Analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems 405 m free constants to reduce the truncation error. An approach having practical usefulness is to employ Equation 8.84 to represent exactly a polynomial of order p—1, p being an integer smaller than m. Then, (m —~ p) constants become available which can be assigned arbitrary values chosen so as to improve the stability or convergence characteristics of the resulting formula, ‘A formuta that is exact for polynomials up to an order m—I has a truncation error E,, when «=, It is of interest to estimate the truncation error term when 1 is a polynomial of order higher than m, or in the mote general case, when u js a function other than a polynomial, Standard textbooks on numerical analysis show that in most cases, the truncation error term R is given by Ra EMD, (W— SES (n+ IM (8.85) ml where ul” is the value of the mth differential of w at *=€. Parameter ¢ is, in general, not known, and it may not therefore be possible to obtain a precise value for R. Nevertheless, Equation 8.85 can often be used to provide an upper bound on R. An estimate of the truncation error term may be helpful in choosing ‘one formula over the other, although such error is not the only criterion in the choice of a formula The procedure described in the foregoing paragraph is a very general method of finding formulas. In fact, all formulae of type Equation 8.84 that are used in structural dynamics for time integration can be derived using the procedure described. However, very often such formulae are obtained from physical con- siderations, such as, for example, an assumed variation in the acceleration i, or from the well-known finite difference approximations of the differentials. In the following sections, we develop, both from the underlying physical considera- tions, and by using the technique of this section, a number of more commonly used methods of numerical integration of the equation of motion, In each case, we also derive the truncation error term. 8.11 CONSTANT-ACCELERATION METHOD In deriving the formulae for this method, we make the assumption that over f small interval of time fh, the acceleration of the system is constant and is equal to its value at the beginning of the interval, as shown in Figure 8.8. For simplicity and without loss of generality, we shift the origin to the time point , The constant-acceleration assumption gives a (8.86) (On integrating Equation 8.86, we get Stig +A (8.87)406 Humar 5 on Dima benbeno| Figure 8.8. Constant-acceleration method. where 4 is an arbitrary constant, whose value is obtained from boundary con- dition in for =O (8.88) Substitution of Equation 8.88 in Equation 8.87 gives 4=1,. Now, setting ¢—h in Equation 8.87 and recognizing that for this value of t, 11 =tiy.1, we have hi (8.89) 4, at 1=0, we Integrating Equation 8.87 and using the boundary condition w get dint weg + it +S (8.90) For (=A, w=141, 80 that Equation 8.90 gives Une =p + hip + iy (8.91) 2 We next derive expressions similar to those of Equations 8.89 and 8.91 by the method of Section 8.10. The velocity expression can be written as ting = ay tly + aay (8.92) where a; and a) are constants to be determined. Since we have two free con- stants, we can expect to make Equation 8.92 exact for w=1 and u=t. For u=l, #=0, and i=0, and Equation 8.92 is automatically satisfied because we get zeros on both sides. For u=1, d=, and i=0. Substitution in Equa- tion 8.92 gives I= (8.93)Analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems 407 ‘We are still left with one free constant and can therefore make the formula exact for v=" as well. In this case, we have i= 2¢ and d= 2, and substitution into Equation 8.92 gives 2h=0+ 2a: (8.94) Equations 8.92, 8.93, and 8.94 lead to the expression figy = tly + hy (8.95) which is the same as Equation 889, Now, if we substitute «=F, we cannot expect Fquation 8.95 to be satisfied. In fact, a remainder term is obtained in this case. We denote this term by Es, so that BBs (8.96) Finally, using Fquation 8.85, we write Equation 8.95 with the error teri in cluded figs = ty + ity + 5 fi, + hg + OME) (8.97) Next, we write the displacement expression as Liye = Baty + Batly + Baty +R (8.98) ‘On making Equation 8.98 exact for w P, we get (8.99) Substitution of Equation 8.99 into Equation 8.98 gives yt Me + ily + iy FR (8.100) To obtain the error term R, we try w=1°. Subs itution into Equation 8.98 gives HBS (8.101) From Equation 8.85 (8.102)408 Humar Equations 8.89 and 8.91 provide two of the three relations required for time integration. The third relationship is obtained by writing the equation of motion at time point n+ 1 lip + Clings + Rides = Pat (8.103) Together, Equations 8.89, 8.91, and 8.103 allow us to obtain the parameters tars tion» and dns in terms of ty, tiy and iy. Equation 8.89 gives velocity tigs15 while Equation 8.91 gives displacement u,.1. Substituting for uj. and fin. in Equation 8.103, we get the acceleration i, trina tte oti-(nr a) — era To begin the time integration, we need to know the values of up. tio, and iio. 8.12 NEWMARK’S | METHOD In 1959, Newmark devised a series of numerical integration formulae which are collectively known as Newmark's ff methods. We derive Newmark’s formulae by the general method of Section 8.10. The velocity expression is of the form fing = dilly + Aally + ating (8.105) Equation 8.105 is automatically satisfied with w=, so that we still have three free constants, ai, a3, and ay. We use two of them to make the formula exact for w=1 and , leaving one of the constants slack. Substitution into Equation 8.105 gives (8.106) We now have two equations and three unknowns. We assign an arbitrary value fo one of the unknowns and determine the other two from Equation 8.106. Let us select a;— yh, where 7 is an arbitrary constant. We then get a=1 (8.107) y= hl ~) Equation 8.105 now takes the form FM = p)iig + Ieptiy gy +R (8.108)Analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems 409 ‘The error term is obtained by substituting w=#° in Equation 8.108, so that 3h? = Oh?y + E3 5 (8.1090) RG-6) Using Equations 8.85 and 8.109a, we get aE =a «o) =r a uw (8.109b) a! ) Constant 7 is usually selected to be $. With this value for 7, Equation 8.108 becomes Furthermore the error term given by Equation 8.109b becomes zero, This im- plies that the formula is exact for polynomials of order up to 3. The new error term is obtained by substituting w=" and can be shown to be R R= ~ Su 8.11 ne (alll) ‘The displacement expression in Newmark’s // method is tipo = Datly + Batty + Day + Balin (8.112) Equation 8.112 has four free constants. We use three of them to make the formula exact for w=1, f, and . Substituting these values of u, in turn, in Equation 8.112, we obtain 1=b, h=by (8.113) WP = 2bs + 2by Equation 8.113 provides three relationships among four unknowns, We assign eebitrary value fh? to by so that by =A°( 4 ~ B). Equation 8.112 now reduces i Alay ta + hg + (5 -B)in +1 iiny +R (8.114) The error term R is obtained by substituting w= gives in Equation 8.114, which WP = 6h + Es : . (8.115a) (1 ~ 6)410 Humar and 1 (8.115b) acd . aera By assigning different values to 7 and jf, a series of integration formulas can be obtained. As an example, when y=0 and B=0, Newmark’s method reduces to the constant-acceleration method, which we have already discussed Other more commonly used versions of the Newmark's 8 method are: 1, The average acceleration method, 2. The linear acceleration method, »=!, B= A description of these methods is presented in the following paragraphs 8.12.1 Average acceleration method ‘When 7 is set equal to } and =, Equations 8.108 and 8.114 reduce to . h B aye lings thn + 5 lin + tess) = Gul) (8.116) RB Mat te + hy + lg + dg) + OLS2A UE) (8.117) The error term in Equation 8.116 has been obtained from Equation 8.111, For B={, the error expression of Equation 8.115b is not applicable. The error term in Equation 8.117, obtained by a somewhat more complicated procedure, represents an upper bound, The coordinate value é, lies between 0 and / and is selected to give the maximum value of differential u' Equations 8.116 and 8.117 can also be derived by assuming that, as indicated in Figure 8.9, the acceleration of the system remains constant over the small interval A and its value is equal to the average of the values of accelerations at the beginning and end of the interval 1 lin + inst) (8.118) For simplicity, we shift the origin on the time axis to point f. Then, by in- tegrating Equation 8.118 and applying the boundary conditions i=, at ¢ and t= ting at f=h, we get n+ Sle + fig) (8.119) | TRW. Hamming. 1962. Numerical Methods for Scientists and Engineers. New York MeGraw Hill Book Co, Ine.Analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems 411 ‘Acceleration, kal Timer! Figure 8.9. Average acceleration method. and h tin + Ulla + fies) (8.120) Integration of Equation 8.119 with the boundary conditions w=, at ¢=0 and = tye at (=A yields 2 thos sah igh + Gln finn) (8.121) Equations 8.120 and 8.121 are, of course, the same as Equations 8.116 and 8.117, respectively. Equations 8.120 and 8.121 combined with Equation 8.103 enable us 0 solve fOr tly.1, tins1s and digs in terms OF toy tin, and ty From Equation 8.121, we obtain 4 (yet ~ ty = tt) (8.122) Substitution of Equation 8.122 into Equation 8.120 gives 2 figs =~ tg + 5 (lst = tn) (8.123) Finally, on substituting for iiy;1 and iin. from Equations 8.122 and 8.123 in Equation 8.103 and collecting terms, we get oe 2 ss ftss) v6(2uctn) (8.124)412 Humar Equation 8.124 can be solved for uy. Substitution into Equations 8.122 and 8.123 then gives ii-1 and tins, respectively. To begin the integration, uy, tio and iia must be known, Two of these, usually the initial displacement and the initial velocity, will be given; the third can be determined by using the equation of motion written at ¢=0, 8.12.2 Linear acceleration method and f= §, Equations 8.108 and 8.114 reduce to ah ee fin + 5lin + as) — Fu ME) (8.125) ewe I + iy + The error term in Equation 8.125 is obtained from Equation 8.111, However, when Equation 8.115 is used to obtain the error term for the displacement relation, a zero value is obtained. This is because Equation 8.126 is exact for 8 polynomial of order up to 3. The error term can, however, be obtained by standard procedure, first substituting w =r in Equation 8.126 to obtain Ey and then by using Equation 8.85, Equations 8.125 and 8.126 can also be derived by assuming that, as indi- cated in Figure 8.10, the acceleration of the system varies linearly over a small interval of time /. With the origin centered on the time axis at f,, we have (8.126) ty (8.127) y+ Integration of Equation 8.127 and substitution of the boundary conditions at 1=0 and ¢=h gives ‘i 2 = ti + lat + nas — de) 55 (8.128) Acceleration, Len fToe Figure 8.10. Linear acceleration method.Analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems 413 and tig) = ly hn Fina) (8.129) (On integrating Equation 8.128 and substituting the boundary conditions, we get (8.130) My = tg + Itty + ‘Together, Equations 8.129 and 8.130 and the equation of motion written at f+ (Eq. 8.103) enable us to solve for tinct, fiyets and dines im terms Of ty ty, and ii,. Thus, Equation 8.130 gives 2 =p (vt = tty = hity ~ €i,) (8.131) Substitution of Equation 8.131 in Equation 8.129 yields 3 h (8.132) ign = Flt — ta) — Din — Finally, on substituting Equations 8.131 and 8.132 in Equation 8.103 and col- lecting terms, we get ‘6m | 3c 6 6. 7 (#+ = eh) = pon tml Fete + Sin Iie) 3 A +e (ja aiet ti) (81133) Equation 8.133 is solved for u.1. Equations 8.131 and 8.132 then give the acceleration and velocity, respectively, at time ty<1- Again, to start the time integration, we need 10 know uo, tp, and jp, Two of these three parameters will be specified and the third can be obtained from the equation of motion written at 1=0. Example 8.12 Calculate the response of the tower in Example 89 to the Toading shown there for the fist 10s sing» numerical inegration technique. Assume that damping in the system is 10% of eitcal and use h=0.1s. Solution ‘We will obtain the response using (i) the constan-acceleration method, ii) the average acceleration method, and (iii) the linear acceleration method. For each case = 100 kipsin m= 2.533 kip s/n414 Humar 9 = 6283 rads Sem = 3.183 kip- sin, (8) Constantscceleration method. Using Equations £91, 889, and 8.104, we get aos Og + 0005 @ fi) ty 40 ® fos = ZB jot ~ 100, ~ 13.1834 — 081832.) © 2333 Step-by-step time integration is now carried out using Equations a, b, and c. Response calcula: ‘ions for the fist 1.0 are shovin in Table E8.12a (Gi) Average acceleration method. Substituting the values of m, ¢, k, and fin Equation 8.124, wwe get 1176901 = pas + 1O7GStg + 1OASn + 2.533, @ Equations 8.123 and §.122 give ©) O(c.) — uy) ~ 40g — 0 ‘Time integration is carried out using Equations d, e, and f. Response calculations forthe first 1.05 are shown in Table E8.12b, (Gil) Linear acceleration method. Substitution for m, ¢, &, and h in Equation 8.133 gives IMS Hua. = prot + W6ISIuy + 1S8ISH, + 5225, ts) Equations 8.132 and 8.131 give fig» =30(uy 4 — my) ~ i= 0.051, (hy fig) = 600 (951 ~ tn) ~ 60g ~ Rig @ ‘Time integration is carried out using Equations g, h, and i, Response caleulations forthe first, 0s ave shown in Table E8.12c The theoretical response for a sine-wave loading is given by Equation b of Example 8.10, The ‘equation is used to obtain the theoretical response values for the fist 0.6s shown in Tables E8.12a, 8.125, and E8.12c, Theoretical displacement values for 120.68 are calculated from Equation j of Example 8.11 and ate entered in Tables F8,125, E8.12h, and E8.12c. An examination of the response values in these tables shows that the average acceleration and the linear acceleration Imethods give reasonable results. The time step h of 0.1 s, which is one-tenth the natural period of the system and one-twelfh the petiod of exciting force is probably the maximum one can use to ensure a reasonable accuracy; a smaller step size mast be used if beter accuracy is desited.Analysis of single-degree-of-freedom systems 415 ‘The results obtained from the constantacceleration method are not satisfactory. A considerably muller step size must be used in this case to obtain acceptable accuracy. In fact, the method is rot very elletive, for several reasons that will be discussed later, Toble E8.128, Consantacelration method Time iy a mat Pr ees (Ea by (Ege) Ceara) 0 oom 0m 0g soo o.caao 0000 19.74 0.0000 br 00000 «ONT RSG ONT L974 27K 0828 02 Ouse? 19M 27K nono! 47551632 02S G3 oust «4758163269922 GR — 130} .608 Oa noses 63871301 $00 1.8659 SRG A847 1.0961 Osteo «$086 aRAT 0088220239 726314351 fe tsmd 023) 726s OM L427 Tas 80111372 oo asap poe S010 08a01 12036 6.19 O68 oe ODD —azose 619 OD 049 1265S 4333S 3 -oassn Lizess aha 0 17430-8322, 7828 —ns9TE 10 cage -8322 7929 Stoars jem “Table E812, Average aecelration meth Time we wy Por tat tt ate (Eady) (Bae) (a1) Chooretical) eee Go v.00 00000 —-0coo 500 OOS ORHNT 16994 0.0000 by aos ORs? 169M How ONES «272 LATE 0.0323. pd ages 20902 2N8Tét000OSRS]_— az OIS 0.2254 D3 Oss 4428 JORIS Ro (10288 43786-11779 O20 G3 Gok A3rse ita S00 13033 Lonas 35806 1.0961 Os Lks2 Tages 356 “OD 1329 22767 #961315) Oe Lag 22167 "4p@t3 00 0907S 61607-28056 13772 05 osors Teton “2806 0002237 75297 OowH O88 Gs boas tage nese 00 ~0aE3S 6.1909 26089 0.1105 Oo 0463 e190 2608900 91S 28928 SAT ~05974 To "oars 28283987 =i.0073 “Table E8.126 Linear seceloraton method ‘able E8.126 Linear ecleraton method Time i a Dot Mest gt ligt he (ee) (amy) Ca) theoretical oo 0000 00000 ~—-o.00 «S00 «ODM ONTAS 1745000000 C1 oor osrs 790 Ros ONT -28603 «22227-00323 02 021d 28603 «22.227 1900586 AaNML 105490225 03 Osta «48011054866 ——L.OSSZ A381. —12893 06204 Oa asst 3819-12893 500 L382 LAT 37.581 1.0961 Os 13s? TT? 3733100 3684-25209 $0480 125 Oo 1aehs 25299 —S0eK0 008969 HOS 27.28 13772 0) dabe> | eats 2732800 OGTR —76¥T@ 29810868 Os tes tet 28810 053K] 6057 2RNTS 11105 Od S589 ~ese7 RSS ON 097K 25210 41.789 0.5974 10 gras —28210 41.789 1073 Bo masmes 2a gntgg