I 3

1 , 7
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 , 11
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 , 15
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1 -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 19
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.2 ! . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.3 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Galois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Sylvester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

5 25
5.1 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1
2

5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

II 31
6 33
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3 F[x, y] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.4 F[x, y, z] . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.5 -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7 Groebner 47
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.6 Groebner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.8 . . . . . . 64
7.9 . . . . . . 65

8 Groebner 67
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2
Groebner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.3 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

9 Buchberger 73
9.1 Buchberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

10 77
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.2 Hilbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
 I

3
 5

(
, ) 1
1.
2011-12 -
, -
.

2. .

3.

()
()
()
()
()

, -
.

.
.
internet, web camera .

1
:eraptis@math.uoa.gr : 211, . 2107276347 -
:http://eclass.uoa.gr/courses/MATH118/
6
 1

20 20121

1.1
2
.
- :
1.

,
.

:
1.1.1. x, y, z

x+y+z =3
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 5
x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 7

:
x4 + y 4 + z 4 = 9
x5 + y 5 + z 5 6= 11
1

2
-
2011-12 (

7
8 1. ,

x5 + y 5 + z 5
x6 + y 6 + z 6

1.1.2.
x, y, z
x7 + y 9 + z 8 = 1
x12 + y 25 + z 2 = 1
x13 + y 23 + z 33 = 1

1.1.3. f (x) = 3x6 +2x5 +2x4

x3 8x2 + 11x 9, g(x) = x2 4x + 3
h(x) = x4 7x2 + 6 ;

1.1.4. :

x + 2x + 3x = 0
4x + 5y + 6z = 0
7x + 8y + 9z = 0

12x + 13y + 18z = 0;

1.2
-
.

1.

f (x1 , x2 , , x ) = 0

( ) -

f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, , f (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0

( ), - (1 , 2 , , )

f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, , f (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0,

f (x1 , x2 , , x ) = 0
1.3. 9

2.

f (x1 , x2 , , x ) = 0

( ) -

f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, , f (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0

( ),
f (x1 , x2 , , x ) =
h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) + h2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )
+ + h (x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x ),

1.3
1.

2.
-

10 1. ,
 2

22 2012

2.1

()

f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0

f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0


(),
..


.


f (x , x , ..., x ) = 0
1 2

fi (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) () -
F ( F )1 .

1. .

2. ,
2 ,
1

R , C, Q
modp p )
2
1 x1 + 2 x2 + + x + ,
i , F

11
12 2. ,

3 .
3. ,
=1 =1, -
.
Galois.


2.1.1.
F
:
1. , F[x1 , x2 , ..., x ].
Hilbert
2. ,
. , , . -

. ,
,
.

.
.

.

:
1. Windows
2. Linux
3. ,

2.1.1
1.
2. -

3


2.1. 13

2.1.2
1. R

x+7 + y +5 = 1
x+6 + y +10 = 1, ,, .
, .

2. . -

( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
( + 9)x7 + 12x3 + (16 + )x + (2 + 13) = 0
,, . ,
.

14 2. ,
 3

29 2012

3.1
:

(3.1) f (x) = x3 + x2 + x + = 0, , , , R, 6= 0

( )
.

1. f (x)
, f ? (x) = f (x)

f (x)
(3.2) f ? (x) = = x3 + x2 + x + = 0, , , , R, 6= 0

2. f (x) f ? (x)

3. f ? (x)
, 1 .

4. , , :

(3.3) x3 + Ax2 + Bx + = 0
1

15
16 3. ,

5.

A
(3.4) x=t
3

6. :

(3.5) t3 + tp + q = 0

A2 2A3 9AB
(3.6) p=B , q =+
3 27

7. 3.5 :
,
p
(3.7) 3 3 = q, =
3

8. :

3 3 3 3 p3 3
(3.8) = q, ( ) = =
27

9. 3 3 = q
p3
3 3 = 27 . -
. , , :

r r
q q 2 p3 q q 2 p3
(3.9) 3 = + + , 3 = + +
2 4 27 2 4 27

10. :

(3.10) ( )3 = 3 3 2 +3 2 3 ( )3 = 3 3( ) 3

11.

(3.11) ( )3 + ( 3 3 ) + 3( ) = 0

2.7

12.

(3.12) ( )3 + q + p( ) = 0
3.1. 17

13.
, , .
, 3.9,
. 2 C
. :

() , x3 1
C

{z0 = 1, z1 = 2 + 2 , z2 = 12 i 2 3 }
1 i 3

()
r
q
3.9 r
q
:
2 p3 2 p3
0 = 2q + q4 + 27 , 1 = z1 2q + q4 + 27
3 3
,
r q
2 p3
2 = z2 2q + q4 + 27
3

() r
r q :
q
2 p3 2 p3
0 = 2q + q4 + 27 , 1 = z1 2q + q4 +
3 3
27
,
r q
2 p3
2 = z2 2 + q4 + 27
q
3

() 3.7 ,
:
0 0 , 2 1 , 1 2

3.1.1

:


( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
( + 9)x3 + 12x2 + (16 + )x + (2 + 13) = 0

1.
,
. ,
( ).

2

18 3. ,

2. :
{f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0},
f (x), g(x) ,
f (x) g(x) (
). ,, f (x) = g(x)(x) + (x), -
{f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0}
{(x) = 0, g(x) = 0}.
.
3. .

3.1.2 -
1.

2.

3.1.3
1.
. , x = 1, y = 0


-. :
-
;
. , -
.
.
:
x2 + y 2 = 1
x2 y 2 = 1
x2 = X, y 2 = Y .
.


2. 1



 4

4.1
5 2012

4.1.1
:

f (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + , 6= 0
F1

1. f (x) -
1

f (x). , ( ) f (x)
1 f (x).
1
2.
f (x) :

x4 + A x3 + B x2 + x +

3. x = t A4 , -
2 :

t4 + pt2 + qt + r
1

2
f (x) = x + 1 x1 + 2 x2 + + 1 x + 0
x = t 1
1

19
20 4.

4.

t4 + pt2 + qt + r = (t2 + t + ) (t2 + t + )

,,,

5.
+=0
++ =p
+ =q
=r

6. :
+ = p + 2
( ) = q
=r

7. :

(4.1) ( + )2 ( )2 = 4

+ = p + 2 , = q , = r
2 .

8. ,
, 2
3

9.

4.1.2 !
, ,
, .
:

4.1.1. f (x) C[x] 4. ,

( )
( ).
4 (,,,
)
3
,

4.1. 21

1.
.

2. Galois ,
4 5
4
.

3. 5 Galois ( )
( -
) , .
. -
f (x)
Galois G(f )

4. -
0 = {e}, 1 , 2 , = i C i+1 , -
i+1 /i .
-
, ,
- . -

5. -
, ,
.
0 = {e}, 1 , 2 , =
-

6. Galois, f (x) (
) Galois G(f ) .

7. -
. Galois
G(f )
S , .
Galois ,
. S3
S4 . S5 .
S .
4
: .
5 .. f (x) = x5 1 Q[x]
5
Galois -

22 4.

8.
. 2 .
Galois .

4.1.3 !
1. f (x) = x5 9x + 3 Q[x]

. -

2. .
x5 9x + 3

3. Galois
f (x) S5 .
A5 .
f (x)
.

4. 6
. -
.

5. f (x). ;

6.

7. - -
5 (
Galois )

4.2 Galois
. f (x) = x4 8x2 +
15 Q[x] .
(
)
f (x) Q( 3, 5) Galois f (x)
Q( 3, 5)

6


4.3. 23

4.3
:

1. :

g(x) = x + 1 x1 + + 0 , > 0
h(x) = x + 1 x1 + + 0 , > 0

g(x), h(x) ;

4.4


d(x) = M K(g(x), h(x). :

1. d(x) -

2. g(x) = d(x) (x) h(x) = d(x) (x), M K((x), (x)) = 1

3. (x) g(x), h(x), (x),

d(x).

4.5 Sylvester
4.5.1. g(x), h(x)
A(x) B(x) :

1. A(x) B(x)

2. A(x) 1 B(x) 1

3. A(x)g(x) B(x)h(x) = 0

4.5.2. Sylvester g(x), h(x)

Syl(g, h, x). -
Res(g, h, x)
.

4.5.3. g(x), h(x),

Res(g, h, x) = 0
24 4.

4.5.1
1. f (x) = (+7)x3 +(+3)x2 +(+4)x+2 R[x]
.

2. g(x) = x4 +(+1)x3 +( +8)x2 +( +1)x+2

R[x] 4 .

3. 4.5.1

4. 4.5.3

5.
Sylvester f (x), g(x)

7 2012

5.1 -

-
. ,
f1 (x1 , , x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , , x ) = 0, , f (x1 , , x ) = 0
g(x1 , , x ) = 0 .
:
5.1.1. g(x1 , , x ) = 0
f1 (x1 , , x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , , x ) = 0, , f (x1 , , x ) = 0
g(x1 , , x ) < f1 (x1 , , x ), f2 (x1 , , x ), , f (x1 , , x ) >
. g(x1 , , x )
< f1 (x1 , , x ), f2 (x1 , , x ), , f (x1 , , x ) >, g(x1 , , x )
.
:
g(x1 , , x ) = h1 (x1 , , x ) f1 (x1 , , x )
+ h2 (x1 , , x ) f2 (x1 , , x ) + h (x1 , , x ) f (x1 , , x )
,
f1 (x1 , , x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , , x ) = 0, , f (x1 , , x ) = 0,
g(x1 , , x ) g(x1 , , x ) = 0
:

25
26 5.

5.1.2. , , :

++ =3
2 + 2 + 2 = 5
3 + 3 + 3 = 7

4 + 4 + 4 = 9

.
:

1.
, ,

2.
f1 (, , ) = + + 3,
f2 (, , ) = 2 + 2 + 2 5,
f3 (, , ) = 3 + 3 + 3 7

3. I =< f1 (, , ), f2 (, , ), f3 (, , )

4. Groebner G

5. h(, , ) = 4 + 4 + 4 9
Groebner G. , 1

6.
.

: 4 + 4 + 4
4 + 4 + 4 Groebner G -
9,
2 4 + 4 + 4 = 9

5.2
1. F3 , -
F, F[x].

2.
1

2

3
R , -
.
.
5.2. 27

3. F[x] -
.
4.
5.
5.2.1. (x) F[x] (x) F[x] (x) 6= 0(x).
(x) (x)
() (x) = (x) (x) + (x)
() (x) = 0(x), ,
(x) 6= 0(x) ( (x) )< ( (x) )

() :
i. (x) = x + 1 x1 + + 1 x + 0 6= 0,
(x) .
ii. (x) = x + 1 x1 + + 1 x + 0 6= 0,
(x) .
iii. < , (x)
(x),
(x) = 0(x) (x) = (x)
.
iv. 4 .


x
v. :

(5.1) 1 (x) = (x) x (x)

(x),
,
(x) .
vi. 1 (x) :
(5.2) 1 (x) = x + 1 x1 + + 1 x + 0
6= 0 <
vii. ) 1 (x)
(x), , (x) x
(x) 1 (x).

4

28 5.

) = (x) > ,


x
viii. ) :

(5.3)

2 (x) = 1 (x) x (x) = (x) x (x) x (x)

ix. 2 (x) ( -
1 (x))
(x) -

x. ( 1 (x), 2 (x), 3 (x), ,) -
, ,
i (x) .
:

(x) = i (x) (x) = x + x +
xi. ( )

() :
(x) = (x) (x) + (x)
(x) = (x) 0 (x) + 0 (x)
(x) ((x) 0 (x)) = 0 (x) (x)
(x) 0 (x) 6= 0(x) 0 (x) (x) 6= 0(x)
.
(x) 0 (x) = 0(x) 0 (x) (x) = 0(x)

6.

5.2.2. (x), (x), (x), (x) -

.

() (x)
() (x)
() (x)
() (x)
() (x) (x)
0(x), (x) (x)
(x) | (x)
5.3. 29

5.3
1. :
f (x) = ( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
( )
g(x) = ( + 2)x4 + ( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
,, .

() g(x) f (x)
(x) (x)
() ( )
:
f (x) = ( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
( ? )
(x) = 0
()
()

2. () 5

.
() :
f (x) = ( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
( ) g(x) = ( + 2)x4 + ( + 7)x3 + 5x2 + (6 + )x + ( + 13) = 0
h(x) = x5 9x + 3 = 0
,, .
.
i. -
(x), (x), (x) R[x] :

M K(f (x), g(x), h(x)) = (x) f (x) + (x) g(x) + (x) h(x)

ii. ( )
iii. -
.

5
.
30 5.
 II

31
 6

6.1
F[x1 , x2 , , x ],1 F ,
.
:

1) (x) F[x] (x) F[x] (x) 6= 0

2)
.

(x) = 0
(x) = (x)(x) + (x)


(x) 6= 0 deg((x)) < deg((x))

(x) -
(x) . 5 2
I =< f (x), g(x) > F[x]
f (x), g(x) (x) I. -
.
.
1
F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
x1 , x2 , , x F. ,
,
. (F[x1 , x2 , , x ], +, )
F
2
,
-

33
34 6.

,
I =< f (x), g(x) >,
.
h(x) h(x) =
(x)f (x) + (x)g(x), (x), (x) F[x].

6.2
( )
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]

1. (x1 , x2 , , x )

2. f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f3 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )

1. (x1 , x2 , , x ) :
(x1 , x2 , , x ) = 1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) +
2 (x1 , x2 , , x )f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )+ + (x1 , x2 , , x )f (x1 , x2 , , x )+
(x1 , x2 , , x )

2. (x1 , x2 , , x ), -
-
(1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), 2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , (x1 , x2 , , x )),
.

-
(x, y) (f1 (x, y), f2 (x, y)).
.
:

(x, y) = 1 (x, y) f1 (x, y) + 2 (x, y) f2 (x, y) + (x, y)

= (x, y) :
= (f1 (x, y), f2 (x, y)) :
:
= (1 (x, y), 2 (x, y)) :
(x, y) :
 6.3. F[X, Y ] 35

6.3 F[x, y]
6.3.1. -
(x, y) = g(x, y) = xy 2 + 1 (f1 (x, y) = xy + 1, f2 (x, y) =
y + 1).

1 4 1
(.. x > y).
, , :
x y ,
3 . (, )
Z0 .

(1 , 1 ) > (2 , 2 ) o 1 > 2 0 1 = 2 1 > 2

x1 y 1 > x2 y 2 o (1 , 1 ) > (2 , 2 )

2 -
, -
.

f1 (x, y) = xy + 1 g(x, y) = xy 2 + 1

f2 (x, y) = y + 1

1 (x, y) =

2 (x, y) =

(x, y) =

3 (
), xy 2
3

 36 6.

(
), xy. xy 2 : xy y.
-
, 7xy 2 5xy, (7/5)y.
1 (x, y) = y.
:

f1 (x, y) = xy + 1 g(x, y) = xy 2 + 1

f2 (x, y) = y + 1

1 (x, y) = y

2 (x, y) =

(x, y) =
4 f1 (x, y) = xy + 1 y
g(x) = xy 2 + 1. :

f1 (x, y) = xy + 1 g(x, y) = xy 2 + 1

f2 (x, y) = y + 1
y(xy + 1) = xy 2 + y, g(x) (xy 2 + y) = y + 1

1 (x, y) = y

2 (x, y) =

(x, y) =

5 y + 1, .
( ) y.
f1 (x, y) = xy + 1
xy. xy f1 (x, y)
y.
 6.4. F[X, Y, Z] 37

f2 (x, y) = y + 1,
y. y,
y + 1 1.
1 f2 (x, y) = y +1
y + 1.
2 (x, y), 1 , 2.
:

f1 (x, y) = xy + 1 g(x, y) = xy 2 + 1

f2 (x, y) = y + 1
y(xy + 1) = xy 2 + y, g(x) (xy 2 + y) = y + 1
1 (y + 1) = y 1, y + 1 (y 1) = 2

1 (x, y) = y

2 (x, y) = 1

(x, y) = 2

6 ,
(x, y) = 2 2 2 x0 y 0 ,
f1 (x, y)
f2 (x, y).
-
g(x, y) = xy 2 + 1
(f1 (x, y) = xy + 1, f2 (x, y) = y + 1) -
(1 (x, y) = y, 2 (x, y) = 1) (x, y) = 2.

g(x) = xy 2 + 1 = f1 (x, y) 1 (x, y) + f2 (x, y) 2 (x, y) + (x, y)

6.4 F[x, y, z]

 38 6.

6.4.1. -
g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 (f1 (x, y, z) =
x3 yz 5 + 1, f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1).

1 (.. x > y > z).

, ,
.

g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18
f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1
f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1

2 -
.

f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

f2 (x, y) = yz + 1

1 (x, y) =

2 (x, y) =

(x, y) =

3 (
), 3x5 y 2 z
(
), x3 yz 5 . 3x5 y 2 z :
x3 yz 5 .
, z -

( ) -
(
), yz.
 6.4. F[X, Y, Z] 39

3x5 y.
3x5 y ,
.
3x5 y f2 (x, y) = yz + 1
g(x) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18. :

f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1
g(x, y, z) 3x5 yf2 (x, y, z)

= 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y(yz + 1)

1 (x, y, z)
= xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y

2 (x, y, z) = 3x5 y

(x, y, z) =

4 xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y, -
.
,
3x5 y xy 3 z + 7yz + 18. (
) 3x5 y.
f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 x3 yz 5 . -
x3 yz 5 f1 (x, y, z) 3x5 y 4 .

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1,
yz. 3x5 y,
3x5 y xy 3 z + 7yz + 18.

3x5 y
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18.

4

 40 6.

f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1
g(x, y, z) 3x5 yf2 (x, y, z)

= 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y(yz + 1)

1 (x, y, z)
= 3x5 y xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

2 (x, y, z) = 3x5 y
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18
(x, y, z) = 3x5 y

5 xy 3 z + 7yz + 18, -
.
, -
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18. (
) xy 3 z.
f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 x3 yz 5 .
x3 yz 5 f1 (x, y, z) xy 3 z.

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1,
yz. xy 3 z,
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18. xy 2
2 (x, y, z).

:
 6.4. F[X, Y, Z] 41

f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1
g(x, y, z) 3x5 yf2 (x, y, z)

= 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y(yz + 1)

1 (x, y, z)
= 3x5 y xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

2 (x, y, z) = 3x5 y xy 2
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18
5
(x, y, z) = 3x y
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

6 xy 2 f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1 -
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 . xy 2 + 7yz + 18,
.
:

f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1
g(x, y, z) 3x5 yf2 (x, y, z)

= 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y(yz + 1)

1 (x, y, z)
= 3x5 y xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

2 (x, y, z) = 3x5 y xy 2
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 (xy 2 (yz + 1)) = xy 2 + 7yz + 18

(x, y, z) = 3x5 y

7 . -
xy 2 ,
 42 6.

. -
0(x), . -
-.
xy 2

f1 (x, y, z) = x3 yz 5 + 1 g(x, y, z) = 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

f2 (x, y, z) = yz + 1
g(x, y, z) 3x5 yf2 (x, y, z)

= 3x5 y 2 z xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 3x5 y(yz + 1)

1 (x, y, z)
= 3x5 y xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

2 (x, y, z) = 3x5 y xy 2
xy 3 z + 7yz + 18

xy 3 z + 7yz + 18 (xy 2 (yz + 1)) = xy 2 + 7yz + 18

(x, y, z) = 3x5 y + xy2
7yz + 18

8 . :

() 1 (x, y, z) = 0(x),

() 2 (x, y, z) = 3x5 y xy 2 + 7

() (x, y, z) = 3x5 y + xy 2 + 11

9 :

(x, y, z) = g(x, y, z) = 1 (x, y, z)f1 (x, y, z)+2 (x, y, z)f2 (x, y, z)+(x, y, z)
6.5.

6.5 -

6.5.1
5 :

E = {(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) | i {0, 1, 2, 3, , } = N}
:
(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) > (1 , 2 , 3 , , )
1 > 1 0 (1 = 1 2 > 2 ) 0 (1 = 1 2 = 2 3 > 3 )
0 (1 = 1 2 = 2 3 = 3 , 1 = 1 > )

1. (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) > (1 , 2 , 3 , , )
(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) -

2. ,
(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) (1 , 2 , 3 , , ), -
:

() (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) > (1 , 2 , 3 , , )
() (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) < (1 , 2 , 3 , , )
() (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) = (1 , 2 , 3 , , )

3.
(1 , 2 , 3 , , ), (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) (1 , 2 , , ) -
(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) > (1 , 2 , 3 , , ),

(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) + (1 , 2 , , ) > (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) + (1 , 2 , , )

4. f (x1 , x2 , , x ) F[x1 , x2 , , x ], -
- F,

x1 1 x2 2 ...x nu
F (1 , 2 , 3 , , ) E

(1 , 2 , 3 , , ) E .
5

44 6.

5. f (x1 , x2 , , x ) F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
, -
. .

6.

6.5.1.
A1
. - -
, 1 . A2
.
- ,
2 . - (1 , 2 , , ).
- (;;)

7.

6.5.2.

6.6
(x1 , x2 , , x ) -

(f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f3 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x ))

:
(x1 , x2 , , x ) =
1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )
+ 2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )
+ 3 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f3 (x1 , x2 , , x )
+ + (x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x ))
+ (x1 , x2 , , x )

1. (x1 , x2 , , x )
,
-
(f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f3 (x1 , x2 , , x ), ,
f (x1 , x2 , , x ))

(x1 , x2 , , x ) .
6.7. 45

6.7
1. ,, .
. (x, y)
f (x, y) = x3 y 2 + 3y 3 x 5
(g(x, y) = x5+ y +1 + 2, h(x, y) = xy + 2)

2. (x, y)
f (x, y) = x3 y 2 + 3y 3 x 5 (, h(x, y) = xy +
2, g(x, y) = x5+ y +1 + 2)

3. f (x, y) = 0, g(x, y) =
0, h(x, y) = 0 (x, y) =
0g(x, y) = 0, h(x, y) = 0

4. -

46 6.
 7

Groebner

7.1

f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0

f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0

, fi F[x1 , x2 , ..., x ], F

()
..


.


f (x , x , ..., x ) = 0
1 2

I = hf1 , f2 , ..., f i C
F [x1 , ..., x ].
1. I F [x]
I = {f (x) g(x)|g(x) F [x]}, I =< f (x) >.

7.1.1. F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ] -

, F .
F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ], ,

I =< x1 1 x2 2 x , x1 1 x2 2 x , ... > .

() I .

()
< x >, Z0 ,
: ={0}, -
. 6= {0}. , =1,

47
48 7. GROEBNER

I = hx1 , x2 , ..., xi , ...i. = {1 , 2 , 3 , ...}

{0, 1, 2, ...}. , .
I = hx i.
A = hx i. x I A = hx i I.
x I. = + .
6= 0, x = x x I ,
x I. = 0 x I
I A A = I.
() f I, f
x1 , x2 , ..., x

f (x1 , ..., x ) = f1 (x1 , ..., x )h1 (x1 , ..., x ) + + f (x1 , ..., x )h (x1 , ..., x ),

fi F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ] hi I.
() I = hx2 + x + 1i ,
I = hx i, h(x),
x2 + x + 1 = x h(x).
7.1.2. I F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ].
I I = hx1 1,1 x2 1,2 x 1, , x1 2,1 x2 2,2 x 2, ,
..., x1 ,1 x2 ,2 x , i.

x1 i,1 x2 i,2 x i, xi , i = (i,1 , i,2 , ..., i, ).

I = hxi , i A, i Ki, K .
.

=1 ( )
-1. . x = y.

x1 i,1 x2 i,2 x1 i,1 y mi .

J F [x1 , x2 , ..., x1 ],
x1 i,1 x2 i,2 x1 i,1 x1 i,1 x2 i,2
x1 i,1 y mi I mi {0, 1, 2, ...}.

J = hx1 , x2 , ..., x i,

xi x1 i,1 x2 i,2 x i,1 xi .

7.1. 49

x 1 J x1 y m1 I m1 {0, 1, 2, ...}
x 2 J x2 y m2 I m2 {0, 1, 2, ...}
..
.
x J x y m I m {0, 1, 2, ...}
m = max{m1 , m2 , ..., m }.
m = 0

x0,1 , x0,2 , ..., x0, I

m = 1

x1,1 y, x1,2 y, ..., x1, y I

..
.
m 1

xm1,1 y m1 , xm1,2 y m1 , ..., xm1, y m1 I

xm,1 y m , xm,2 y m , ..., xm, y m I

I, x y .
m, I = hxm,1 y m , xm,2
y m , ..., xm, y m i. m = {0, 1, ..., m1},
.

7.1.3. f (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ]

( )
MO(f ).

7.1.4. f (x, y) = 3x5 y 4 +4x3 y 5 +6xy 7 +7y+8.

x > y, MO(f ) = 3x5 y 4 .

7.1.5. I F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ] (

). I
J = hM O(f )|f Ii = h1 x(1) , 2 x(2) , ..., x() i. -
f1 , f2 , ..., f I J = hM O(f1 ), M O(f2 ), ...M O(f )i.
{f1 , f2 , ..., f } Groebner I.

f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ), ..., f (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) F [x1 , x2 , ..., x ]

f1 , f2 , ..., f F .
() :
50 7. GROEBNER

1. f (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x )f (x1 , x2 , ..., x )+...+a f +(x1 , x2 , ..., x )

2. (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0 6= 0 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 1 x11 x12 ...x1 +

... + x1 x2 ...x
i F .
fi , i = 1, ..., k.

3. i = 1, 2, ..., k, i fi = 0 i fi 6= 0 deg(f )
deg(i fi ).

1. -
(.. x1 > x2 > ... > xn ) .

F [x1 , ..., x ] .
F [x1 , ..., x ] .

7.1.6. I =< x1 i1 x2 i2 x i , (i1 , i2 , ..., i ) A > -

. I ,
: x1 11 x2 12 x 1 , ..., xa1k1 xa2k2 xak , -
I.
I =< x1ai1 x2ai2 xai , (i1 , ..., i1) A >
1 2
x1 x2 x I. x1 1 x2 2 x xa1i1 xa2i2 xai .

I ( ) F (

I ). x11 x22 x I, -
xa1i1 xa2i2 ...xai .

I C F [x1 , ..., x ] I ,
:

1. (I) = {xa1 a2 a
1 x2 ...x | f (x1 , ...x ) I -
xa1 a2 a
1 x2 ...x }.
M O(I) I 6= {}.

2. < M O(I) > .

3. < M O(I) >

M O(I). < M O(I) >=< xa111 xa212 xa1 , ..., xa1k2 xa1k2
xak >. x1ai1 x2ai2 xai < M O(I) >.
xa111 xa212 xa1
< M O(I) >. g1 (x1 , ..., x )
I M O(g1 ) = 1 xa111 xa212 xa1 , g2 (x1 , ..., x ) I M O(g2 ) = 2
xa111 xa212 xa1 ,...., g (x1 , ..., x ) I M O(g ) = 1 xa111 xa212 xa1 .
7.1. 51

7.1.7. {g1 , g2 , .., g }

Groebner .


Groebner
I

7.1.8. f1 (x, y) = x3 y2x2 y 2 +x f2 (x, y) =

3x4 y I = hf1 , f2 i. Groebner
{252x 624y 7 + 493y 4 3y , 6y 4 49y 7 + 48y10 9y}.
7.1.9. ( Hilbert)
I F [x1 , ..., x ] .
g1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ), ..., g (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) I = hg1 , g2 , ..., g i

I = {0}, .
I 6= {0}, I Groebner {g1 , g2 , ..., g }.
g I. g g1 , g2 , ..., g . g = 1 g1 +
2 g2 + + g + .

= 0 g I.
6= 0
I
,
M O(gi ), i = 1, 2, ..., .

I, M O() M O(I) hM O(I)i = hM O(g1 ), M O(g2 ),

..., M O(g )i. M O() M O(gi ), i = 1, 2, ..., . -
.

I F [x1 , ..., x ].

1. hM O(I)i = hM O(g1 ), M O(g2 ), ..., M O(g )i, (g1 , g2 , ..., g : Groeb-

ner).
 52 7. GROEBNER

2. {g1 , g2 , ..., g } Groebner

3. I F [x1 , ..., x ] Groebner.
4. I = hg1 , g2 , ..., g i.
7.1.10. hg1 , g2 i = I R[x, y] g1 (x, y) = x3 2xy, g2 (x, y) =
x2 y 2y 2 + x = x2 y + x 2y 2 .

{g1 , g2 } Groebner I.
x > y M O(g1 ) = x3 , M O(g2 ) = x2 y hM O(g1 ), M O(g2 )i =
hx3 , x2 yi. x g2 y g1 = x (x2 y 2y 2 + x) y (x3 2xy) = x2 ,
x2 hM O(I)i. Groebner, x2 = (x, y)
x2 + (x, y) (x2 y). . Groebner.

7.1.11. g1 (x, y, z) = x + z R[x, y, z]

g2 (x, y, z) = y z R[x, y, z]. {g1 , g2 } Groebner
I = hg1 , g2 i.
f I, I .
M O(f ) = max{M O(g1 ), M O(g2 )}

F (x1 , ..., x ).
f (x1 , ..., x ) F (x1 , ..., x ), F (f1 , f2 , ..., f )
- F (x1 , ..., x ).
f (x1 , ..., x ) = 1 (x1 , ..., x )f1 (x1 , ..., x ) + + (x1 , ..., x )f (x1 , ..., x ) + (x1 , ..., x ).

.
7.1.12. ( Hilbert)
I C F (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) .

Groebner I C F (x1 , ..., x ).

Groebner
:

{..(f ),f I}.

hM.O.(f ), f Ii.
{..(f ),f I} -
, hM.O.(f ), f Ii = hM.O.(g1 ), M.O.(g2 ), ..., M.O.(g )i,
g1 , g2 , ..., g I. G = {g1 , g2 , ..., g } Groebner
I. (
Groebner, .)
7.1. 53

f I, g1 g2
,
, g2 g1 .

G = {g1 , g2 , ..., g } Groebner I CF (x1 , ..., x ),

f F (x1 , ..., x ) 1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ), 2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x )
f {g1 , g2 , ..., g }, , .. {g2 , g1 , ..., g }.
1 = 2 .

1 2 = 0, .
1 2 6= 0, 1 2 -
{g2 , g1 , ..., g } 1 2 hg2 , g1 , ..., g i.
{g2 , g1 , ..., g } Groebner I.
1 2 ( 1 2 6= 0)
g2 , g1 , ..., g . Groebner.

f F (x1 , ..., x )
I C F (x1 , ..., x ), :

() Groebner

() f {g2 , g1 , ..., g }

() f I f {g2 , g1 , ..., g } 0.
( () () g2 , g1 , ..., g .)

f F [x1 , ..., x ] A = {f1 (x), f2 (x),
..., f (x)}, F A . A = G = {g2 , g1 , ..., g }, -
F G G .

2. ICF (x1 , ..., x ).

F [x1 , ..., x ]I.

7.1.13. f1 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0, ..., f (x1 , x2 ,

..., x ) = 0
I = hf1 , f2 , ..., f i C F [x1 , ..., x ].

dim F [x1 , ..., x ]I < .

F (x1 , ..., x )I 1-1 -

F G , G Groebner.
54 7. GROEBNER

F (x1 , ..., x )I f + I. f + I F G .

1-1 .
f (x) F (x) I = hf i.
F [x]I 1. 1, x, x2 , x3 , ..., x1
, dimF F [x]I = .

7.1.14. F [x1 , ..., x ] -

, I G = {g1 , g2 , ..., g } Groebner I.
M.O.(g1 ) hM.O.(g2 ), ..., M.O.(g )i. {g2 , ..., g }
Groebner I.

hM.O.(g2 ), ..., M.O.(g )i = hM.O.(g1 ), M.O.(g2 ), ..., M.O.(g )i. -

I = hg2 , ..., g i. g1 = 2 g2 + + g + , I
M.O.() M.O.(g2 , ..., g ), = 0
.

7.2
: 2.1
()
(? ), .
:

f1 (x) = 0
f2 (x) = 0
(1 )


f (x) = 0
f1 (x), f2 (x), , f (x)
F1

1. f1 (x), f2 (x), , f (x), -

h1 (x), h2 (x), , h (x) F[x] -
:

h1 (x) f1 (x) + h2 (x) f2 (x) + + h (x) f (x)

2. ,
f1 (x), f2 (x), , f (x).
1
, R
C
7.2. 55

3. V
F v1 , v2 , , v ,
v1 + 2 v2 + + v
v1 , v2 , , v -
,

4. (1 ) (1 ), -

(1 ) = { F : f1 () = 0, f2 () = 0, , f () = 0}

5. (1 ) ,
. (1 )
,

6. : (1 ),
h1 () f1 () + h2 () f2 () + + h () f () = 0
(1 )
.
7. :
,
f1 (x) = 2 (x) f2 (x) + 3 (x) f3 (x) + + (x) f (x),
(1 ) (? )

f2 (x) = 0
(? )
f (x) = 0
f1 (x)
: (). f1 () = 0, f2 () = 0, , f () = 0,
f2 () = 0, , f () = 0, (? ) () v (? )
(? ). f2 () = 0, , f () = 0
f1 () = 2 () f2 () + 3 () f3 () + + () f () = 0
(? ) v ().
(? ) = ()

8.

f1 (x) = 0
f2 (x) = 0
7.2.1. (1 )



f (x) = 0
56 7. GROEBNER

,
g(x) = h1 (x) f1 (x) + h2 (x) f2 (x) + + h (x) f (x)
. ()
(g) g(x)
: 6 ( )

9. - -
,
,
.

10. (1 ) -

, ;
:

11. :

7.2.2. f1 (x), f2 (x), , f (x)

F[x], F.
f1 (x), f2 (x), , f (x),
h1 (x) f1 (x) + h2 (x) f2 (x) + + h (x) f (x)
hi (x) F[x],
f1 (x), f2 (x), , f (x)

12.
;

7.3
1.

2.

1.
I =< f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x ) > .

F[x1 , x2 , , x ].

f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )

2. ,
.
7.3. 57

()
2.1 (), , -
, () , =().
(1 , 2 , , ) , f1 (1 , 2 , , ) = 0,
f2 (1 , 2 , , ) = 0, , f (1 , 2 , , ) = 0.
:
g(x1 , x2 , , x ) = h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+h2 (x1 , x2 , , x )
f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) + h (x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x ) -

h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), h2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , h (x1 , x2 , , x ) F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
g(1 , 2 , , ) = 0, (1 , 2 , , ) (),
(I).
(1 , 2 , , ) (),
g(x1 , x2 , , x ) = h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+
h2 (x1 , x2 , , x )f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )+ h (x1 , x2 , , x )f (x1 , x2 , , x )
h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) = 1 hi (x1 , x2 , , x ) = 0, i =
2, 3, , f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )
,
, ,
(1 , 2 , , ) =().

3. . .

4. ,
. , -
,
, =().
-
,
. . -
,
.

7.3.1. R . R,
R I C R
i. R , 0 I
ii. , I, I
iii. I, x R 2 x I x I
2
, ,
, x I
58 7. GROEBNER

5. :

G = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )} I

()
f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )
()

g (x , x , ..., x ) = 0
1 1 2



? g2 (x1 , x2 , ..., x ) = 0

( )

..


.


g (x , x , ..., x ) = 0
1 2

()=, (? )

() (? )
.

6. G = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )}

Groebner -

7. F[x], -
{0}, Groebner.3
Groebner,
. Groebner
Groebner

8. Groebner

9. B. Buchberger ,
1965 Groebner

10.
Groebner
Groebner.

: V
3

-
7.4. 59

7.4

7.4.1. R I . I
R

1. I 6= 0

2. , I,

3. I r R, r I r I

.
. -
F[x1 , x2 , , x ] ,

.
-
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
,
, .
.

.
.

7.4.2. R S . S
R

1. S 6=

2. S ( 4 S) -

7.5
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
F
4
R R R R, -
S
60 7. GROEBNER

1. f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x ),

h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), h2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , h (x1 , x2 , , x ) F[x] -
:
h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+h2 (x1 , x2 , , x )f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )+
+
h (x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x )

2. , -
f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x ),

3.

7.5.1. {f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )}

F[x1 , x2 , , x ]. -
.

h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) = h2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) = h (x1 , x2 , , x ) = 0,
0 .
:
h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+h2 (x1 , x2 , , x )f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )+
+
h (x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x )

1 (x1 , x2 , , x )f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+2 (x1 , x2 , , x )f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )+
+
(x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x )
.
:
(h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) + 1 (x1 , x2 , , x )) f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) +
(h2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) + 2 (x1 , x2 , , x )) f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) + +
(h (x1 , x2 , , x ) + (x1 , x2 , , x )) f (x1 , x2 , , x )
, ,

h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+h2 (x1 , x2 , , x )f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )+
+
h (x1 , x2 , , x ) f (x1 , x2 , , x ) g(x1 , x2 , , x )
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
:
7.6. GROEBNER 61

{g(x1 , x2 , , x )h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )}f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+{g(x1 , x2 , , x )

h2 (x1 , x2 , , x )} f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) + +
{g(x1 , x2 , , x )h (x1 , x2 , , x )} f (x1 , x2 , , x )


4.
() , , -
{f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )}

< {f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )} >
()
. .
() A -
< A > ( )
.

.
5
< A >.
() -

7.6 Groebner
, 2.1 ,
,
(). .
1. < {f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , f (x1 , x2 , , x )} >,

2. ( 2 ) ()
()
3. , .
4. ,
f (x1 , x2 , , x )

5


62 7. GROEBNER

5. -
(),
M O(I) = {x1 1 x2 2 x , x1 1 x2 2 x
}

6. ()
()

7. < M O(I) >

().

8.
7.6.1. 6= 0 F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
, :

B = {x1 i1 x2 i2 x i , i = 1, 2, , }
< B >=< M O(I) >
:

() -
< M O(I) >
()
,

x1 i1 x2 i2 x i
gi (x1 , x2 , , x ) I
() gi (x1 , x2 , , x ) I , -


()
G = {gi (x1 , x2 , , x ), i = 1, 2, , }

Groebner

9. Groebner
( )
Groebner ,
Groebner

10. Groebner
() ,
-
Groebner.

7.7. 63

1. -
Groebner

2. 3x + 5y x + y
R[x, y]. Groebner

3. Groebner

4.

5. 6 Groebner

6. Groebner

7.7

Groebner
/ F[x1 , x2 , , x ]

7.7.1. F[x1 , x2 , , x ].
Groebner
G = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )}
< M O(I) >=< M O(g1 ), M O(g2 ), , M O(g ) >

1.
(),
M O(I) = {x1 1 x2 2 x , x1 1 x2 2 x
}
()
()
< M O(I) > ().

2. < M O(g1 ), M O(g2 ), , M O(g ) >

g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )

3. 1 .
6

64 7. GROEBNER

7.8

2
F[x]
F. ,
.
-

.
, f (x) . h(x)
. h(x) f (x).

h(x) = f (x) (x) + (x)
(x) , h(x)
f (x). (x) ,
h(x) f (x) (x) = (x) (x) I
,

F[x] f (x)
. h(x) f (x),
I =< f (x) > .

F[x] .
Groebner

1. x.
x,
M O(I) = {x x }

2. F[x] M O(I)
x (), x
< M O(I) >=< x > .

3. , x <
M O(I) > x = x x < x > < M O(I) >< x > .
< x > < M O(I) >
< M O(I) >=< x > .

4. , , Groebner. -
< M O(I) >< x > .
< x > .
f (x) ,
7.9. 65

. Groebner,( )
{f (x)}

: - F[x] (-
) Groebner. {f (x)},
f (x)

7.9


F[x, y] F
(
) Groebner.
, . x y
, {0, 1, 2, 3, } :
M O(I) = {x y , x y }
< M O(I) > .
-
< M O(I) > F[x].
7 :
J = F[x], x y
x y < M O(I) >
7.8 J {0, 1, 2, }
J =< x >
{0, 1, 2, } x y < M O(I) >
x y M O(I)
x y x y , x y = x y x y 8
: x y M O(I) < ;

1. -1, :
J1 = F[x], x x y 1 < M O(I) >
F[x] ,
1 {0, 1, 2, } J1 =< x1 >

2. -2, :
J2 = F[x], x x y 2 < M O(I) >
F[x] ,
2 {0, 1, 2, } J2 =< x2 >
7

8
{0, 1, 2, }

66 7. GROEBNER

3.

4. 1, :
J1 = F[x],
x x y 1 = x y < M O(I) > F[x]
,
1 {0, 1, 2, } J1 =< x1 >

5. 0, :
J0 = F[x],
x x y 0 = x < M O(I) > F[x]
,
0 {0, 1, 2, } J0 =< x0 >

7.9.1. < M O(I) > F[x, y]

x y
x1 y 1

x 1 y
x 0

7.9.2. g0 (x, y), g1 (x, y), , g (x, y)

:

1. g0 (x, y) = x0

2. g1 (x, y) = x1 y

3. g2 (x, y) = x2 y 2

4.

5. g (x, y) = x y

7.9.3. {g0 (x, y), g1 (x, y), , g (x, y)} I

< M O(I) >=< M O(g0 (x, y)), M O(g1 (x, y)), , M O(g (x, y)) >
Groebner

Groebner

8.1
1. Groebner 7.7.1

2. -
I . F[x1 , x2 , , x ] ( ) Groebner

3. - F[x1 , x2 , , x ], Groebner
,
G = {g0 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )}
:
< M O(I) >=< M O(g0 (x1 , x2 , , x )), M O(g1 (x1 , x2 , , x )), ,
M O(g (x1 , x2 , , x )) >

8.2
Groebner
F[x1 , x2 , , x ], -
{0}. Groebner
:

1. .

2. .
.

67
68 8. GROEBNER

3.
()={ x11 x22 x , F, 6= 0 x11 x22 x -
}

4. () .
< M O(I) >, .

5. < M O(I) > -

,

x111 x212 x1 , x121 x222 x2 , , x11 x22 x -
1 < M O(I) >.

6.
.

x111 x212 x1 = g1 (x1 , x2 , , x )

x121 x222 x2 = g2 (x1 , x2 , , x )


x11 x22 x = g (x1 , x2 , , x )

7. g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g (x1 , x2 , , x ) -

.

8.

G = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g (x1 , x2 , , x )}

Groebner

9. -
Groebner . ,
Groebner .

10. :

{g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )}
Groebner , :
< M O(I) >=< M O(g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), M O(g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), ,
M O(g (x1 , x2 , , x ) > 2

11.
M O(g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) < M O(g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , M O(g (x1 , x2 , , x ) >,
g1 (x1 , x2 , , x )
1
, . -

2
()
8.2. GROEBNER 69

Groebner

G = {g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )}

:

12.

8.2.1. I C F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]. ()
G = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g (x1 , x2 , , x )} , -
(minimal) Groebner ,

()
G 1
() i {1, 2, , } -
gi (x1 , x2 , , x ) -
,

M O(gi ) 6< M O(g1 ), M O(g2 ), , M O(gi1 ), M O(gi+1) , , M O(g )

13. Groebner ,
Groebner , -
3 . Groebner

14.

8.2.2. I C F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]. ()
G = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g (x1 , x2 , , x )} , -
(reduced) Groebner ,

()
G 1 ( Groebner
() i {1, 2, , }
gi (x1 , x2 , , x ) ( -
) -
,

Oo(gi ) 6< M O(g1 ), M O(g2 ), , M O(gi1 ), M O(gi+1) , , M O(g )

3

70 8. GROEBNER

15. :

8.2.3. F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
I 6= {0}. Groebner .

8.3 -

-
. ,
f1 (x1 , , x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , , x ) = 0, , f (x1 , , x ) = 0
g(x1 , , x ) = 0 .
:
8.3.1. g(x1 , , x ) = 0
f1 (x1 , , x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , , x ) = 0, , f (x1 , , x ) = 0
g(x1 , , x ) < f1 (x1 , , x ), f2 (x1 , , x ), , f (x1 , , x ) >
. g(x1 , , x )
< f1 (x1 , , x ), f2 (x1 , , x ), , f (x1 , , x ) >, g(x1 , , x )
.
:
g(x1 , , x ) = h1 (x1 , , x ) f1 (x1 , , x )
+ h2 (x1 , , x ) f2 (x1 , , x ) + h (x1 , , x ) f (x1 , , x )
,
f1 (x1 , , x ) = 0, f2 (x1 , , x ) = 0, , f (x1 , , x ) = 0,
g(x1 , , x ) g(x1 , , x ) = 0
:
8.3.2. , , :

++ =3
2 + 2 + 2 = 5
3 + 3 + 3 = 7

4 + 4 + 4 = 9
.
:
1.
, ,
8.4. 71

2.
f1 (, , ) = + + 3,
f2 (, , ) = 2 + 2 + 2 5,
f3 (, , ) = 3 + 3 + 3 7

3. I =< f1 (, , ), f2 (, , ), f3 (, , )

4. Groebner G

5. h(, , ) = 4 + 4 + 4 9
Groebner G. , 4

6.
.

: 4 + 4 + 4
4 + 4 + 4 Groebner G
9,
5 4 + 4 + 4 = 9

8.4
,
.

1. Schwartz, Zippel Schwartz, Zippel

2. Tarski,Seidenberg
.

3.

4. Cayley-Hamilton

4

5

72 8. GROEBNER
 9

Buchberger

9.1 Buchberger
Groebner
. Groebner, -
Buchberger Groebner. Groebner
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
.
Groebner ,
. Groebner
1965 W. Groebner (1899-1980) B.Buchberger.
H.Hironaka 1965
B.Buchberger Groebner.
,

1. f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )
F[x1 , x2 , , x ] -
( ) :
x1 1 x2 2 x f1 (x1 , x2 , , x )
x1 1 x2 2 x f2 (x1 , x2 , , x )
6= 0, 6= 0, i 0, i 0, i = 1, 2, ,
9.1.1.
x1 1 x2 2 x x1 1 x2 2 x
x11 x22 x i = max(i , i ), i = 1, 2, 3,

2. :

9.1.2. f1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) f2 (x1 , x2 , , x ) -

, S- f1 , f2

73
74 9. BUCHBERGER

x11 x22 x x11 x22 x

S(f1 , f2 ) = f1 f2
x1 1 x2 2 x x1 1 x2 2 x

3.

9.1.3. F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
I =< f1 , f2 , , f > . G = {f1 , f2 , , f } -
Groebner ,
S(fi , fj ) G i, j, i 6= j, 1, j = 1, 2, ,

, -
, :

Buchberger.
Buchberger

4. Buchberger

1 f1 , f2 , , f
2 S(f1 , f2 )
3 S(f1 , f2 )
{f1 , f2 , , f }.
4 , S(f1 , f3 )
{f1 , f2 , , f }.
{f1 , f2 , , f , (S(f1 , f2 ))}1
.
5 S(fi , fj ) (
) (S(fi , fj ))
.
6

internet :

1. .

2. buchberger

(S(f1 , f2 ))} S(f1 , f2 )
1

9.1. BUCHBERGER 75

3.

4. Wikipedia

5.
. .
76 9. BUCHBERGER
 10

10.1

.

10.2 Hilbert
10.2.1. F[x1 , x2 , , x ].
F[x1 , x2 , , x ],
.

: , I = {0},
F[x1 , x2 , , x ]
.
I 6= {0}. ()
Groebner,
B = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g3 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )}.
,
.
f (x1 , x2 , , x ) .
f (x1 , x2 , , x ) . :
f (x1 , x2 , , x ) =
h1 (x1 , x2 , , x )g1 (x1 , x2 , , x )+ +h (x1 , x2 , , x )g (x1 , x2 , , x )+
(x1 , x2 , , x ), (x1 , x2 , , x ) .
:
(x1 , x2 , , x ) = f (x1 , x2 , , x ) h1 (x1 , x2 , , x ) g1 (x1 , x2 , , x )
h (x1 , x2 , , x ) g (x1 , x2 , , x )
f (x1 , x2 , , x ), g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), , g (x1 , x2 , , x )
(x1 , x2 , , x )

77
78 10.

B = {g1 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g2 (x1 , x2 , , x ), g3 (x1 , x2 , , x ), ,

g (x1 , x2 , , x )} Groebner ,
(x1 , x2 , , x )
( Groebner .)
:

1. (x1 , x2 , , x ) , -
f (x1 , x2 , , x )
, .

2. (x1 , x2 , , x ) ,
- .
.
, .

. .

10.2.2. f (x1 , x2 , , x ) F[x1 , x2 , , x ],

Groebner
.

:
2. ;

10.3 -

:
-
, -



Automated theorem proving
:
10.3.1. ,,, 1 (
).
2
1

2
[;]
10.3. 79

1.
( )
2.
.
(0,0)
B = (u1 , 0) u1 6= 0
3. u1 .
4. = (u2 , u3 ) u2 u3 .
,
, , ,
,
5. = (x1 , x2 )
6. , x2 u3 = 0
u3 x2
7. , u2
= x1 u1

8. h1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = x2 u3
h2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = (x1 u1 )u3 x2 u2 .
R[u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ] -
. :

h1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = 0 h1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = 0

9. N = (x3 , x4 ).

(,,) (,,)
.
10. :
x4
() ,, x3
= ux13
x4
() ,, x3 u1
= u2uu
3
1

11.
h3 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = x4 x1 x3 u3
h4 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = x4 (u2 u1 ) (x3 u1 )u3
12. -

.
80 10.

13. ,
.

AN = N BN = N .

() AN = N x23 + x24 = (x3 x1 )2 + (x4 x2 )2

() BN = N (x3 u1 )2 + x24 = (x3 u2 )2 + (x4 u3 )2

14. :
g1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = x23 x24 + (x3 x1 )2 + (x4 x2 )2
g2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = (x3 u2 )2 + (x4 u3 )2 (x3 u1 )2 x24

15.
g1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) g2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )
g1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = x21 2x1 x3 2x4 x2 + x22
g2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = 2x3 u1 2x3 u2 2x4 u3 u21 + u22 + u23

16. : -

.
h1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )
h2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )
. -
h3 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )
h4 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )
. g1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )
g2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) g1 g2
< h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 >, g1 g2
{h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 }.
g1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) = 1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) h1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ) + +
4 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 )h4 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 ), {h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 }
g1

17. , , , -
Groebner I =< h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 >,
g1 g2 .
Groebner -

. ( ).
10.4. 81

10.4