LOCAL COMPONENTS 83 03 = Ae (Ouwn oosa +1) + Oxto? — UI) - 1 Com nt + y42( Vaca + 14+ Ge VR[oR, FM : oy = 287 ee EE 5 4 Te ftan oy for ine tersection (1) oy Vf vee eee leg tersetion (2) Coe oss 22 . ) for intersection (1) rar rs eee 5 (1 = 0852 (1 z 2.) for intersection 2) /t for intersection (1) = t/t for intersection (2) Tt has been assumed in the above that the interses- tions are far enough apart (about 2 4/2 min) so that their local effects do not influence each other Significantly. ‘The maximum fiber load due to the external moment is taken as though it were uniform around the circumference; this approximation is ‘considered to be on the safe side. ‘The special ease when f cos a = 1 is of interest for interseotion (1). When n= 1/cos « the stress formulas for this intersection reduce to: ou = 3.680; cos? a + (pR/21) oe tt = = (1+ casa 1.089008 a) + (PR/1) 8.68; + (pR/20) = (1 + cos" a + 1.089)Cy + (pR/t) i f where Cr _ 2.57 sin e008 « (fe F +] "14 Geosta + costa Le? we or consistent treatment with other stress intensifc cations in the ASA Code for Pressure Piping, rlled- pipe data should be chosen as a basis of comparison. ‘Therefore, the ealeulated maximum stress as given by the above formulas should be divided by two when. comparing with the usual expansion stress limits, 2" OR 3.14 Piping and Equipment Intereffeete In the over-all picture a piping system and the ‘mutually connected equipment, structures, founda- tions, and soil constitute an integrated structural system with equilibrium of interloading effects. Bach part of this structural system is influenced by its individual environment, eg, pressure, tempera ture, weight, ee., aswell as by the effects transmitted from attached parts of the system. Ordinarily, supporting structures foundations, and soil are subjest only to ambient temperstures, and are sufficiently rigid so that deflections under pipe expansion, efe,, are small enough to be neglected Sometimes, however, temperature rise is unavoid- able in steel structures; slender or high structures ray also, in combination with their foundations, involve significant deflections under even moderate Connected equipment will undergo di- ‘mensional changes which may augment or decrease the thermal expansion loading. ‘The fabrication and assembly of such an integrated structural system necessarily involves deviations from nominal dimen- sions. Hence the fitting of piping, in combination with weld shrinkage, sets up initial internal stresses which at the weakest location of the system may qual the yield strength, All such conditions must bbe recognized and provided for by the piping Aesigner. For simplifeation in analysis, the ends of a piping. system are usually considered fixed at the equipment connections, Obviously, this isa limiting condition for the maximum reaction; localized bending or diveet loading of the equipment, by causing deflection or solalivn, acive to reduce the piping reaction. ‘The result will be an intermediate fixity between fixed- ‘and hinged-end conditions, While the conventional assumption of complete fixation may seem unneces- sacily severe, it must not be inferred that excessive additional safety results. It is possible to deviate from fixed-end assumptions without inereased risk of fatigue damage to connection equipment only ‘when analysis is made of the bending stresses in the equipment whose localized deflections are being utilized. When dealing with rotating or other equip- ment. where alignment is sensitive to distortion, piping can seldom be permitted to excood the stif- ness oblained with fixed-end assumptions. Considerable misunderstanding on the part of equipment designers relative to piping reactions has existed in the past. Manufacturers sometimes have made it a condition of their warranty that no piping reactions be transmitted to their equipment. In other eases, forees have been limited to unreasonably low values, while completely ignoring the more im- portant effects of bending moments, Such impractical criteria, however, are detrimental to all concerned,at including the equipment manufacturer, asthe piping Gesigner is lft without a usable guide. ‘At present, the more progressive manufacturers attempt to provide more realistie load eatrying ca pacties of offer to check their equipment, on large ‘ritieal units, for the reactions ofthe proposed piping "The problems which they face should be eppreciated by the piping designer. With moving parts and the need for close clearances all strain must be carefully controlled to avoid misalignment, rubbing, binding, excessive wear, or other maloperation. At the ame time, sheinvolved and discontinuous contoursusually required are not amenable to a reliable evaluation of cither deflections or stresses. Thus, the manufac- turer is often foreed to rely on the judicious use of experience or the projection of occasional Lest data to individual equipment ‘The magnitude of effects at sensitive equipment should be kept low particularly when cost is not signifiantly increased by so doing. This objective may be approached by providing local pipe flexi- bility in complex systems to favor the equipment, ‘using local restraints to take resetions directly ot to force deflection into other portions of the system (discussed further in Chapter 8); by an overall ‘increase in the flexibility of the system; or by & favorable relative positioning of the equipment. ‘The potential influence of effects on equipment may ‘often be moderated by the selection of types which are relatively insensitive to distortion and miselign- ment. Also, the location of equipment should be such as to Keep pipe sizes to a minimum insofar as practicable, a point of particular concer in regard to the larger lines (e.g. pump suction and driver ‘exhaust lines). Tin the absence of suitable manufacturers date or applicable experience, approximations for limiting, DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS reactions on such equipment have been suggested, These are no more than rules of thumb which repre- sent experience slone without supporting analysis Various factors are used as indices, cither individu- ally or in combinations, such as weight, eross section suction oF discharge nozzle sizes (and rating), cubi volume, and pressure shell thickness-to-diameter ratio, For many years piping reaction limits of 1000 to 3000 pounds were specified regardless of size or details of the equipment involved. Suel limits are now generally considered meaningless. Other approaches relate metal cross section to different, unit values for resultant forees and mo- ments, Pressure shell thickness/radius ratios are also employed sometimes to establish the potential ‘maximitin pressure which that portion of the shell can withstand. A more accurate evaluation of local moment capacity of surfaces of revolution is given elsewhere in this section. Cubie volume is not a significant parameter. It hhas been used largely in the absence of equipment weight, by assuming an overall density 2 to 5 times that of water. Weight, where obtainable, is 2 more suitable parameter and is usually increased by the estimated woight of the contents. In either ap- proach, the weight is considered as the maximum, value which the resultant foree may attain. Suetion or discharge nozzle sizes provide a more comprehensive index of rotating equipment design, since they reflect equipment size. Pressure may be assumed to maintain a rough balance between pipe and equipment stiffness. Based on a survey of asceptable piping designs for equipment piping, Rossheim and Marid [29] proposed the cube of (pipe OD plus 3 in.) as # criterion to which constents were applied to establish tho maximum axial and lateral forces in pounds or bending moments in foot pounds. ‘Table 3.5 Allowable End Reaction Exerted by Connected Piping on Pumps, Turbine Casings, and Pressure Vessels Type et Ed osewick for Maximum Temperature 050 FE Reaction Rossheim- | _4-Point Support 2-Point Supports Forees, Ib Markl? | 7 “etusl | Maximam | Actual | Maximum enn Value | Allowable | Value | Allowable Radial resetion, including weight of pump ) ete ect 3.28D* 250 4,000 00D 2,700 ‘Tangential reactions, eny direction 1.500" 1000 1,500 ‘85D ‘900 Longitudinal bonding moment . 10,000 Circumferential bending moment sop: | 2700p | 40000 | 1700p | 22,000 ‘Twisting moment. : 18,000 “In this column D denotes tho OD af the pip inereated by 3 in, 4D ia equal to the oum of the nominal diameter of auction and diecharge deeressed by 1595 for every 80 increase over GOO F. : 75LOCAL COMPONENTS 85, Wolosewiok {95} additionally varied allowable reae~ tions to suit the type support (2 to 4 point), and service temperature. ‘The limit advanced in these ‘two papers are tabulated in Table 3.5. ‘The Rossheim-Mark! study also brought out the fact that expansion stresses in the piping studied ranged from 1000 to 6000 psi. ‘This and subsequent experience led to the following practice used with success by The M. W. Kellogg Company for the past five years. ‘The combined stress due to bending ‘and torsion is ealculated for an assumed pipe having a size and wall thickness equal to that of the noztle and connecting pipe, respectively. This stress is limited to 6000 psi In establishing limits for pipe loads, consideration ust also be given to the eapacity of equipment supports: that is, anchor bolts, bed plate, steel struc- ture, and foundation each in turn must be able to accommodate the pipe londs. ‘The effect of localized concentrated forces and ‘moments on shelisis of widespread importance in the design of piping. The resulting bending and direct stresses and their effect on fatigue life are important factors in establishing satisfactory structural design not only for tees, branch connections on pipes, and nozzles on pressure vessels, but also for supporting saddles, lugs, trunions, legs, hangers, and similar attachments’ Due to a lack of symmetry and variation in cross section, the theoretical analysis of these local effects is not only laborious but, up to the present time, has been accomplished only for special limited eases. ‘An intensive investigation of the problem of locel loadings on eylindrical shells was begun in 1052 by a spevial subcommittee of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee Design Division. ‘The first results of this program were presented in P. P. Bijlaard’s papers (51, 96] deating with the effect of radial loads and local moments, and evaluating the case of a localized uniformly distributed radial load acting over a finite area of a eylindrieal surface. A comparison of analytical results {61} with values extrapolated from experimental results available in the literature {97, 98} shows reasonable agreement. An additional theoretical treatment, covering the application of local circumferential and longitudinal bending moments has reeently been published [52]. ‘These investigations, as well as experience on the behavior of surfaces of revolution under localized effects, provide a general understanding of the mo- ment distribution and stress patterns attendant to such loading, Individual analyses, however, are exceedingly lengthy and involved, so that the aim is to provide simplified approaches with a reasonable understanding of the extent of their deviation from sore accurate solutions ‘Along this Iie, The M. W. Kellogs Company has made use of an approximate solution based on the bending of a beam on an elastie foundation, toevalu- ate the local shell stresses resulting from « nozzle ‘bending moment, or radial thrust on a eylindrical ‘or spherical shell. The piping moment is simuleted by & uniform circumferential radial line lond equal to the maximum reaction (Ib pet Iineat in.) at the ‘edge of the nozzle neck. With this unit load, the shell bending and resulting stress is established Similar to the effect of a narrow shrink ring loading, the unit moment being applied to the shell thickness or combined shell and pad thiekness where rein- forced. The formula used in this epprosch is: s- HIVE 4 1sry 20) where $= local longit shell, psi. R = meridional radius of shell, in. effective local thickness of shell, in. (hell thickness plus reinforcing pad thickness). FP, = unit loading due to applied longitu: dinal® bending moment. (Ib per linear \dinal bending stress in whore Mf = moment, inIb, and R, = mean radius of nozzle con nection. Pa = unit loading due to a radial thrust, Ib per in. = P/2rR, where P = total thrust, Ib ‘The combined local stress dite to thermal reactions and internal pressure is held to the same total allow- able stress range as for the piping itself [1.25 (Se+ Su)}. As noted previously, the thermal reac- tions must be based on the full expansion and the cold modulus of elasticity. ‘The individual hot and cold reactions eannot be used for this purpose. While this check is not precise, it has resulted in safe designs over a considerable period of years, At least, it provides © simple method for consistent design and, when more precise methods are de- veloped, it will afford a basis by which the results of the new proposals may be assessed in terms of past experience. ‘There is one further interesting observa- %For a cizcumferenti! moment it in beloved that the bending stress (circumfereni}) may be in come esses up to several times that indicated for «longitudinal moment.