1

(Introduction to control systems)

(process)

1.1




(Controller)

1.1

(input) (objectives) (output)
(results) 1.2

1

- Static or Dynamic Systems t1
t1
(zero-memory) (resistive network)
(memory)

- Continuous-Time or Discrete-time Systems (Continuous-Time

system)


(Discrete time system)
(difference equation)

- Linear or Non-Linear Systems

(Superposition theorem)
y1(t) r1(t)
y2(t) r2(t)
r1(t) r2(t)
r1(t)+r2(t)


(self-excited
oscillation) - (ON-
OFF control)

- Lumped or Distributed Parameters (Lumped

Parameters)
(wave length)
(Distributed Parameters)
(space coordinates)
(space coordinates)

(Power system) (Telephone system)
(Communication system)

- Time-Varying or Time-invariant Systems

2
 (time invariant)



40,000

- Deterministic or Stochastic Systems

() (randomness)

(Control system) 2
1 (Open loop control system)

1.2

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

1.2

2 (Close loop control system)

(Feedback)

1.3

INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESS

FEEDBACK

1.3

3
- Transient Response

3
 - Steady-State Response Transient response

- Stability

- Signal and Systems

- Classic Control Systems s

domain
- Digital Control Systems

- Modern Control System

time domain s domain

- Optimal Control
- Adaptive Control

- Robust Control
- Stochastic Control
- Identification and Optimization

1 Matlab
2 Scilab
3 Octave
Matlab Scilab Octave
Scilab
download http://www.scilab.org

4
 2

(Modelling in frequency domain)

signals and systems
(Laplace Transform), Transfer function,

(signal) 2 deterministic signals random

signals 2 (continuous-
time signals discrete-time signals
derivative piecewise - continuous signal
isolate

Elementary signals
1 Unit step, u(t)

{
u t = 0 for t 0
1 for t 0 6
2 Unit impulse Dirac impulse, (t)

du t
t =
dt

3 Rectangular pulse, rect(t)

rect {
t
= 1 if t / 2
0 otherwise 6
4 Triangular point, tri(t)

{ 6
t
tri t
=
1

0 otherwise
if t

5
 5 Ramp function, ramp(t)

= {0 6
t t
ramp if 0 t T
T T
otherwise

6 Complex exponentials function

x t = Ae t u t = j

(linear system) superposition

2.1

S a n x n ... a 1 x 1 t = S a n x n t ... Sa 1 x 1 t
= a n S x n t ... a 1 S x 1 t

2.1 (superposition)

(system,process) 1.2
(input, r(t)) (output, c(t)) time domain s-domain
R(s) C(s)

subsystem
subsystem (output) subsystem

6
subsystem cascade (Cascaded interconnections)

(Laplace Transform)
(frequency domain)

(Laplace Transform)
s domain s = +j
(Laplace Transform)

L [ f t ]= F s = 0 f t e st dt

(Inverse Laplace Transform)

1 j
L 1 [ F s ]=
2 j
j F s e st ds
(Inverse Laplace Transform) (Partial
N s
Fraction Expansion) F s = (order) N(s)
D s
D(s)

1 (D(s)) F(s)

N s
F s =
s P 1 s P 2 ... s P m s P n

K1 K2 Km Kn
F s = ...
s p1 s p2 s pm s pn

K (s+pm) s = -Pm

N s
K m=
s p 1 s p 2 ... s p n
s = -pm

7
 K inverse Laplace
Transform

f t = K 1 e p t K 2 e p t ... K m e p t Kne p
1 2 m n t

2 (D(s))

N s
F s =
s p 1 r s p 2 ... s p n

r
1

K1 K2 Kr K r 1 Kn
F s = ... ...
s p 1 r s p 1 r 1 s p 1 s p 2 s pn

K
(s+p1)r Ki

Ki= [ 1
i 1 !
d i 1 F s
ds i 1 ] s p1

K inverse Laplace Transform

3 F(s)

N s
F s = 2
s p 1 s as b ...

K1 K 2s K 3
= 2 ...
s p 1 s as b

K2 K3

8
 2.1 Inverse Laplace Transform ( [1])

3
F s = 2
s s 2s 5

Partial Fraction Expansion

3 K 1 K 2s K 3
=
s s 2 2s 5 s s 2 2s 5

K1 K1 = 3/5
s(s2+2s+5)
2 2
3= s s 5 K 1 K 2 s K 3 s

3= K 1 K 2 s 2 2K 1 K 3 s 5K 1

K1

3= K 2
5
3 2 6
s K 3 s 3
5
3 6
K 2 =0 K 3 =0
5 5

K2 = -3/5 K3 = -6/5

3 3 /5 3 s 2
F s = =
s s 2 2s 5 5 5 s 2 2s 5

time domain 2

A s a
L [ Ae t cos t ] =
s a 2 2

9
 B
L [ Be at sin t ] = 2 2
s a

time domain

3 3 1
f t = e t cos 2t sin 2t
5 5 2

(Transfer function). G(s)

(Process) frequency domain
frequency domain
2.2

2.2 Transfer Function

G(s)

C s b m s m b m 1 s m 1 b 0
= G s =
R s a n s n a n 1 s n 1 a 0

(Electric Network Transfer Function)

, ,
2.1 ( [1])

Kirchhoffs voltage law

1
2 t
3
4 Kirchhoffs voltage law
5
6 5 Transfer Function

10
 2.1

2.2 Transfer function 2.3 input

v(t) I2(s) ( [1])

2.3

2.4

11
 2 KVL

V s = R 1 I 1 s Ls I 1 s I 2 s

1
0= Ls I 2 s I 1 s R 2 I 2 s I 2 s
Cs

3.
R1 2 1 2
V s =[ LCs R 2 Cs 1 LCs R 2 Cs 1 Ls ] I 2 s
LCs 2 Cs

R 1 LC s 2 R 1 R 2 Cs R 1 R 2 LCs 2 Ls
V s = I 2 s
LCs 2

4. Transfer function

I 2 s LCs 2
=
V s R 1 R 2 LC s 2 R 1 R 2 C L s R 1

2.5

2.5

(Translational Mechanical System Transfer

Functions)
, damper
2.2( [1])

12
 2.2

2.3 Transfer function input f(t)

output x(t) ( [1])

2.6

d 2 x t d x t
f t = M f v K x t
dt dt

F s = Ms 2 X s f v X s K X s

13
 transfer function

X s 1
= 2
F s Ms f v s K

2.7

(Rotational Mechanical System Transfer

Functions)
, Damper, Inertia
2.3 ( [1])

2,3

14
 2.4 Transfer function input T(t)
output 2(t) ( [1])

2.7

schematic

2.8

d 2 1 t d 1 t
T t = J 1 D1 K 1 t 2 t
dt dt

T s = J 1 s 2 1 s D 1 s 1 s K 1 s K 2 s

d 2 2 t d t
0= J 2 D 1 2 K 2 t 1 t
dt dt

15

2
0= J 2 s 2 s D 1 s 2 s K 2 s K 1 s

1(s)

1
1 s = [ J 2 s 2 2 s D 1 s 2 s K 2 s ]
K

1(t)

1
T s = J 1 s 2 D 1 s K J 2 s 2 D 2 s K 2 s K 2 s
K

Transfer function

2 s K
=
T s J 1 s 2 D 1 s K J 2 s 2 D 2 s K K 2

(Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears)

2.9 1 r1 N1 2 r2
N2 T1(t) 1 1(t) 2
T2(t) 2(t) transfer function
T1(t), T2(t) 1(t), 2(t)

T 2 s N 2 2 s N 1
= =
T 1 s N 1 1 s N 2

2.9

16
 (Electromechanical System Transfer
Function)

2.10

2.10

ea(t) - Applied voltage La - Armature inductance

ia(t) - Armature current Ra - Armature resistance
vb(t) - Back emf Jm - Rotor inertia
Tm(t) - Motor torque Dm - Viscous-friction coefficient
m(t) - Rotor displacement kT - Torque constant
m(t) - Rotor angular velocity kb - Back-emf constant

schematic

d i a t
e a t = L a R a i a t v b t
dt

d 2 m t d m t
T m t = J m D m
dt 2 dt

d m t
v b t = k b
dt

17
 T m t = k m i a t

m s km
=
E a s L a s R a J m s 2 D m s k m k b s

m s km
=
E a s L a s R a J m s D m k m k b

18
 3
Modelling in the time domain
(Modelling in the frequency domain or classical
modelling)

-
-
- (stability) (transient response)

- linear time-invariant

(Modelling in the time domain or state space approach)

- (Multiple-input multiple-output system)
-
- non linear systems backlash, saturation dead zone

.
x = Ax Bu ..... (4.1)

y = Cx Du ..... (4.2)

x = state vector
.
x = derivative of the state vector with respect to time
y = output vector
u = input or control vector
A = system matrix
B = input matrix
C = output matrix
D = feed-forward matrix

19
 (4.1) state equation (4.2) output equation
(4.1) 1 n

dx 1
= a 11 x 1 ... a 1n x n b 11 u 1 ... b 1r u r
dt
dx 2
= a 21 x 1 ... a 2n x n b 21 u 1 ... b 2r u r
dt

dx n
= a n1 x 1 ... a nn x n b n1 u 1 ... b nr u r
dt
state equation
System matrix

[ ]
a 11 a 12 a 1n
a 21 a 22 a 2n
A=

a n1 a n2 a nn

State vector

[]
x1
x2
x=

xn

Input matrix

[ ]
b 11 b 12 b 1r
b 21 b 22 b 2r
B=

b n1 b n2 b nr

20
Input vector

[]
u1
u2
u=

ur
(output equation) m

y 1 = c 11 x 1 ... c 1n x n d 11 u 1 ... d 1r u r
y 2 = c 21 x 1 ... c 2n x n d 21 u 1 ... d 2r u r

y m = c m1 x 1 ... c mn x n d m1 u 1 ... d mr u r

Output vector

[]
y1
y2
y=

yn

Output matrix

[ ]
c 11 c 12 c 1n
c 21 c 22 c 2n
C=

c m1 c m2 c mn
Feed-forward matrix

21
 [ ]
d 11 d 12 d 1r
d 21 d 22 d 2r
D=

d m1 d m2 d mr
state space state variable
linear
(state variable)
variable xi for i=1 to n, are said to be linearly independent if their linear
combination,s, equals zero only if every ki=0 and no xi=0

s = k 1 x 1 k 2 x 2 ... k n x n

(state equation) v(t)

vc(t)
R1 R2

i1(t) i2(t)
+
v(t) + L C vc(t)
-
-

KVL

v t = V R V L
1

V L V R V C =0
2

iL vC

di L di 1
v L=L L = v L
dt dt L

22
 dv c dv C 1
i C =C = i
dt dt C C
vL iC iL vC

KCL

i 1 i L i C =0
KVL
v t = v R v R v C
1 2

= R 1 i 1 R 2 i C v C
v t = R 1 i L R 1 R 2 i C v C

R 1 1 1
i c= i L vC v t
R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2
1
v t = R 1 i 1 v L
v L = R 1 i L R 1 i C v t

R 12 R1 R1
v L = R 1 i L i L vC v t v t
R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2

R 1 R 2 R1 R2
v L= i L vC v t
R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2

di L R1R2 R1 R2
= i L vC v t
dt L R 1 R 2 L R 1 R 2 L R 1 R 2

dv C R1 1 1
= i L vC v t
dt C R 1 R 2 C R 1 R 2 C R 1 R 2

23
 v C =v C

Converting a transfer function to state-space

n (nth-order) (3)
(4)

dny d n 1 y dy
a n 1 ... a 1 a0 y =b0u ....... (3)
dt n
dt n 1 dt

xi = state variable

x1 = y
dy
x2 =
dt
.... (4.4)
d n 1 y
xn =
dt n 1

4.4

dy
x1 =
dt
d2y
x2 =
dt 2 .... (4.5)

dny
xn =
dt n

(4.4) (4.5)

24

x 1= x 2

x 2= x 3 .... (4.6) .


x n = a 0 x 1 a 1 x 2 ... a n 1 x n b 0 u

(4.6)

[][
.
x1

][ ] [ ]
.
x1
0 1 0 ...0 0
x2 x2 .... (4.7)
= 0 0 1 ... 0 u
a 0 a 1 a 2 ... a n 1
b0
. xn
xn

(4.7) phase-variable form output

equation

x1
x2
x3
y = [1 0 0 0] .... (8)

x n 1
xn

Converting from State Space to a transfer function

(state equation) (output
equation)

. .... (4.9)
x = Ax Bu

25
 y = Cx Du .... (4.10)

s X s = AX s BU s .... (4.11)

Y s = CX s Du s .... (4.12)
4.11
s I A X s = BU s

I - (Identity matrix)
X s = s I A 1 Bu s .... (4.13)
(4.13) (4.12)
Y s = C sI A 1 Bu s Du s

Y s 1
T s = = C sI A B D
U s

state space

[][
.
x1
.
x2
= 4 1.5 2 u t
4 0 0 ] []
y = [ 1.5 0.625 ] [ ]x1
x2

1 (sI-A)

[ ] [
sI A = s 0 4 1.5 =
0 s 4 0
s 4 1.5
4 s ] [ ]
2 (sI-A)

26
 det sI A = s 2 4s 6

3 (sI-A)-1

sI A
1
=
[ s 1.5
4 s 4 ]
s 2 4s 6

4 X(s)

[ s 1.5
4 s 4 ]
X s = sI A 1
BU s =
s 2 4s 6 []
2 U s
0

X s =
[ 2s8 ] U s
s 2 4s 6

5 transfer function

Y s = CX s = [ 1.5 0.625 ]
[8]
2s
U s
2
s 4s 6

Y s 3s 5
= 2
U s s 4s 6

27
 4

(Time Response)
(Pole and Zeros)
(output response) 2
force response natural response
force response steady-state response
natural response
s infinite

s

impulse function

step function, ramp function,

acceleration function, impulse functions, sinusoidal function

(linear) (transfer function) G(s)

G(s) = Y(s) / X(s)

X(s) Y(s)

Y(s) = G(s)X(s)

y(t) =

28
 y(t) =

g(t) = x(t) = 0 t < 0

unit-impulse (initial conditions) 0

unit-impulse function 1

Y(s) = G(s)

y(t) = g(t) = impulse-response function

g(t) (impulse-response function)

unit-impulse 0 g(t)
dynamic

impulse 3.1

3.1 pulse impulse

1 (First order systems)

Zero (Transfer
function) 1 R(s) = 1/s

29
 R(s) C(s)
G(s)

3.2 1 (First-order system)

a
G s = ...... (3.1)
s a
1
R s = ...... (3.2)
s

G(s) R(s) (unit step)

3.3

a
C s = G s R s = ........ (3.3)
s s a

1 1
C s =
s s a

c t =1 e at
3.3 rise
time settling time

(Time constant) T = 1/a

t=T
C(t) 0.632 63.2%
1/T a

30
 3.3 ( [1])

e(t)
e(t) = r(t) c(t)
e t = e at
t e at

(Second order systems)

2
R s n
G s = = 2
C s s 2 n s 2n

n (Natural Frequency)
(damping ratio)
2
p 1,2 = n j d d =n 12
4

1 Overdamped responses
-1, -2

1 t 2 t
c t = K 1 e K 2e

31
2 Underdamped responses 0 < <1
d j d

,

d t
c t = Ae cos d t

3 Critically damped responses = 1

2 -1
,t,

1 t 1 t
c t = K 1 e K 2t e

4 Undamped responses = 0
j 1

c t = Acos 1 t

3.4
underdamped 2
rise time settling time

4 2 unit step 4 ( [1])

32




1 (Delay time, td)
50%
2 (Rise Time, tr) 10% 90%
5% 95% 0% 100%
(Underdamped) 0% 100%
(Overdamped) 10% 90%
3 (Peak Time , tp)

TP=
n 12

4 (Maximum Overshoot , Mp)

3.5 ( [1])

33
 5 (Settling Time, ts)
2% 5%

ln 0.02 12
Ts=
n

2 3.6
1 (Constant real part) 3.6(a)
step function

2 (Constant imaginary part) 3.6(b)

step function

3 (Constant damping ratio) 3.6(c)

step function overshoot

34
 3.6 (step
function) Underdamped (
[1])
(a)
(b)
(c)

35
 5

(Reduction of Multiple Subsystem)
(Transfer function)


2
1
2 signal flow graph (Mason's rule)

Block diagram
Block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed
by each component and of the flow of signal.

block diagram

Component part of a block diagram

linear time-invariant signal, system, summing
junction, pick off point
3
1 Cascade form (a) (b)

4.1 Cascade ( [1])

36
 2 Parallel form (a) (b)

4.2 Parallel ( [1])

3 Feedback form (a) (b)

4.3 Feedback ( [1])

C(s) (summing point)

R(s) (Error
signal) C(s) G(s)
E(s)


(controlled temperature)


H(s)

37
 R(s) (input signal)
C(s) (Output signal)
E(s) (Error Signal)
G(s) (Forward transfer function)
H(s) (Reverse transfer function)
feedback form
E(s) = R(s) C(s) H(s)
C(s) = G(s) E(s)
C(s) = G(s)[R(s) C(s)H(s)]
= G(s)R(s) G(s)H(s)C(s)
(1G(s)H(s))C(s) = G(s)R(s)

C s G s
G s = =
R s 1 G s H s

4
1 (summing point)

4.4 ( [1])

2 (summing point)

4.5 ( [1])

38
 3 (pickoff point)

4.6 ( [1])

4 (pickoff point)

4.7 ( [1])

4.1 4.8

4.8 ( [1])

39
 1 G2(s)
G3(s) H3(s) 4.9

9 G2(s) ( [1])

2 1/G2(s) (unity)
G1(s)
4.10

4.10 2 ( [1])

3

4.11

4.11 3 ( [1])

40
 4 4.12

4.12 4 ( [1])

4.13

4.13 ( [1])

Signal-Flow Graphs

S.J. Mason



s

Signal flow graph (node)

(branch)

Signal flow graph

(Node) (Signal)
(Transmittance) 2
(Branch) 2
(Input Node)
(Output Node)
41
 (Mixed Node)
(Path) (Branch)

(Closed Path)
(Forward Path)
1

(Feedback Path)
1
(Self Loop)

(Path Gain)
(Loop Gain)
(Nontouching loop) 2

signal flow graph

1.
2. (incoming branches)
(outgoing branches)
3. signal flow graph

Signal Flow Graph
1 X2 = aX1

2 cascade

3 (parallel)

42
4.

(Mason's rule)

T k k
C s k
G s = =
R s

k = (number of forward paths)

Tk = k (k th forward-path gain)
= 1- loop gain + nontouching-loop gain taken two at a time -
nontouching-loop gain taken three at a time + nontouching-loop gain taken four at a
time - .....
k = - loop gain in that touch the k th forward path.

1. forward path forward path gain

2. (loop gain)
3. nonthouching loop nontouching-loop gain taken two at a
time, nontouching-loop gain taken three at a time, .
4.
5. k forward path
6.

43
 4.2 4.8 signal flow graphs
4.8 signal flow graphs 4.14

4.14 Signal flow graphs 4.8 ( [1])

1 forward path forward path gain

T1 = G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)
T2 = G1(s)G3(s)

2 (Loop gain)

L1 = -G2(s)H2(s)
L2 = -G3(s)H3(s)
L3 = -G1(s)G2(s)H1(s)

3 non-touching loop non-touching loop gain

L1L2 = G2(s)G3(s)H2(s)H3(s)
L2L3 = G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)H1(s)H3(s)

44
 = 1+G2(s)H2(s)+G3(s)H3(s)+G1(s)G2(s)H1(s)+G2(s)G3(s)H2(s)H3(s)
+G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)H1(s)H3(s)

5 k

1 = 1
2 = 1

C s G 1 s G 2 s G 3 s G 1 s G 3 s
=
R s

45
 6

(Stability)

(Transient response)
(Steady-state error)
linear time-invariant

2
(Natural Response) (Force Response)

C(t) = Cforced(t) + Cnatural(t) _____ (6.1)

(stability) (instability)
(marginal stability)

(Natural response)
1.
2.

3.

a) r(t)
c(t)
b)

time domain (stable) (r(t))

(c(t)) infinity
(unstable)
infinity infinity

46
 frequency domain transfer function

s z 1 s z 2 ... s z m
G s = _____ (6.2)
s p 1 s p 2 ... s p n

(s-plane)
1. s-plane (transient
response) (Oscillate)
(unstable)
2. s-plane (transient response)

3. (j) (response)
(oscillate) (amplitude)


j
j 5.1
s-plane j

Stable Unstable

Stable Unstable

5.1

transfer function polynomial

m m 1
C s b m s b m 1 s . . . b 1 s b 0
= _____ (6.3)
R s a n s n a n 1 s n 1 . . . a 1 s a 0

47
 Characteristic equation Transfer
function, G(s) characteristic equation

F s = a n s n a n 1 s n 1 a n 2 s n 2 . . . a 1 s a 0 _____ (6.4)

polynomial
characteristic equation
characteristic equation
Routh-Hurwitz pole
j s-domain pole
characteristic equation Routh-Hurwitz pole
pole pole pole
j pole

Routh ( [1])

Characteristic equation

F s = a 4 s 4 a 3 s 3 a 2 s 2 a 1 s a 0 _____ (6.5)

(characteristic equation)

Routh
1 s characteristic equation 2 s
1 s 1 s
2 s 2 s
2 3, 4, ...
3 s 1 2 2 s
2 3, 4, ...

48
 Routh

(Transfer function) (Closed-loop system)

(6.4) characteristic equation (6.5)
Routh-Hurwitz

sn an an-2 an-4 an-6

sn-1 an-1 an-3 an-5 an-7
sn-2 b1 b2 b3 b4
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 c4
sn-2 d1 d2 d3 d4

s1 e1
s0 f1

49


a n 1 a n 2 a n a n 3
b1=
a n 1
a n 1 a n 4 a n a n 5
b2=
a n 1
a n 1 a n 6 a n a n 7
b3=
a n 1

b 1 a n 3 a n 1 b 2
c 1=
b1
b 1 a n 5 a n 1 b 3
c 2=
b1
b 1 a n 7 a n 1 b 4
c 3=
b1

c 1 b 2b1 c 2
d 1=
c1
c b b c
d 2= 1 3 1 3
c1

Routh
2
s-plane s-plane

s-plane

(Routh- Hurwitz Criterion : Special Cases)

s
0

1 (Column)


50
 (epsilon) 0
5.1 ( [1])

10
T s =
s 2s 3s 6s 2 5s 3
5 4 3

5.1

1
s3 0
2
3


4 +
s-plane

s-plane

51
 + -

2 (Row)

(Auxiliary Equation)
s

6.3 ( [1])

10
T s =
s 5 7s 4 6s 3 42 s 2 8s 56

1/7
0
1
P(s) = S4+6S2+8

dP s
= 4s 3 12s 0
ds

52


s-plane

Routh-Hurwitz
(Stability design via Routh-Hurwitz)
Routh-Hurwitz
(gain), K

5.3 K 5.3 ( [1])

5.3 5.3

G s K
T s = = 3
1 G s s 18s 2 77s K

53
 K
3 K 1386 3
1 K 0 < K <
1386 3 s-plane
K > 1386
s-plane 2 1

K = 1386 0 (j)
s2 K 1386

P s = 18s 2 1386

d p s
= 36s 0
dt

0 Routh-Hurwitz

54

s-plane
(Marginally stable)

55
 7

(Steady-State Errors)

(E(s))

R(s) E(s) C(s)

G(s)
+
-

7.1 1 (unity)

Steady-State Error
Steady-State Error
Steady-State Error

steady-state errors 7.1 (error)

E(s) = R(s) - C(s)H(s)
1
E s = R s
1 G s

Steady-State Errors (e(t)) (t)

e = lim e t = lim sE s
t t 0

1
e = lim sE s = lim s R s
t 0 t 0 1 G s

56
 Steady-State errors 3
1 Step function r(t) = u(t) = 1
2 Ramp function r(t) = t
3 Parabola function r(t) = r t = t 2 / 2

Steady-State Errors
6.1

7.1 ( [1])

(Evaluating SteadyState Errors)

7.2 r(t) =1 ( [1])

57
 Step function Steady-State Error
1
5T T time constant 2(a) Steady-State Error
1 Output 1 0 Steady-State Error Steady-State
Error 2 Output 2 e2()

7.3 r(t) = t ( [1])

Ramp function Steady-State Error 1

Output 1 0 Steady-State Error 2 Output 2
e2() Steady-State Error 3 Output 3

(Steady-state Error for Unity Feedback Systems)

7.4

7.4 1 ( [1])

H(s) 1
E(s) R(s) C(s)
E(s)

E(s) = R(s) C(s) -- (7.1)

58

C(s) = E(s) G(s) -- (7.2)

7.2 7.1

R s
E s = -- (7.3)
1 G s

e()

1
e = lim sE s = lim s R s -- (7.4)
t 0 t 0 1 G s
()
step function r(t) = u(t)
R(s) = 1/s 7.4

1 1 1
e = lim s . = -- (7.5)
s 0 1 G s s 1 lim G s
s 0

lim G s = -- (7.6)
s 0

()
ramp function r(t) = t R(s) =
1/s 7.4
2

1 1 1 -- (7.7)
e = lim s . =
s 0 1 G s s 2
lim sG s
s 0

lim s G s = -- (6.8)
s 0

()
parabola function r(t) = t2 R(s)
= 1/s2 6.4

59
 1 1 1 -- (7.9)
e = lim s . =
s 0 1 G s s 3 2
lim s G s
s 0

2
lim s G s = -- (7.10)
s 0

(Static Error Constants and System Type)

damping ratio,natural frequency, setting
time,percent overshoot (Transient
response) Static
Error Constants

(Static Error Constants)

(7.5), (7.7) (7.9) 3
Static
Error Constants

(Position constant), Kp
K p = lim G s
s 0

(Velocity constant), Kv

K v = lim sG s
s 0

(Acceleration constant), Ka

K a = lim s 2 G s
s 0

(System Type)
s s
s s 0 1
0 s 1 1 s 2

60
 2 ,,
6.2 ( [1])

6.2

7.1 5, 5t
5t2 ( [1])

7.5 7.1

G(s) 0
r(t) = 5 r(t) = 5t
r(t) = 5t2
r(t) = 5 R(s) = 5/s

K p = lim G s Kp = 20
s 0

1 1
e = =
1 lim G s 21
s 0

61
 7.2 5, 5t
5t2 ( [1])

7.6 7.2

G(s) 1
r(t) = 5 0 r(t) = 5t
r(t) = 5t2
r(t) = 5t R(s) = 5/s2

K v = lim s G s Kv = 100
s 0

1 1
e = = =0.01
lim sG s 100
s 0

(Steady-state errors for disturbances)

(disturbances) block diagram 7.7
Steady-State Errors 2 Steady-State Errors
r(t) (Er(s)) Steady-State Errors d(t) (ED(s))

6.7 ( [1])

E s = E r s E d s

1 G 2 s
E s = R s D s
1 G 1 s G 2 s 1 G 1 s G 2 s

62


s sG 2 s
e = lim sE s = lim R s lim D s
s 0 s 0 1 G 1 s G 2 s s 0 1 G 1 s G 2 s

= eR() + eD()

eR() eD()

63
 8

(Root Locus Technique)
Root locus (closed-loop pole)
Root locus
(transient response)


(transient
response)

Overshoot,
setting time (Peak time)

(Oscillation)

(The Control System Problem)

R(s) E(s) C(s)

KG(s)
+ -

H(s)

8.1 forward path

8.1
(Open-loop transfer function) KG(s)H(s) KG(s)H(s)

64
 cascade K
KG(s)H(s)

s 1 s 3
G s = H s =
s s 2 s 4

KG(s)H(s) 0, -2 4 KG(s)H(s) 1
3

KG s K s 1 s 4
T s = =
1 KG s H s s s 2 s 4 K s 1 s 3

K s 1 s 4
T s =
s 3 6 K s 2 8 4K s 3K

T(s) G(s) H(s)

T(s) K (T(s))

K
K

(Characteristic equation)
(Gain, K)
K=0 K=
(s-plane)

(Defining the Root Locus)

8.1 (Closed-loop Transfer function,
T(s))
G s -- (8.1)
T s =
1 G s H s
(Open-loop transfer function) G(s)H(s)
(Characteristic equation) 1+G(s)H(s) = 0

forward path 8.1

65
(closed-loop transfer function)

KG s
T s =
1 KG s H s

1+KG(s)H(s) = 0

KG(s)H(s) = -1

KG(s)H(s) = 1
180 (gain)

|K| |G(s)H(s)| = 1
1
|G(s)H(s)| =
K
(phase)

KG(s)H(s) = 180+k360
= (2K+1)180 0 < K <
(sketching the root locus)
1 (Number of branch)
(Open-loop poles)
8.1 KG(s)H(s)
G(s)H(s)
2 (Symmetry)
(The root locus is symmetrical about the real
axis)
3 (Real-axis segments)
K>0
(On the real axis, for K>0, the root locus exists to the left of an
odd number of real-axis finite open-loop poles and/or finite open-loop zeros.)
4 (Starting and ending points)
G(s)H(s)
G(s)H(s) (The root locus begins at the finite

66
and infinite poles of G(s)H(s) and ends at the finite and infinite zeros of G(s)H(s).)

N G s N H s
G s = H s =
D G s D H s

KG s KN G s D H s
T s = =
1 KG s H s D G s D H s KN G s N H s

K 0 (small gain)

KN G s D H s
T s
D G s D H s

DG(s)DH(s)
DG(s)DH(s)

K (high gain)

KN G s D H s
T s
KN G s N H s

NG(s)NH(s)
NG(s)NH(s)

5 (Behavior at infinity)
- If the function approaches infinity as s approaches infinity, then the function has
a pole at infinity.
- If the function approaches zero as s approaches infinity, then the function has a
zero at infinity.
- Every function of s has an equal number of poles and zeros.
The root locus approaches staight lines as the locus approaches infinity. Further,
the equation of the asymptotes is given by the real-axis intercept, a, and ,a, as

67
follows :
finite poles finite zeros
a =
Number of finite poles Number of finite zeros

2k 1
a =
Number of finite poles Number of finite zeros

k =0,1, 2,...

6 (Real-axis Breakaway
and Breakin points)

m n
1 1
z i
=
pi
1 1

zi pi G(s)H(s).

7 (The j-axis crossing)

K
K K
s
K K
2
7.1 s=j (Characteristic equation)
K ( Let s=j in the characteristic
equation equate both real part and imaginery part to zero and then solve for and K.)
7.2 K s 0
K

8.1 ( [1])

68
 7.3 8.1
1 4 0, -1, -2, -4
1 -3
3

finite poles finite zeros

a =
Number of finite poles Number of finite zeros

1 24 3 4
a = =
4 1 3

2k 1
a =
Number of finite poles Number of finite zeros

2k 1 5
a = = , ,
4 1 3 3

3 (breakaway) (break in)

m n
1 1
zi
=
pi
1 1

1 1 1 1 1
=0
3 1 2 4
4 3 2
3 26 77 84 24 =0

=0.43,1.6,3.3 i0.68 , 3.3 i0.68

(real-axis segments)
-0.43

69
 4 asymptote

K s 3
T s =
s 4 7s 3 14s 2 8 K s 3K

s 4 7s 3 14s 2 8 K s 3K =0

s= j s
4 2 3
14 3K j 7 8 K =0

4 14 2 3K =0 = 1.59

7 3 8 K =0 K = 9.65

8.4

70
 8.4 8.1

71
 9

(Frequency response technique)
(sinusoidal)
(Frequency domain)

1

2.


3.
(Transfer function)
4.
(transport lag)
5.
6.

(Concept of Frequency Response)

(Linear system)

(Amplitude, Gain) (Phase) 9.1

G(s) 9.2
r t = Acos t j Bsin t
2 2 1
= A B cos [ t tan B / A ]

(Polar) M M = A 2 B 2
= -tan-1(B/A) A-jB (Euler) Mej
9.1

72
 9.1

A
R s =
s 2 2
r t = Asin t

9.2

s z i
i =1
C s = G s A G s =
s 2 2 N

s p j
j =1

73
 M

z i j
i =1
G j = N = G j e j
p j j
j =1

=arctan [ G j ]
[ G j ]
A a1 a2
G s = ...
s 2 2 sj sj

a1= [
A
sj ] s = j
=
A
2j
G j

a2= [
A
sj ] s = j
=
A
2j
G j

A 1 A 1
C s = G j G j
2j s j 2j s j

G j = G j e j

G j = G j e j = G j e j

= A G j sin t
j t j t
e e
c t = A G j
2j

(Linear system) (Gain)

Bode diagram
(magnitude or gain) log (phase)

74
 log(log ) (dB=20log|G(s)|)
degree radian log semi-log
dB (Transfer function)

s z i
K i =1
G s =
sk N

s p j
j =1

Gain diagram

dB = 20 log G j

K j z 1 ... j z M
G j = k
j j p 1 ... j p N

dB = 20log K 20log z 12 2 ... 20log z 2M 2

20log k 20log p 1 2 ... 20log p 2N 2
2

Phase Diagram

G j = j z 1 ... j z M
j p 1 ... j p N

1 = s z 1 =arctan
j
z1
.... M = s z M =arctan
j
zM

1 = s p 1 =arctan
j
p1
.... N = s p 1 =arctan
j
pN

75
Asymptotic approximation
Bode 9.3

G s = s a G j = j a = a j

a
1
low frequency
a G(j) = a dB = 20 log a

high frequency
a G j = a a = 90
j

dB = 20 log

9.3

Nyquist plot(Polar plot)

G(j) complex plane(G(j)-plane)
0

76
Nyquist Criterion
(close loop system)

Nyquist Criterion
1 pole characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s) pole G(s)H(s) (open-loop
system)
2 zero 1+G(s)H(s) pole T(s) (close-loop system)
3 Mapping point
s-plane F(s)
F(j)-plane mapping
4 Mapping contour
contour A s-plane F(s) contour B
G(s)-plane 9.4

77
 9.4

Gain margin and Phase margin

Gain margin, Gm, (dB) (open-loop system)
180 (close-loop system)

Phase margin, M, (open-loop system) 1

(close-loop system)

Relation between Closed-loop and Open-loop frequency response

Constant M cycles and Constant N cycles

(Unity feedback system)
( 9.5, T(s)) (G(s))

C(s)
R(s)
+ G(s)
-

9.5

G s
T s =
1 G s

78
 63-66 (M
circle) (N circle) G-plane 67

Nichols Chart
M circles N circles
dB bode diagram Nichols chart
69

79


[ 1 ] Control Systems Engineering, 3rd Ed. Norman S. Nise, 2000.

[ 2 ] Automatic Control Systems, 7th Ed, Benjamin C. Kuo, Prentice-Hall, 1995.
[ 3 ] Modern Control Engineering, 2nd Ed. Kattuhiko Ogata, Prentice-Hall, 1990.
[ 4 ] Automated Process Control Systems: Concept and Hardware, 2nd
Ed. Ronal P. Hunter.

80