Handbook of Batch Process Design Edited hy P.N. SHARRATT Department of Chemical Engineering UMIST Manchester, UK BLACKIE ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL Ae bere of Cpe A Had London + Weinheim «Maw York - Tokyo - Matbourne - MadrasPublished by Blackic Academic and Professional, an imprint of Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall, 2~6 Boundary Row, London SEI SHN, UK Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Germany Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, N'Y 10003, USA. Chapman & Hall Japan, [TP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan DA Book (Aust.) Pty Lid, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria, Australia Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras 600 035, India First edition 1997 © 1997 Chapman & Hall Softcover reprint of the hardcover Ist edition 1997 Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Academic & Technical Typesetting, Bristal ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7150-5 e-ISHN-13: 978-94-009- 1455-1 DOL: 10.1007/978-94-009- 1455-1 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and canmot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-717874.1 Agitator selection The selection of the correct agitator and vessel internal fittings is often extremely important in batch process design. Generally, laboratory reactors will be agitated vigorously unless specifically designed to mimic large-scale operation. Mathematical reactor models also often assume complete homo- geneity. However, at full scale the reactor contents will not always be well mixed and may not be even close to homogeneous. There is therefore a real danger that incorrect agitator selection can lead to a vessel's contents separating or a reaction giving much poorer yield, selectivity or rate than expected. 4.41 Agitator duties The most important first step in agitator selection is to define correctly the design duty. The normal classification of agitator duties is presented in Table 4.1. Defining the duty involves determining the key parameter(s) that dominate the selection, bearing in mind that it will be normal for the agitator and vessel to have to achieve several duties, often simultaneously. For example, it would not be unusual for a reactor to have to disperse a gas into a mixture of two immiscible liquids with a solid feed or product. Thus the agitator is required to disperse the liquids, one as drops and ‘one as the continuous phase, disperse the gas as bubbles to achieve mass transfer and prevent the solids from settling out on the vessel base. In practice, the most common cause of an agitator failing to work as it should is not miscalculation of power ot rotational speed, but simply incorrect definition of the controlling duty. Close cooperation between the development chemist and the process engineer is required to establish the controlling parameter from laboratory experiments, particularly in complex batch systems. The controlling duty will normally be selected from those listed Table 4.1 In order to match the available agitator types with the duties, the most common agitator designs will be discussed in turn. The important features of their design and operation will be discussed to show why they are suitable for the duties as listed.108 HANDBOOK OF BATCH PROCESS DESIGN “Table 4.1) Ageator duties and impeller whecton: Duty ‘Sub-duty Impeller dessgan, Difficult rheology spon Newtonian lange diameter high viscosity vdlose chewrance lonw peed Miscible liquid semi-batch, controlled anal flow/mixed tow turbine blending and additos pH contral reaction fax" competing reactions very fat" competing reactors mixed flow radial flow — contral phase stability mrcerad flere consrol drop size/area design few mass transfer ‘Gas dispersion (lagsid- contral bubble sine bhigh gas rate (20,5 vv.) phase continuous} = dewgn for reaction and mass desc turtume (concave blades) tramaler low pas rate (<0.$v.9n.) mined flow (up or downhidise ‘a tae ‘Solids i liquid eating combined turtines/partial baifies senting anial flow turbine/mined flow Scugglomecaticn: high stsear Het transfer lw viscosity any turbine ‘high viscosity lose clewrancelarge diameter * Reactions whose yield is induenced by the extent of macromixing. "Reactions whose yield is influenced by the intensity of microminang. 4.12 Agitator types For ease of classification the common agitator types are divided into two main groups: chose clearance/large diameter and small diameter/high speed impellers. fa) Clore clearance|large dimneter agitaiars ‘Close clearance agitators are so called because the clearance between the blade tip and the vessel wall is quite small, the agitator diameter will typically be between 70 and 100% of the vessel diameter. They are operated in the laminar to transitional flow regimes, as defined in Section 4.2.2, The rota- tional speed will be low because of the large diameter and the power and torque limits on most normal designs. They are used without baffles. ‘The most common designs are listed in Table 4.2, starting with large diameter ‘paddles’ at the lower end of the viscosity range and increasing in complesity as the viscosity increases. For most batch reactor and blending duties at apparent viscosities up to 20Nsm~? multiple ‘paddles’, large diameter turbines and the proprietary Intermig from EKATO are the best designs. In the past the Anchor agitator has been commonly used. It is reasonable for promoting wall heat transfer, as are the other designs, but relatively poor at general mixing. At viscosities above 20 Nem? the more complex helical ribbons/helical screw designs are required, followed hy dough blenders and specialized proprietary blenders for paste-like materials.AGITATION 108 Table 4.2. Clow clearance/large diameter agitators Agitatos type Larpe diameter turbines"padles’ Imvermnig (EKATOY Anchor (anchor + teabime} Nem? increasing viacowily Helical screw/helical ribbon Nauia blender Dough mixer saruder ‘Typical dutics for close clearance agitators are general bulk blending for high viscosity and mon-Newtonian materials and to promote wall heat trans- fer. They would be used for reactions where the batch viscosaty is high and the material non-Newtonian, for high solids content crystallizations, for high vissosity polymer melts and for distillations from high viscosity materials. () Small diameter/high speed turbines Turbines are generally used for low bo moxierate viscosity applications. Their diameters are 0.25 0.5 times the vessel's diameter, They run at higher speeds and normally operate in the turbulent region (Section 4.2.2) at full scule. They will often be used im conjunction with baffles but can be used without. They develop highly complex three-dimensional flow patterns, but a time- averaged picture in a thin vertical plane across a diameter reveals a generally anial or radial flow pattern or a mixture of the two. Axial flow turbines produce a time-averaged flow pattern as shown if Figure 4.1 for an agitator pumping downwards, the most common mode ‘of operation. The bulk flow generated by the turbine moves centrally down the axis of the vessel, sweeping the base and returning up the wall region, They are designed io produce a high flow to pawer ratio, achieved by making the blades of an aerodynamic shape with the bulk of the energy used to induce flow, with little turbulent loss. They therefore have a relatively Figare 4.1 Flom patiern for an axial dow impellerio HANDBOOK OF BATCH PROCESS DESIGN Figure 4.2 Typcal axial impetier low power number (Section 4.2.2) and are ron at relatively high rotational speed. Most designs are derived from three-bladed propellers, with several manufacturers having developed their own patented shape. A typical design is illustrated in Figure 4.2. Asial flow turbines are good for duties which do not require a high level of turbulent energy, but do require high liquid flow. Thus they are especially good for suspending settling solid particles and for bulk blending of low viscosity liquids. For many simple blending dutics they will be a cheap option because they tend to be ‘off-the-shelf items from a number of suppliers. Radial flow rurbines should be operated with baffles for them to provide an effective mixing action, otherwise they will simply produce a circular flow around the vessels with mo circulation from top to bottem. The time- averaged How pattern produced by radial flow turbines with baffles is shown in Figure 4.3. The main liquid flow discharges from the turbine radially cutwards and with rotation around the vessel axis. The rotational flow is damped by the baffles and at the wall the radial flow separates to Produce upper und lower circulation loops. The upper loop turns over at the surface and returns down the centre to the agitator. The lower loop Figere 4.3 Flow pattern for a radial flow impeller,Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology 2nd Edition S Ghasem D. NajafpourBIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY SECOND EDITION Guasem D, NAIARPOUR Biowcfvlogy Research Lab. Pucwley of Chemical Engincesing Noukirvant Linhersky of Technalogs. Babul bElsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands. The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK 225 Wyman Strevt, Waltham, MA 02451, USA Copyright © 2015, 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording. or any information storage and retrieval systum, without permission in writing from the publisher. 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ISBN: 978-0-444-63357-6 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library af Congress For Information om all Elsevier publications Working together to grow libraries in iim) Beeld developing countriesAGITATION AND MIXING PHENOMENA Mixing is a physical operation that creates uniformities in fluids and eliminates any concentration and temperature gradients. If a system tfectly mixed, there is homoge- neous distribution of system properties. Mixing is one of the most important operations in bioprocessing. Efficient liquid mixing is essential in a bioreactor to maintain not only a uniform DO concentration, but also a uniform liquid concentration. To create an optimum environment in the bioreactor, agitation is required for cells to have access to all substrates, including oxygen in aerobic cultures. Another aspect of an agitated system is uniform heat transfer. Most bioreactors must be able to operate at a constant uniform temperature. A jacketed system for cooling, or a cooling coil, is provided for sufficient heat transfer, The objectives of agitation and effective mixing are to circulate the fh for sufficient time, to disperse the gas bubbles in the liquid, to have small bubbles with high interfacial area, and to maintain uniform conditions for mass and heat transfer operations. Agitation creates uniformity of gas bubbles in the entire media by placing the agitator in the appropriate position. A few sets of impellers are used to ensure the even distribution of the gas in the fermentation broth. Very high agitation may cause high shear forces that may damage the cell wall and cause cell rupture. If the propagating cells, such as animal cells and plant tissue cultures, are shear-sensitive, special configurations of impellers are required. ‘A wide variety of impellers are available; other shapes of impellers related to mixing and agitation of bioreactors are discussed in the literature.” 3.5 TYPES OF AGITATOR Gas dispersion is not mainly related to the sparger, but rather is dependent on the type of, impeller used for agitation. There are four i commonly used in bioreactors: * Disk turbine (Rushton turbine) 38 5. GAS AND LIQUID SYSTEM (AERATION AND AGITATION) * Propeller, marine type * Intermig. These types of agitators are used in low-viscosity systems (u < 50 kg m~! s~') with high rotational speed, The typical tip speed velocity for turbine and intermig is in the region 3ms ',a propeller rotates faster. These impellers are classified as remote clearance type, hav- ing diameters in the range 67% of the tank diameter. The most common type of agitator is disk turbine. It consists of several short blades mounted on a central shaft. The diameter of a turbine is normally 35—45% of the tank diameter, There are four to six blades for perfect mixing, Turbines with flat blades give radial flow. This is good for gas dispersion in the media where the gas is introduced just below the impeller; it is drawn up to the blades and broken up into uniform fine bubbles. The propeller agitator with three blades rotates at relatively high speeds of 60-300 rpm; high efficient mixing is obtained. The generated flow pattern is axial flow since the fluid moves axially down to the center and up the side of the tank. The intermig agitator is the most recently developed agitator. This is an axial pumping impeller in which the blades are mounted at an angle opposite cach other. Comparing the mixing properties of disk turbine agitator with an intermig agitator, the intermig agitator has more uniform energy transferred to the fluid in the vessel. Therefore, this type of agitator requires less power and less air input to obtain the same degree of mixing and mass transfer coefficient.3.9 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR STIRRED TANKS Agitation of fermentation broth creates a uniform distribution of air in the media. Once a solution is mixed, some energy is exerted into the system. Increasing the input power reduces the bubble size, and this in turn increases the interfacial area. Therefore, the mass transfer co- efficient would be a function of power input per unit volume of fermentation broth, which is also affected by the gas superficial velocity.”* The general correlation is expected to be as follows ka = a(f) % (394) where kw is the volumetric mass transfer coefficient in (s~'), a is proportionality factor as a constant, P is the agitator power under gassing condition in (W), Vj is the liquid volume without gassing in (m°); 0, is the gas superficial velocity in (m s~*), and y and z are empirical constants. Most laboratory fermenters operate with a stirrer power between 10 and 20 KW m *, whereas large bioreactors operate at 0.5—5 kW m *. The mass transfer coefficient for coalescing, air—water dispersion is: ka = 2.6% 107 ) os (3.9.2) Vi, The above correlation is valid for a bioreactor size of less than 3000 L and a gassed power per unit volume of 0.510 kW. For noncoalescing (nonsticky) air—electrolyte dispersion, the exponents of the gassed power per unit volume and gas superficial velocity in the correlation ‘of mass transfer coefficient change slightly. The empirical correlation with defined coeffi- cients may come from the experimental data with a well-defined bioreactor with a working volume of less than 5000 L and a gassed power per unit volume of 0.5-10 kW. The defined correlation is: P ka = 2% 104(— “ (7) This empirical correlation was obtained from the experimental data with a well-defined eactor with a working volume of less than 5000 Land a gassed power per unit volume 5-10 kW. In general, coalescing systems are those in which the water is relatively pure; noncoalesc- ing systems are those in which a small amount of electrolytes presents in the system, 93)