may simply be added to the investment cost rate for the
calculation of the total annual cost of investment, insurance, tax, and storage.
The average rates for interest, insurance, tax, and storage found in the literature are
Interest 39%, Tax 25%, Insurance 13%, and Storage 0.51.5%.
These rates will differ according to the related factors such as the location of the job site
and the type of equipment.
2. Operating cost
92
Operating cost incurs only when the equipment is in use or in operating condition. The
operating cost of the equipment is affected by various parameters namely the location of
a job site, the number of operating hours, operating conditions, category of equipment
etc. The operating cost consists of the following costs;
1. Fuel cost,
2. Repair and maintenance cost,
3. Cost of lubricating oil, filter and grease,
4. Tire cost
5. Equipment operator wages,
6. Cost of replacing high-wear items and
7. Cost of mobilization, demobilization, and assembly.
After calculating the different components, the total annual operating cost of the
construction equipment is calculated by summing up the above listed operating costs per
annum. Then the hourly cost of operation can be calculated by dividing the annual
operating cost by the number of operating hours the equipment will operate annually.
The hourly operating cost can also be calculated by first determining the components of
operating cost individually on hourly basis followed by adding these hourly costs to get
the total hourly operating cost.
Hiring Cost
The hiring cost of the construction equipment is set by adding on the owning cost, the
operating cost per hour, and certain profit margin.
I.e. HC = OC + RC + P
where, HC is hiring cost
OC is owning cost
RC is running or operating cost, and
P is a profit margin.
93

Construction Equipment

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Construction Equipment

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Contents

Note on Introduction to Construction equipment

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Fig 1. Classification of Construction EquipmentSome of the Construction equipment are

Fig 7. Sheep foot roller

Fig 8. Pneumatic tired roller

Fig: Asphalt paver

Note on Introduction to Hydraulic Units 1

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Fig 1. Schematic diagram of simple hydraulic system

Fig 2. Solenoid actuated Valve

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Fig 1. Components of a Clutch

Fig 2. Planetary Gear sets

Fig 3. Planetary Steering

Fig 4. Components of Torque Converter

Fig 4. Exploded view of Differential system

Fig 5. Transmission system

Fig 6. Final Drive

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Fig 1. Track chain

Fig 6. Exploded view of a typical carrier roller

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Note on Graphical symbols

Found mistakes?? Report Here

Symbol Designation Explanation

One direction of rotation

Compressed air from the

One direction and two

One direction and two

One direction and two

One direction and two

One direction and two

Dryer For drying the air

Lubricator amount of oil is added to

Regulator To regulate air pressure

Direction Control Valves (DCVs)

Two closed ports in the

In the first position flow

For double acting

Two open positions and

Two open positions with

Non Return Valves

Check valves Allows flow in one

When any one of the

For quick exhaust of air

Flow control valves

Flow control valve To allow controlled flow

To allow controlled flow

Pressure Control Valves

Non relieving type

Pressure relieving valve

Relieving type with

Allows pump to build

Controls the movement

Spring loaded cylinder

Both extension and

Note on Maintenance of Construction equipment 1

Found mistakes?? Report Here

4. Reliability Centered Maintenance

Predictive Condition-based Maintenance decision based on

Proactive Detection of Sources