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Resistive
V = IR Capacitive
Q Inductive
V= Electromagnetic
C
Thermoelectric
Elastic -Mechanical
Piezoelectric
Hall Effect
MEMS - Mechanical
Electro-chemical
Photoelectric - Optical
Resistive Sensing Mechanism
The measurand directly or indirectly alters the electrical
resistance of a resistive element.
Electrical resistance is a parameter that we use to relate voltage
and current. V= IR
Sensing takes advantage of changes in resistance to infer
changes in other physical quantities.
Vo R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R4
2
+
Vs ( R2 + R3 ) R1 R2 R3 R4
Effects of lead wire resistance Use 3 or 4 wire system to eliminate or reduce this
Thermistors
Thermistors are generally made from semi-conductor materials
In this case the resistance of material decreases with temperature.
R = K exp K and are constants
T
Ri is the resistance at
1 1
R = R exp reference temperature Ti =
T Ti 25oC
i
Cons:
Limited temperature range, typically -100 ~ 150 C (-148 ~ 302 F).
Nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, unlike RTDs which have a very
linear relationship.
Thermistor tables
Thick Film Polymers
Polymers such as epoxy, silicone are filled with metallic particles such
as silver or copper to have properties similar to RTD
If carbon particles are used as filler properties similar to
thermistors.
By using solvents, the polymers can be screen printed onto a
substrate such as Alumina.
RT = R25 [1 + (T 25)]
= 3.732 x 10-3 /oC
If carbon is used then equation for thermistors have to be
used with = 136K
Carbon polymers are sensitive to humidity as it causes the
polymer to swell which increases the resistivity of the material
Resistive Strain Gauge
Basic concepts
Principle:
A strain gauge is a metal or semi-conductor material whose
resistance changes with strain
Strain gages exhibit piezo-resistive behavior
Resistive Strain Gauge
The resistance of a wire with length (l) and cross section area A is
l
R=
A
R R R
R = ( ) l + ( ) A + ( )
l A Define Gauge Factor G as
R l A
= + R
R l A G= R
R
= (1 + 2 ) L + G = (1 + 2 ) +
1
R
Semi-conductor
The piezo-resistive term can be large and hence have large
gauge factors (G= 70 to 135)
However the range of linearity is small
Gauge Sensitivity and Gauge Factor
R R
Ro = Sl l + St t
G= R
R
1 = Sl ( l + K t )
G = (1 + 2 ) + R
Where Sl is the longitudinal
strain sensitivity and St is the
However due to gauge construction the gauge transverse strain sensitivity
is sensitive to longitudinal strain and and K is the cross-sensitivity
transverse strain. factor
R
= G l
R
What sort of error would this calibration have when doing a real experiment.
(Hint: Effect of material, strain state etc)
Gauge types
Unbonded wire
Foil
Semiconductor
R Strain Detection
= G l
R
Consider a situation where the strain is on the order of 1 .
For a metallic foil strain gage with G = 2, R = 120 ohm,
Output
Input
Null detector circuit
Standard Bridge Configuration
R1R3 R2 R4
Vg = Vin
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )
Circuit is balanced when Vg= 0
Vg r R1 R2 R3 R4
2
+
Vin (1 + r ) R1 R2 R3 R4
Where r = R2/R1
Usually only one resistance is changing the one corresponding to
the strain gauge. Hence if R3 is the strain gauge, then we have
Vg r R3 r
= 2 = G l
Vin (1 + r ) R3 (1 + r ) 2
Bridge circuits
Single Strain Gauge
lG
Vg = Vin
4
R4
Temperature Compensated
Strain Gauge
Vg 1 R3 R2
=
Vin 4 R3 R2
R4
Vg 1
= [G ( + T T ]
Vin 4
Strain Rosette
Moment Sensor Vg
Vin
=
r R1 R2 R3 R4
2
(1 + r ) R1
R2
+
R3
R4
Vg r R3 R2
= 2
Vin (1 + r ) R3 R2
Vg
=
r
[G1 G 2 ]
R4 Vin (1 + r ) 2
Mc
1 = + T
EI
Mc
2 = + T
EI
Vg 1 [2GMc ]
=
Vin 4 EI
Vg 2 EI
M=
Vin Gc
Load Sensor
Vg r R1 R2 R3 R4
= +
Vin (1 + r ) 2 R1 R2 R3 R4
Show that this load cell is independent
of bending and torsional loads
P P
l = + T t = + T Vg
AE AE AE
P= = KVg
Vin (1 + )
Vg 1 2GP P
= (1 + ) = (1 + )
Vin 4 AE AE
For G = 2.0
Capacitive Sensors
Parallel plate capacitor
0A
Capacitance is given as C=
d
Where 0 is the permittivity of free space
And is the relative permittivity of the
material between plates.
Hence C can be changed by changing d, A or
0A C=
0 ( A Wx ) 01 A1 0 2 A2
C= C= +
d+x d d d
x x
x d 1
2
d
Differential or push-pull sensor
The variable displacement sensor has a disadvantage that it is non-
linear. To overcome this a three plate differential sensor is used. A
moving plate is placed between the two fixed plates forming to
capacitances C1 and C2
Vs
ETh = x
d-x 2d
d+x
0 A
C1 =
d+x When the capacitances are connected to
0 A the ac deflection bridge, the output
C2 =
dx voltage is linearly proportional to x
Applications
C (1 2 )a 4
= P
Capacitive Pressure Sensor C 16 Edt 3
Electric currents represent the flow of particles (electrons) and carry power, which is
dissipated as heat in resistances. Magnetic fields don't represent the "flow" of anything,
and no power is dissipated in reluctances.
The current in typical electric circuits is confined to the circuit, with very little "leakage".
In typical magnetic circuits not all of the magnetic field is confined to the magnetic
circuit; there is significant "leakage flux" in the space outside the magnetic cores, which
must be taken into account but is difficult to calculate.
Magnetic circuits are nonlinear; the reluctance in a magnetic circuit is not constant, as
resistance is, but varies depending on the magnetic field.
l
Inductive displacement sensor
=
o A
Suppose the core is separated into two parts with an air gap.
Total Reluctance is the reluctance of the two parts. Since = 1
for air and ~1000 for core material, the presence of air-gap
causes large change in reluctance and corresponding decrease
in flux and inductance
L0
L1 =
1 + (a x )
L0
L2 =
1 + (a + x )
Vsx
ETh =
2(1 + a )
Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator
Major application to find angular velocity of rotating shafts.
Also can measure flow speeds and flow volume of liquids.
Target gear has to be ferromagnetic material
Sensor consists of a coil wound around a
permanent magnet. The gear moves close to
the sensor causing the flux linked by the coil
to change with time thus generating an EMF
which is detected. The magnetic circuit
comprises of the permanent magnet, air gap
and wheel. Change in air gap results in
change in reluctance which causes change in
flux.
N ( ) = a + b cos m
dN d
E= = bmr sin m = bmr sin mr t
d dt
Microsyn
In this arrangement, the coils are connected in such a manner that at the null
position of the rotary element, the voltages induced in coils 1 and 3 are
balanced by voltages induced in coils 2 and 4. The motion of the rotor in the
clockwise direction increases the reluctance of coils 1 and 3 while decreasing
the reluctance of coils 2 and 4, thus giving a net output voltage The
movement in the counterclockwise direction causes a similar effect in coils 2
and 4 with a 180 phase shift.
Microsyn transducers are used extensively in applications involving gyroscopes
and can measure changes in angle as low as 0.010
Electromagnetic Sensors
Principle: Faradays law of electro-magnetic induction which states that if the
flux N linked to a conductor is changing with time, then a back EMF is induced
in the conductor with a magnitude equal to the rate of change of flux
dN N = n = nBA
E=
dt
Transformer - number of coils in the
primary or secondary coil steps up or
down the voltage.
Note that E1-E2 have the same magnitude at either ends but with a phase
difference. Use a so-called phase sensitive detector (Demodulator) which
gives a negative DC voltage when phase is opposite.
Thermoelectric Sensors
Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal
alloys) that produce a voltage proportional to the temperature difference
between either end of the pair of conductors. Seebeck Effect
mV E
K-Type + Platinum T/Cs
B Tx
V
@ 200 0C
A
Ta Fe +3.5 mV 17.7(V/K)
ln(
mk m = constant 2.6
Ps =
o ) o = constant 5x10-6 -cm
= resistivity
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx
V
Cu Con
Tx
= V
Cu Con
Result:3 unequal junctions, all at unknown temperatures
Solution: Reference Thermocouple
Problems: a) 3 different thermocouples,
b) 3 unknown temperatures
Cu Fe Cu Fe
The Classical Method
If both Cu junctions are at same T, the two
Cu Fe "batteries" cancel
Tref is an ice bath (sometimes an
Tx electronic ice bath)
All T/C tables are referenced to an ice
V Con
Tref bath
o V= f{Tx-Tref}
=0C
Cu Fe
Cu Fe
Extend the isothermal block
Tx If isothermal, V1-V2=0
V Con 2
Cu Fe
Tref Tx
Cu Fe V Tref Con
1 2
Cu
1
Summary
E1
E1 EMF due to thermocouple at temperature Th
Th E2, E3, E4, E5 - EMF due to unknown junction
E2 E3 temperatures
Tr Reference Temperature
E4 E5 Em = E1+E2+E3+E4+E5
E1 = Em-E2-E3-E4-E5
Tr
Lead extension wires can be made of same material as Thermocouple but to
lower specifications to reduce cost. Thus E2=E3=0
Connection to voltage measuring instrument we use law of intermediate metals
which states that the emf generated between two materials (A and C) is equal to
the sum of emf generated between materials (A and B) and between (B and C).
Suppose E4 is iron-copper and E5 is constantan copper, then E4+E5 =
corresponds to iron-constantan. Thus effect of copper wires are canceled out
E1 = Em+Eref - Law of intermediate temperatures
Thermocouple tables use Eref as corresponding to ice bath at 0oC
T/C Table
Chromel-Constantan (reference junction at 0oC
E(Th,Tr) = 9.081 mV
From the tables E(Tr,0) = 4.985
V = E1+E2+E3 or E1 = V-E2-E3
Noting that the tables quote emf going from
Chromel to Alumel as positive , then E2 and E3
are negative. Since these junctions are at 40oC E2=E3 = -1.611
V= 12.1+1.611+1.611 = 15.322 mV
Which corresponds to 374.5oC
Hall Effect Devices
When an electron moves inside a metal, in
the presence of a magnetic flux (B) a
magnetic force acts on it .
This Lorentz force acts perpendicular to
current motion
F = e(v B )
The Lorentz force rotates the current flow lines through an angle H known as the Hall
angle. This deflection of electrons result in +ve charge on one side and ve charge on the
other of a conductor. The resultant Hall electric field opposes the Lorentz force and at
equilibrium
E hy = v x Bz
Hall Effect Devices
BZ
Ix
F VH
d
The voltage across the plate is VH= vxBzw. Relating drift speed to
current gives the relationship between the detected voltage (the
Hall voltage VH), the magnetic field BZ and the current IX, as
VH = RH Ix BZ / d
VH = k RH Ix BZ / d
Hall effect devices are best made from a thin plate( small d)
with low conductivity and careful choice of geometry k=0.7
Hall Effect Devices
We wish to maximize the Hall effect sensitivity.
i.e, we should aim to maximize the Hall voltage for a given
magnetic field and applied bias.
1
G( s) =
1 2 2
s + s +1
n
2
n
Examples
Ex. To measure pressure fluctuations containing frequencies upto 10 Hz with dynamic error
with 2% with damping ratio = 0.1
Since is small we can use the following approximation for G
1
G ( j ) = 1.02
2
1
Which results in n greater than 450 for less than 62.8 (10 Hz) n2
MEMS sensors, like almost all electronic devices, do not exhibit ideal behaviour. While most designers
have learned how to handle the non-ideal behaviour of op-amps and transistors, few have learned the
design techniques used to compensate for non-ideal MEMS behaviour.
Chemical Sensors
Electrical
Thermal
Chemical Microsensor
Mass
Optical
Classification
Principle/class Affected Parameter Typical Sensor
conductometric resistance/conductance tin oxide gas sensor
Potentiometric voltage/e.m.f. ion selective FET for pH
capacitive capacitive/charge polymetric humidity sensor
amperometric current electrochemical cell
calorimetric heat/temperature pellistor gas sensor
gravimetric mass Piezoelectric / SAW sensors
optical path length/absorption infra-red gas detector
resonant frequency surface plasmon
fluorescent intensity fibre-optic gas sensor
pH Sensor
RT
E = E0 + ln(aH + )
F
E = E0 0.0592 ( pH )
1
pH = ln(aH + )
2.303
Chemical Sensors - Electrical
I. Chemoresistors :The resistance of the chemically sensitive
layer changes with the amount of absorbed chemical.
V
I
Active
Gas
material Example: metal
oxides, organic
Electrodes
crystals, conducting
SiO2
Si polymers
Inert substrate, AlO, SiO2 or Si
ZnO, TiO2,
Gas In2O3 SnO2 Large Change in
Absorption Semiconducting Electrical Resistivity
material
Tin oxide is the most commonly used. This is based on the irreversible reaction of
atmospheric oxygen with the lattice gaps in tin oxide and the associated reduction in
electron concentration. The measurand reacts with this lattice oxygen to to increase
the charge carrier concentration. This leads to a proportional increase in the electrical
conductivity of the material
Problems with specificity and poor stability limited commercial application more
for gas alarms than gas sensing
Chemocapacitors
Voltage
Glass Substrate
R.H. (relative humidity)
Humidity sensor
The sensing element is the dielectric constant of the film (for example,
polyphenylacetylene) between the electrodes.
*These films are sensitive to CO, CO2, N2 and CH4
*They are sensitive to temperature, humidity and operating frequency.
*The capacitance changes in pF.
Chemodiodes
SiO2
Si
Chemotransistors
Cross-section of a Metal-Oxide-Silicon Field-Effect-Transistor (MOSFET)
Chemotransistors
MOSFET:
http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/fab/NMOS/nmos.html
Chemotransistors
ISFET
This is a gateless FET (Ion
Selective Field Effect
Transistor). ISFET is operated
as pH sensor/threshold
voltage shift VT depends on
the concentration of hydrogen
in the electrolytes.