ASSOt IAl I O N

Concrete Floors
on Ground

Second Edition
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

This second edition of Concrete Floors on Ground con-

tinues Portland Cement Associations tradition of pro-
viding the concrete user with information on the latest
in concrete technology and its application at the jobsite.
Although the fundamentals of good floor design and
construction practice do not change, reader responses
and queries following publication of the first edition
called for clarification and additions to the text so that
new concrete floors continue to improve in serviceability
and economy. This second edition includes supplemental
information on-
Safety factors Joints and joint spacing
Effective contact areas Filling joints
Unjointed slabs Reinforcement
Uncommon storage Finishes for slabs
conditions
New sections have been added on-
Load transfer across Doweled control joints
joints
The publication is intended for owners, architects,
engineers, contractors, and any others who share the
responsibility for floor performance in industrial and
commercial buildings.
This publication is based on the facts, tests, and authorities
stated herein. It is intended for the use of professional personnel
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of the
reported findings and who will accept responsibility for the
application of the material it contains. The Portland Cement
Association disclaims any and all responsibility for applica-
tion of the stated principles or for the accuracy of any of the
sources other than work performed or information developed
by the Association.
Caution: Avoid prolonged contact between unhardened (wet)
cement or concrete mixtures and skin surfaces. To prevent such
contact, it is advisable to wear protective clothing. Skin areas
that have been exposed to wet cement or concrete, either direct-
ly or through saturated clothing, should be thoroughly washed
with water.

Cover: Ride-on triple trowel. Photograph courtesy of

the Master Consolidated Corporation.
The author of this text is Ralph E. Spears, formerly man-
ager (now retired) of the Building Construction Section;
revisions were made by William C. Panarese, associate
manager, Building Construction Section, Building De-
sign and Construction Department, Portland Cement
Association.

@ Portland Cement Association 1983

First Edition 1978
Second Edition 1983
Printed in U.S.A.
CONTENTS
Introduction .*...a.**.......*.............. 3
Uniform Subgrade of Adequate
Bearing Capacity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Subgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Soil Properties, Density, Plasticity Index,
Problem Soils, Site Preparation, Expansive
Soils, Hard Spots and Soft Spots, Backfilling,
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Subbases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*. 6
Quality of the Concrete ..................
Strength.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Cement Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum-Size Coarse Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Slump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Entrained Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tensile Strength of Concrete: Modulus of
Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adequacy of Structural Capacity . . . . . . . . 8
Location and Frequency of Imposed Loads . . . . . 8
Flexural Stresses and Safety Factors . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fatigue and Safety Factor, Shrinkage
Stress, Impact, Flexural Stress
Preliminary Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*.......... 9
Design Procedure . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Vehicle Loads, Thickness Design
Example-Single-Wheel Axle Loads,
High-Rack-Storage-Leg Loads, Uniform
Loads, Uncommon Storage Conditions
Thickness Design Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Jointing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
KindsofJoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...16
Isolation Joints, Control Joints,
Construction Joints
Filling Joints e............................... 17
Joint Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Spacing of Joints
Load Transfer Across Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Aggregate Interlock, Load Transfer
Effectiveness, Influence of Joint Opening,
Influence of Slab Thickness, Influence
of Subgrade Support, Influence of Load
Magnitude, Influence of Aggregate Shape,
How to Improve Load Transfer Across
Joints
Doweled Control Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Dowels in Reinforced Slabs
Reinforcement for Floors
on Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...21
unjointed Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Construction ............................... 22
Workmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Subgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Expansive Soils, Hard Spots and Soft
Spots, Backfilling
Subbase or Cushion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6
Vapor Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6 Insulation Under Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 Slab Thickness Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
7 Finishing Concrete Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
7 Concreting Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
7 Edge Forms, Positioning Reinforcing
Steel, Placing and Spreading, Striking
8 Off and Consolidating, Leveling, Edging,
Floating, Jointing, Troweling
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Acceptable Surface Tolerances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Special Finishes for Concrete
Floor Slabs ................................ 30
Dry-Shake Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
High-Strength-Concrete Toppings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1
Monolithic Toppings, Separate Bonded
Toppings, Separate Unbonded Toppings
Vacuum Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Surface Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sealing Concrete Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Sodium Silicate (Water Glass), Silico-
fluorides, Linseed Oil
Floor Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Seamless Floor Surfacings
Repairs and Overlays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Evaluation of Damage.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Preparation of Old Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Cleaning Concrete Floors
Concrete Overlays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Bonded Patching o/4 to 2 in. thick),
Thin Bonded Overlay, Unbonded Toppings
Repair of Cracks and Joints.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Filling Cracks (Sealing), Refilling Joints
(Resealing), Patching Spalls
Metric Conversions . . . . . . . . . Inside back cover
Concrete Floors
on Ground
INTRODUCTION
Large-area concrete floors for commercial and industrial
buildings must be designed and constructed with the
greatest possible economy to give trouble-free service
year after year. The building of a good concrete floor
requires close communication between owner, architect,
engineer, and contractor-with a mutual understanding
of the level of quality needed for its intended use.
Many erroneous notions have developed over the years
as to how the rules of good concrete practice affect the
serviceability of floors on ground. They have brought
more complaints about poor performance of floors than
any other part of a building. Advice is rarely sought be-
fore design or construction begins, indicating that floors
receive little attention at any stage in the building process.
Before construction begins, careful attention must be
given to a number of factors that influence performance:
1. Uniformity of the subgrade and
adequacy of its bearing capacity.
2. Quality of the concrete
3. Adequacy of structural capacity
4. Type and spacing of joints
5. Workmanship
6. Special surface finishes
7. Future maintenance and repair
All these factors are covered in detail in this text. The
technology and details apply equally to the small-area
floor in a residence, light industry, or warehouse and to
the large area covering many acres typified by the heavy
industrial plant and its storage facilities. Major emphasis
is given to attaining the best possible balance between
service requirements and costs of construction and future
maintenance.
UNIFORM SUBGRADE OF
ADEQUATE BEARING CAPACITY
To ensure that the concrete floor will continue to carry
its design loading successfully, it is vital to design and
construct the subgrade as carefully as the floor itself. A
subbase, while not mandatory, can provide added bene-
fits in construction and performance.
Subgrades
The subgrade is the natural ground, graded and com-
pacted, on which the floor is built. The subgrade as found
can be improved bydrainage,compaction(seeDensity),
or soil stabilization. (Site drainage is not discussed in
this publication.) Because of the rigidity of concrete floor
slabs, concentrated loads from forklift wheels or high-
rack legs are spread over large areas and pressures on the
subgrade are usually low. Thus, concrete floors do not
necessarily require strong support from the subgrade.
Subgrade support must, however, be reasonably uniform
without abrupt changes from hard to soft, and the upper
portion of the subgrade must be of uniform material and
density.
Soil Properties
Proper classification of the subgrade soil must be made
to identify potential problem soils.* One soil classifica-
tion system in common use is Classification of Soils for
Engineering Purposes, American Society for Testing and
*See PCA Soil Primer, Portland Cement Assoctation publication
EBoo7S, 1973.
 Materials (ASTM) Designation: D2487. Table 1, based
on the ASTM system, shows the major divisions of soils
with descriptive names and letter symbols indicating their
principal characteristics. When soil is a combination of
two types, it is described by combining both names. Thus,
clayey sand is predominantly sand but contains an appre-
ciable amount of clay. Reverse the name to sandy cla?
and the soil is predominantly clay with an appreciable
amount of sand.
Density
The strength of the soil-its supporting capacity and
resistance to movement or consolidation-is important
to the performance of floors on ground, particularly
when the floor must support extremely heavy loads. Soil
strength is affected by the degree of its compaction and
its moisture content.
Compaction is a method for purposely densifying or
increasing the unit weight of a soil mass by rolling, tamp-
ing, or vibrating. It is the lowest-cost way to improve the
structural properties of the soil. Density of a soil is meas-
ured in terms of its mass per unit volume.
Tests performed according to Moisture-Density Rela-
tions of Soils, ASTM D698, will determine the maxi-
mum density and corresponding optimum-moisture con-
tent of the soil.
Plasticity Index
When a soil can be rolled into thin threads, it is called
plastic. Most fine-grained soils containing clay minerals
are plastic. The degree of plasticity is expressed as the
plasticity index (PI). The PI is the numerical difference
between the liquid limit and plastic limit. Liquid limit
(LL) is the amount of moisture present when the soil
changes from a plastic to liquid state. Plastic limit (PL)
is the amount of moisture present when a soil changes
from semisolid to plastic.
PI = LL - PL

Table 1. ASTM Soil Classification System

Modulus of
Presumptive subgrade reaction, k,
Group Typical bearing capacity, pounds per square inch
symbols names tons per square foot per inch
Well-graded gravels and gravel-
GW 5 300 or more
sand mixtures, little or no fines
Poorly graded gravels and gravel-
GP 5 300 or more
sand mixtures, little or no fines
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt
G M 2.5 200 to 300 or more
mixtures
Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay
GC 2 200 to 300
mixtures
Well-graded sands and gravelly
SW 3.75 200 to 300
sands, little or no fines
Poorly graded sands and gravelly
SP 3 200 to 300
sands, little or no fines
S M Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures 2 200 to 300
SC Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures 2 200 to 300
Inorganic silts, very fine sands,
ML rock flour, silty or clayey fine 1 100 to 200
sands
Inorganic clays of low to medium
CL plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy 1 100 to 200
clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silty
OL 100 to 200
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic silts, micaceous or
MH diatomaceous fine sands or silts, 1 100 to 200
elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high plasticity,
CH 1 50 to 100
fat clays
Organic clays of medium to high
OH 50 to 100
plasticity
Peat, muck, and other highly
Highly organic soils PT
organic soils
Based on the malenal passlng the 3-1n (75.mm) sieve
Nattonal Bullding Code 1976 EdWon American Insurance Association
 Soils with a high PI, greater than 20, may cause future
problems by expanding under changes of moisture con-
tent in the subgrade due, for example, to a rising water
table.
Problem Soils
Soils are considered problem soils when they are highly
expansive, highly compressible, and do not provide rea-
sonably uniform support. Concrete-floor-on-ground de-
sign is based on the assumption of uniform subgrade sup-
port. The key word is uniform. Where problem soils
create nonuniform conditions, correction is most eco-
nomically and effectively achieved through subgrade
preparation methods.
Site Preparation
To construct a reasonably uniform subgrade, special care
must be taken to ensure that there are no variations of
support within the floor area and that the following
major causes of nonuniform support are controlled:
Expansive soils
Hard spots and soft spots
Backfilling
Expansive Soils
Most soils sufficiently expansive to cause floor distortion
are classified by the ASTM Soil Classification System
(Table 1) as clays of high plasticity (CH), silts of high
plasticity (MH), and organic clays (OH). Simple soil tests
provide indexes that serve as useful guides to identify the
approximate volume-change potential of soils. Follow-
ing are some of these tests:
Plasticity Index, ASTM D424
Volume Change of Soils, ASTM D1883
Shrinkage Factors of Soils, ASTM D427
Soil Compaction Tests, ASTM D698
Liquid Limit of Soils, ASTM D423
The following table shows approximate expansion-
plasticity relationships:
Approximate
Degree of I Percentage I ntasticitv
expansion of swell
Lex (Pi)
Nonexpansive 2 or less oto IO
Moderately expansive 2 to 4 IO to 20
Highly expansive more than 4 more than 20
Abnormal shrinkage and swelling of high-volume-
change soils in a subgrade will create nonuniform sup-
port. As a result, the concrete floor may become dis-
torted. Compaction of highly expansive soils when the
soils are too dry can contribute to deterimental expan-
sion and softening of the subgrade upon future wetting.
When expansive soil subgrades are too wet prior to cast-
ing a floor slab, subsequent drying and shrinkage of the
soil may leave portions of the slab unsupported.
Selective grading, crosshauling, and blending of sub-
grade soils make it possible to obtain uniformconditions
in the upper part of the subgrade. Compaction of expan-
sive soils to 95% optimum density at 1% to 3% above
standard optimum moisture (Soil Compaction Tests,
ASTM D698) will minimize possible loss of support
from any future increases in moisture content and give
the subgrade the uniform stability that is needed for good
performance.
For exceptionally heavy loadings or poor soil condi-
tions, a soils investigation should be made by a compe-
tent soils engineer.
Hard Spots and Soft Spots
If the subgrade is of nonuniform support, the slab when
loaded will tend to bridge over soft spots and ride on hard
spots, all too often with the results illustrated in Fig. 1.
Special care must be taken by excavating and backfilling
to prevent localized soft or hard spots. Uniform support,
however, cannot be obtained merely by dumping granu-
lar material on the soft spot. Moisture and density condi-
tions of the replacement soil should be as similar as pos-
sible to the adjacent soil. At transition areas where soil
types or conditions change abruptly, the replacement soil
should be mixed with the surrounding soil by crosshaul-
ing and blending to form a transition zone with uniform
support conditions.
Fig. 1. Soft spots and hard spots.
Backfilling
Any fill material added to improve the subgrade or raise
the existing grade should be a stable material that can be
thoroughly compacted. Rubble from building or pave-
ment demolitions must first be passed through a crusher
because large pieces can cause compaction difficulties.
Underfloor pipeline and utility trenches should be
backfilled with soils like those surrounding the trench
and compacted in layers to duplicate moisture and den-
sity conditions in the adjacent soils. Every attempt should
be made to restore as much as possible the original uni-
formity of the subgrade.
Poorly compacted subgrade fill can cause subsequent
settlement problems and premature failure of the slab.
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
The objective of design for thickness of concrete floors
(and pavements) is to control tensile stresses within the
slab. The stresses are influenced by the amount of support
provided by the subgrade.
 In thickness design, the subgrade support used for con-
crete floors on ground is taken to be Westergaards mod-
ulus of subgrade reaction, k, which is determined by load
tests on the subgrade at the jobsite. The modulus of sub-
grade reaction, k, is the ratio of load in pounds per square
inch to a 0.05-in.* deflection of a 30-in.diameter bearing
plate:
load (psi)
k =
deflection (at 0.05 in.)
The probable range of values for k on various soils is
shown in Table 1 and in the following box.
A reliable correlation does not exist between subgrade
modulus and the bearing capacity of the soil used for
foundation design. The k value used in floor design re-
flects the subgrade under temporary (elastic) conditions
and small deflections-O.05 in. or less. Soil bearingcapac-
ity values from field tests-used to predict and limit dif-
ferential settlement between footings or parts of a foun-
dation-reflect total, permanent (inelastic) subgrade
deformations that may be 10, 20, or more times greater
than the small deflections of k values.
The k value does not reflect the effect of compressible
soil layers at a depth of more than the 3 to 5 ft below sub-
grade surface. For exceptionally heavy floor loads dis-
tributed over large areas, the allowable bearing capacity
of the underlying soil and the anticipated settlement due
to soil consolidation should be determined. Long-term
settlement may cause cracking and misalignment of slabs.
Subbases
A subbase-the thin layer of granular material placed
on top of the prepared subgrade-is not mandatory for
floors on ground. However, when a uniform subgrade is
not produced by grading and compaction operations, a
granular subbase will provide a cushion for more uniform
support by equalizing minor subgrade defects. The gran-
ular subbase can also provide a capillary break and a
stable working platform for construction equipment.
It is seldom necessary or economical to build up the
supporting capacity of the subgrade with a thick subbase.
Tests made by the Portland Cement Association show
that increasing subbase thickness beyond 4 in. results in
only minor increases in subgrade support, and these
minor increases allow no appreciable reduction in the
thickness of a concrete slab for given loading conditions.
Since uniform support rather than strong support is
the most important function of the subgrade and sub-
base for a concrete floor, it follows that floor strength is
achieved most economically by building strength into the
concrete slab itself-with optimum use of low-cost mate-
rials under the slab.
Thus, when a subbase is used, a 4-in. thickness is sug-
gested. A thicker subbase could contribute to poor floor
performance by densifying under vibration and repetitive
loads. To prevent densification, the subbase material
should be compacted to high density: a minimum of 98%
maximum density at optimum moisture determined by
Soil Compaction Tests, ASTM D698.
Granular material for the subbase can be sand, sand-
gravel, crushed stone, or combinations of these materials.
A satisfactory dense-graded material will meet the fol-
lowing requirements:
Maximum size: Not more than 1/3 the sub-
base thickness
Passing No. 200 sieve: 15% maximum
Plasticity index: 6 maximum
Liquid limit: 25 maximum
Substantial benefits in floor performance and slab-
thickness reduction can be derived from a cement-treated
subbase (CTSB) under a concrete floor slab that is to be
subject to extremely heavy loading conditions. The high
support value of CTSB will-
Reduce permeability
Eliminate subbase consolidation
Permit use of thinner concrete slabs
More information on preparing the grade is described
in Subgrades and Subbases for Concrete Pavements.**
QUALITY OF THE CONCRETE
The wear resistance of a concrete floor slab is directly
related to the strength of the concrete. Research has
shown that resistance to wear improves with a reduction
in water content or an increase in cement content, or both,
either one of which will increase strength. It is the rich
quality of the mortar that is important; the hardness and
toughness of the coarse aggregate becomes significant
only after the surface-mortar matrix has worn away. To
get the right quality concrete, the order given to the ready
mixed concrete supplier must be clear and contain all the
basic information stated in the job specifications.
In flatwork, the placeability of the concrete and the
finishability of the surface are equally if not more impor-
tant than strength, because they have a significant effect
on the quality of the top I% or /la in. of the wearing sur-
face. The order for ready mixed concrete should contain
the following information: strength, minimum cement
content, maximum size of coarse aggregate, slump, and a
small amount of purposely entrained air.
Strength
A minimum strength of 4000 psi at 28 days is advisable
for light industrial and commercial floor use. Specifica-
*Use conversion table at the end of this book to convert to metric
measurements.
**Portland Cement Association publication ISO29P, 1971.
tions for a lower strength may be adequate for supporting
the loads on the floor but will be inadequate for satisfac-
tory wear resistance. It is also advisable to require 1800
psi strength at 3 days to build in early protection for the
slab from construction traffic. Satisfying this 3-day re-
quirement will produce 28-day strengths well above the
recommended minimum shown in Fig. 2.
Classification of floors on the basis of intended use is
given in American Concrete Institute (ACI) 302, Guide
for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, Table 1.1.
Recommended strengths for each class of floor are given
in AC1 302, Table 5.2.1.
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH, PSI
1.000 psi = 7 MPa
635 0.45 0.55 0.65
WATER- CEMENT RATIO
Non-air-entmined concrete
Cement : Type I
Fig. 2. Recommended minimum strengths for industrial
and commercial floors on ground.
Minimum Cement Content
Floor work in particular needs sufficient cement mortar
matrix for proper finishability. This is assured by speci-
fying a minimum cement content.
With modern concrete technology, high-strength con-
crete can be obtained with less cement than before. Where
strength alone is the decisive criteria, less cement means
greater economy. Wear resistance, however, depends
upon the surface hardness of the concrete as well as its
internal strength and requires more cement. A minimum
cement content should be specified that will ensure tin-
ishability for maximum wear resistance at the surface as
well as adequate internal strength. The amount of cement
should not be less than shown in Table 2. Use the largest
size of aggregate possible to keep the cement content to a
minimum.
Maximum-Size Coarse Aggregate
Freedom from random cracking is desired for all concrete
floors. The degree to which random shrinkage cracking
Table 2. Minimum Cement
Requirements
Maximum Cement,
size of lb per
aggregate, in. cubic yard
1 h 470
1 520
k 540
% 590
56 610
can be reduced is improved by using concrete with a mini-
mum shrinkage potential that contains the correct grada-
tion of aggregates, the maximum size of coarse aggregate,
and the maximum amount of coarse aggregate consistent
with placing and finishing methods. A larger aggregate
size permits a lower water content in the concrete and is
more effective in restraining the shrinkage of the cement
paste.
The maximum aggregate size shown in Table 2 should
be used if it is economically available and if it satisfies the
requirement that maximum aggregate size not exceed
three-fourths the clear space between reinforcing bars or
one-third the depth of the floor slab.
Slump
Excessive slump and consequent bleeding and segrega-
tion are a primary cause of poor performance in concrete
floors. If the finished floor is to be level, uniform in
appearance, and wear resistant, it is important that all
batches placed in the floor have very nearly the same
slump.
Placing low-slump (2- to 4-in.) concrete flatwork is
routine with the use of mechanical equipment such as a
vibratory screed that rides on the side forms. When such
equipment is used on floor work, less water is added at
the jobsite and the wear resistance of the surface is im-
proved. Low-slump concrete will go a long way towards
Speeding up placement and consolidation
Reducing finishing time
Reducing cracking
Eliminating surface defects
Recommended slumps for each AC1 class of floor are
given in Table 5.2.1 of AC1 302. A 3-in. slump is suggest-
ed for class 4 and 5 floors.
Entrained Air
A small amount of purposely entrained air is useful in
almost all concrete for floors for reducing bleeding and
increasing plasticity. A total air content of 2% to 3% is
suggested. Concrete that will be exposed to cycles of
freezing and thawing and the application of deicer chemi-
cals needs a total air content of 5.5% to 7.5%, depending
upon maximum size of aggregate, to ensure resistance to
scaling. See Table 5.2.7a of AC1 302.
Tensile Strength of Concrete
Modulus of Rupture
When a load is applied to a floor on ground, it causes
bending that produces both compressive and flexural
stresses in the concrete slab. Of the two types of stress,
flexural stress is more critical because it will approach
the ultimate tensile strength of the concrete (modulus of
rupture), while compressive stress remains small in pro-
portion to the ultimate compressive strength of the con-
crete. Consequently, theflexural stress and thejlexural
strength of the concrete are used in floor-slab design to
determine thickness.
Flexural strength is determined by modulus of rupture
(MR) tests in accordance with ASTM C78, Flexural
Strength of Concrete Using Simple Beam with Third-
Point Loading. If the size of the job does not warrant the
extra cost of flexural strength tests, compressive strength
test results can be used to approximate probable flexural
strength. An approximate relationship between compres-
sive and flexural strength is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Approximate Relationship
Between Compressive and
Flexural Strengths
Compressive strength, psi Flexural strength, psi
3500 445-590
4000 480-640
4500 500-670
5000 535-710
6000 585-780
7000 630-840
ADEQUACYOFSTRUCTURAL
CAPACITY
Many variables directly or indirectly influence the deter-
mination of correct thickness for concrete floors on
ground. To include all of them in a design method would
be an unduly complex procedure and could lead to over-
confidence in the design as a guarantee of good floor per-
formance. All too frequently shortcomings of workman-
ship are the cause of unsatisfactory floor performance
rather than inadequate design or specifications. Since it
is the top surface of the floor that is continually and criti-
cally appraised by the user, added attention to the con-
struction of the top surface of the slab and to properjoint-
ing may contribute more to user satisfaction than undue
attention to the thickness of the slab itself.
Previous design information covered only a limited
range of load magnitudes and wheel spacings of indus-
trial trucks operating on industrial and warehouse floors.
Design guides for plain concrete slabs were needed, be-
cause a plain slab-one without distributed steel or struc-
tural reinforcement-often has advantages of economy
and ease of construction.
To prepare a design guide, Portland Cement Associa-
tion turned to the field of highway pavement engineering,
where extensive data had already been assembled from
many years of laboratory and field research and testing.
Acknowledging the obvious similaritiesand differences
between a road pavement and a floor slab, pavement
theory was reduced to easily used thickness design charts
for floors on ground. The design method is presented in
Slab Thickness Design for Industrial Concrete Floors on
Grade* and is applicable as well to slabs on ground for
outdoor storage and material-handling areas. As in pave-
ment design, the factors involved in determining the re-
quired floor slab thickness are
1. Strength of subgrade and subbase
2. Strength of concrete
3. Location and frequency of imposed loads
The following procedures for thickness design are de-
rived from Slab 7Eckness Designfor industrial Concrete
Floors on Grade.
Location and Frequency
of Imposed Loads
Slab cracking due to excessive loads can occur in response
to flexural overstress; too much deflection; settlement
due to consolidation of subsoil; and for very concentrated
loads, excessive concrete bearing or shear stresses.
The strategy in designing for floor slab thickness is to
keep all responses within safe limits. The controlling de-
sign consideration will differ for different sizes of load
contact area. For example, for lift trucks with wheel con-
tact areas in the range of 20 to 100 sq in., flexural stress
will control thickness design.
Flexural Stresses and Safety Factors
In the design procedure based on flexure, the allowable
working stresses are determined by dividing the concrete
flexural strength by an appropriate safety factor. Safety
factors for vehicle loads have been established from ex-
perience gained in pavement performance and take into
account several influences such as load repetitions,
shrinkage factors, and impact.
Fatigue and Safety Factor
Concrete is affected more by repetitive loads than by a
single load of the same magnitude. The effect is called
fatigue. A flexural fatigue failure occurs when the con-
crete cracks under continued repetitions of loads that
cause flexural stress-strength ratios of less than one. Tests
of concrete slabs indicate that as the number of load repe-
titions increases a higher safety factor must be used to
prevent failure. Fatigue effects are accommodated in the
design procedure by a safety factor, as follows:
1. Select a conservative safety factor of 1.7 to 2.0 for
moderate-to-heavy traffic. A safety factor of 2.0 per-
mits unlimited repetitions of design load.
2. Select a safety factor of 1.5 to 1.7 for light traffic.
*Portland Cement Association publication ISl95D. 1976.
 The safety factor can be selected by either of two ways.
When the full-rated capacity of the forklift truck is select-
ed to determine slab thickness, a safety factor between 1.5
to 1.7 is suggested because forklift trucks are not always
operated at full-load capacity. When realistic-load data
are known and used, a safety factor of 2 is suggested.
Shrinkage Stress
Shrinkage stresses are not considered to be significant.
For example, a shrinkage stress of 23 psi is computed for
an 8-in. slab jointed at 20 ft using a subgrade friction fac-
tor of 1.5. Pavement research has shown, however, that
the actual stress developed will be much less-only one-
third or one-half of that predicted.
Impact
Some procedures for pavement design increase the wheel
loads by a factor to accommodate the effect of wheel im-
pact. A load-impact factor is not included in the PCA
floor design procedure (except in the safety factor) be-
cause this procedure is based on pavement research that
shows slab stresses are less for moving loads than for
static loads.
Flexural Stress
The flexural stresses indicated on the design charts are
computed at the interior of a slab. When the slab edges at
all joints have adequate load transfer (by means of dow-
6
40 50
tll,,,,11 I I
2 4 6 8 IO I2 I4 I6 I8 20
RATED CAPACITY OF LIFT TRUCK, kipr
Fig. 3. Estimated slab ihicknesses for lift trucks (based on average truck data shown in Table 4 and conservative
design assumptions of k = 50 pci, concrete working stress = 250 psi).
els, keyways, or aggregate interlock), it is assumed that
the panel area acts as a portion of a continuous large-area
slab.
At free edges that lack adequate load transfer, concen-
trated loads will produce stresses that are somewhat
greater than those for the interior. Because of this, if lift
trucks will pass over an isolation joint (at a doorway for
instance) the slab should be thickened by 25% gradually
over a distance of 5 ft. Thickened sections (edges) restrain
horizontal movement that may cause cracking in the inte-
rior of the slab. Mechanical devices (dowels) may be pref-
erable for load transfer.
The assumption of interior load placement, combined
with the choice of an appropriate safety factor and ade-
quate concrete strength, gives a reasonable basis for floor
thickness design.
Preliminary Design
For preliminary design purposes, or when detailed design
data are not available, Fig. 3 can be used to select slab
thickness based on the rated capacity of the heaviest lift
trucks that will operate on the floor. The chart was pre-
pared for typical lift trucks from manufacturers data
shown in Table 4. It cannot be used for trucks with capac-
ity and wheel-spacing data that differ substantially from
the data in Table 4.
The combination of a low k value and a low working
stress in Fig. 3 results in a conservative slab thickness.
60 70 60 90 100 II0
I I I I 1
30 40 50
 Table 4. Lift Truck Characteristics (Composites Averaged
from Manufacturers Data)
Range of wheel spacings, in. (c to c)
Rated Load on Dual wheels
capacity,* drive axle,** Single wheels,
lb kips st Sdt st

2,000 6.4 26 to 30 - -
4,000 10.4 31 to 35 - -
6,000 14.6 32 to 38 - -
10,000 22.2 37 to 43 10 to 12tt 41 to 53j.t
15,000 32.5 37 to 45 10 to 12 47 to 60
20,000 42.0 40 to 50 12 to 14 54 to 65
30,000 63.3 - 14 57
45,000 100.6 - 18 73
60,000 132.0 - 21 70

Other data:
Load Contact Pressure
solid or cushion tires-l 80 to 250 psi
pneumatic tires-80 to 100 psi (inflation pressure)
Load Contact Area (per tire)
solid or cushion tires-3 or 4 times tire width
pneumatic tires-wheel load divided by contact pressure
Approximately 90% of total weight (truck + load) on drive axle at rated
capacity.
Maximum axle load for many lift trucks is slightly greater than twice the
rated capacity.

Load center 24 in. from fork face, mast vertical.

Varies by about 10% depending on manufacturer.
tSee insert drawings on Figs. 2 and 4.
ttValues shown are for pneumatic tires; limited data for 1 O,OOO-lb-capacity
trucks with solid or cushion tires show shorter spacings; for example, 8.5x29 in.

More accurate and more economical designs can be ob-

tained by the complete design method given in Slab irhick-
nesS Design for Industrial Concrete Floors on Grade. Use
of this publication is illustrated in the following design-
procedure examples.

Design Procedure
Vehicle Loads
Design for industrial lift-truck loads requires knowledge
of several specifics:
Maximum axle loads
Number of load repetitions
Wheel contact area
Spacing between wheels on heaviest axles
Subgrade strength
Flexural strength of concrete
Traffic and load data for past and future operating
conditions for lift trucks (Fig. 4) can be gathered from
plant maintenance departments, planning and operations
departments, and truck manufacturers data. Then the
safety factor can be selected and used to determine an
allowable working stress with which to enter the design
charts.
The safety factor (flexural strength divided by working Fig. 4. Traffic and load data are needed for design of
stress) reflects the expected frequency of loadings of the industrial concrete floors on ground.
heaviest vehicles. Safety factors in the range of 1.5 to 2.0
are suggested for industrial and commercial floors. The
high number should be used where the heavy load traffic
is frequent and channelized. Where traffic is light and not
channelized, lower safety factors of 1.5 to 1.7can be used.
The design chart for industrial trucks with single-wheel
axles, Fig. 5, was taken from Slab Thickness Design for
Industrial Concrete Floors on Grade. This chart is entered
with a calculated number for allowable working stress
per 1000 lb of axle load. The number is obtained by divid-
ing the modulus of rupture of the concrete by the safety
factor and then dividing the result by the axle load in kips.
The calculation makes it possible for one chart to cover a
wide range of load magnitudes.
For axles equipped with dual wheels, Slab Thickness
Design for Industrial Concrete Floors on Grade includes
a chart for converting a dual-wheel axle load to an equiv-
\ 1 1 I/ I/
/ - + - j SPnClNG t-+/+=
8 O-II I I I in. I I I
3
Fig. 5. Design chart for axles with single wheels.
alent single-wheel axle load. Then Fig. 5 can be used to
determine the required thickness of the slab.
The effective contact area used in the charts is the cor-
rected area of tire in contact with the slab. If tire data are
not available, the contact area can be estimated for pneu-
matic tires by dividing wheel load by inflation pressure.
For solid or cushion tires, it can be approximated by mul-
tiplying tire width by three or four. Tire data can also be
obtained from the tire manufacturers. When the tire con-
tact area is small, it must be corrected to an effective con-
tact area because slab stresses for small-load contact areas
are overestimated using conventional theory. The same
correction is used for the high-rack-storage-leg loads dis-
cussed below. The correction is made with the design
chart for axles with dual wheels in Slab Thickness Design
for Industrial Concrete Floors on Grade. (The chart is
not included in this publication.)
j/ I/ EFFECTIVE I II/l I/l0 i
I I
50 100 21 00
SUBGRADE k, pci.
Thickness Design Example-
Single-Wheel-Axle Loads
Data for Lift tick
Axle load 25 kips (single-wheel axle)
Wheel spacing 37 in.
Number of wheels 2
Tire inflation pressure 110 psi
Tire contact area:
wheel load 114 sq in. (large
inflation pressure enough, correction
not required)

Subgrade and Concrete Data

Subgrade modulus, k 100 pci
Concrete flexural strength, MR 640 psi
Design Steps
1. Safety factor, SF:
For frequent operations of forklift trucks in channel-
ized aisle traffic, select a safety factor permitting un-
limited stress repetitions-2.0.
2. Concrete working stress, WS:
ws= MRuO-
SF=-320psi

3. Slab stress per 1000 lb of axle load:

ws = % = 12.8 psi per 1000 lb
axle load, kips
4. Enter Fig. 5 at left with stress of 12.8 psi, move right
to contact area of 114 sq in., down to wheel spacing
of 37 in., then right to read a slab thickness of 7.9 in.
on the line for subgrade k of 100 pci. Use 8-in.-thick
slab.

High-Rack-Storage-Leg Loads
Advancements in mechanized, computerized material-
handling equipment generated the high-rack configura-
tion now used for product storage in many warehouses.
In these buildings, permanent racks of fixed dimensions
rise to heights up to 60 ft. When loads on the rack legs (or
posts) exceed the wheel loads of vehicles operating in the
warehouse, leg loads will control the thickness design.
For leg loads, the design objective is to keep flexural Fig. 6. Loaded legs supporting high-rack storage must
stresses in the slab within safe limits. When flexural re- have base plates of adequate size to prevent bearing or
quirements are satisfied by adequate slab thickness, pres- shear failure in the slab.
sures on the soil will not be excessive; and when a correct-
size base plate is used (Fig. 6), concrete bearing and
punching shear stresses will remain within acceptable Fig. 7, taken from Slab Thickness Designfor Industrial
limits. Concrete Floors on Grade, is used to determine slab
The design factors for high-rack-leg loads are similar thickness requirements for rack configurations and loads.
to those used for vehicle loads except that a higher safety The x- and y-leg spacings used in Fig. 7 are the smallest
factor is selected. The specific design factors are dimension in the rack configuration (except the spacing
Maximum expected load on leg between legs on opposite sides of a joint).
Effective (corrected) load contact area The procedure is similar to that for wheel loads. In the
Spacing between legs grid at the left side of the chart, locate the point corre-
Subgrade strength sponding to stress per 100~lb-leg load and effective
Flexural strength of the concrete (corrected) contact area. Move right to the y-post spac-
 6 0
IO
SUBGRAOE
60 4 0 20 IO
EFFECTIVE CONTACT AREA,
sq. i n .
Fig. 7. Design chart for leg (post) loads, subgrade k = 50 pci.
ing (length or long axis dimension of the racks); then
move up (or down) to the x-spacing and right to read the
slab thickness.
For loads on high racks, use high safety factors. High-
rack loads require conservative safety considerations
because the effects of differences in movement at the
base of the rack are magnified at the top. In addition,
if the rack layout and the slab joint layout are not co-
ordinated, it is possible that some rack legs could be
located near a joint. Unless the slab edges are intention-
ally thickened, this would result in higher floor slab
stresses than those shown in Fig. 7, which are based on
loads at the slab interior. Safety factors should be chosen
to include the possibility of rack loads being applied close
to slab edges or corners.
Since there is little available data on performance ex-
perience with rack loads on slabs, safety factors cannot
be suggested with as much confidence as for vehicle loads.
Safety factors in the range of 3.9 to 4.8 willsatisfy build-
ing code requirements when the rack leg is regarded as a
supporting column and the slab is regarded as an unrein-
forced spread footing.
A safety factor in the range of 3.0 to 4.0 can be used
6
k= 5 O p c i
with Fig. 7 to establish a tentative slab thickness based
on flexure. Shear stress and concrete bearing stress should
also be computed to determine if these values are within
safe limits.
For exceptionally heavy rack loads on plain concrete
slabs, the thickness required may be so great that alter-
nate design methods should be considered, such as:
Integral or separate footings under the leg lines
Structural reinforced slabs
Use of cement-treated subbase under the concrete slab
The economic and construction practicality of these
alternative designs should be considered along with the
effects of thickness on stresses and deflections ofthefloor.
Uniform Loads
Uniform loads are defined as loads distributed over a
large area. For most warehouse and industrial floors,
concentrated loads are the controlling design factor since
distributed loads do not usually produce flexural stresses
of the same magnitude. However, after an adequate slab
thickness has been selected to support the heaviest vehi-
ties and storage racks, as previously described, the effects
of uniform loads should also be examined.
Design for uniform (distributed) loads has two objec-
tives: (1) to prevent cracks in the aisleways or unloaded
areas due to excessive negative moment; and (2) to avoid
objectionable settlements due to consolidation of the
foundation soils.
Cracking in an unjointed aisle can be controlled by
adequate slab thickness. Slab settlement, however, can-
not be eliminated by making the slab thicker-this is a
foundation-soils-improvement problem. Normally, the
magnitude of distributed loads placed on floors with
properly prepared and compacted subgrades and sub-
bases is not sufficient to cause excessive settlement; but
for very heavy distributed loads on compressible sub-
grades, the possibility should be examined by a structural
foundation engineer.
Allowable Uniform Loads to Prevent Cracking in Aisie-
way. In an unjointed aisieway between uniform load
areas, the maximum negative bending moment may be
up to twice as great as the moment beneath the loaded
area. Hence, the thickness design should limit the resuit-
ing stresses so that a crack will not occur in the aisleway.
Allowable loads based on this consideration can be
found in Tables 5 and 6 for fixed and variable storage iay-
outs. Note that the k value of the subgrade, rather than
the k value on top of the subbase (if there is one), is used
in these tables.
Storage Layout. The magnitudes of flexurai stresses and
deflections due to distributed loads vary with slab thick-
ness and subgrade strength. They also vary with aisle
width, dimensions of the loaded area, and the existence
of joints or cracks in the aisleway. In Table 5 for fixed iay-
out, the critical aisle width and its allowable distributed
load are identified and the loads for other aisle widths are
given. Table 5 is used when the storage layout is pre-
planned and will remain unchanged (Fig. 8).
The allowable loads shown in Table 6 for a variable
storage layout represent the most critical conditions and
are suggested for practical design use when the aisle and
storage layout is unknown at planning time(Fig. 9). There
are no restrictions on where the load is placed or on the
uniformity of loading for the allowable loads in Table 6.
When there are joints in the aisleways or if cracks should
occur, the limit of load will depend on the tolerable set-
tlement of the slab.
For wheel and rack loads, increased slab thickness ef-
fectively reduces the unit pressure transmitted to the sub-
grade soil. Under uniform distributed loads, however,
soil pressure is not reduced by slab thickness, but is equal
to the uniform load on the slab plus the slab weight plus
the weight of any fill material. Therefore, when the loads
are exceptionally heavy, as in Fig. 10, the amount of set-
tlement should be estimated by methods used in founda-
tion engineering for spread footings or raft foundations.

Table 5. Allowable Distributed Loads, Unjointed Aisle

(Uniform Load, Fixed Layout)
Allowable load, psft
At other aisle widths
Slab Working Critical At critical
thickness, stress, aisle width, aisle 6-ft 8-ft 1 0-ft 12-ft 14-ft
in. psi ft" width aisle aisle aisle aisle aisle
Subgrade k=50 pci'
I 300 I 5.6 iI 610 1 615 1 670 1 615 1 1 , 0 5 0 1 1 . 2 1 5
4 I rvin I 58 II 710 I 715 I 785 I 950 I 1.225 I 1.420

i .0 II 900 I 935 I
900 I
8.0 11 1,025 1 1,070 1 1,025 1,065 1 1,175 1 1,350
9.4 II a45 I 930 855I 850 T 885 1 960
94 II
400 9.4 1,130 1.24
300 10.8 915 1.065 955 915 925 965
12 350 10.8 1,065 1.240 1,115 1,070 1,080 1,125
400 10.8 1.220 1.420 1,270 1,220 1,230 1,290
300 12.1 980 1,225 1,070 1,000 980 995
14 350 12.1 1,145 1.430 1,245 1,170 1,145 1,160
400 12.1 1,310 1.630 1,425 1,335 1,310 1,330

k of subgrade; disregard increase in k due to subbase.

Cntlcal aisle width equals 2.209 times radius of relative stiffness. Critical aisle width has maximum negative bending
moment (tenslon In top slab at aisle centerline due to loads on each side of aisle) For other aisle widths, bendmg
moments are not maxlmum
Assumed load width = 300 in.; allowable load vanes only slightly for other load widths. Allowable stress = one-half
flexural strength
tThere I S an explanation m Slab Thckness Des!gn for Industr!al Concrete Floors on Grade from which this table I S
reproduced, for what appear to be anomalous allowable loads
Table 6. Allowable Distrlbuted Loads,
Unjointed Aisle (Nonuniform
Loading, Variable Layout)

Concrete flexural strength, psi

thif$Ls, 1 "Te ~

5 100 760 830 900 965

200 1,075 1,175 1,270 1,370
50 585 640 695 750
6 100 830 905 980 1,055
200 1,175 1.280 1,390 1,495
50 680 740 800 865
8 100 960 1,045 1,135 1,220
200 1,355 1,480 1.603 1,725
50 760 830 895 965
10 100 1,070 1,170 1,265 1,365
200 1,515 1,655 1,790 1,930
50 830 905 980 I.055
12 100 1,175 1.280 1,390 1,495
200 1,660 1.810 1,965 2,115
50 895 980 1,060 1,140
14 100 1.270 1,385 1,500 1.615
Fig. 9. Variable storage area with no restrictions on where
200 1.795 1.960 2.120 2,285
load is placed or on uniformity of loading.
Reproduced from Slab Thickness for lnduslrml Concrete Floors on
Grade. Portland Cement Association publication IS1 950.

k of subgrade: disregard increase in k due to subbase.

For allowable stress equal to one-half flexural strength.
Based on aisle and load widths giving maximum stress

Fig. 10. Exceptionally heavy loads require special

consideration in slab design.

Uncommon Storage Conditions

Fig. 8. Preplanned storage area with uniform loads.
Unusual and exceptionally heavy loadings require struc-
tural analysis of the slab to determine adequate thickness.
A wide range of unusual design conditions can be fitted
into computer programs that analyze and design founda-
tion mats and combined footings as plates on elastic
foundations or programs that determine flexural stresses
in concrete pavement slabs supported by dense liquid
subgrades.
Thickness Design Summary
The foregoing is a simple and concise approach to the
thickness design of floor slabs supported directly on the
ground. It is derived from the wealth ofinformationavaii-
able in highway and airport concrete pavement design
practice. Normal design situations can be conservatively
resolved by this method. Unusual conditions can be anai-
yzed by more advanced techniques including the use of
computer programs, influence charts, and structural engi-
neering. But in most situations the method presented here
can serve as a guideline that has been proved through
practice and the measured observation of results in actual
floors.
allow them to move independently without damage. Iso-
lation joints permit horizontal and vertical movement
between the abutting faces of the floor slab and other
parts of the building because there is no keyway, bond, or
mechanical connection across the joint (Fig. I I).
Columns on separate footings are isolated from the
floor slab either with a circular- or square-shape isoia-
tion joint. The square shape should be rotated to align its
comers with control and construction joints, as shown in
Fig. 12.
Where traffic will cross isolation joints, provision
should be made for adequate load transfer.

JOINTING PRACTICE
Good jointing practice is one way of ensuring crack-free
floors. Most cracks in concrete floors are the result of
three actions: volumetric change due principally to dry-
ing shrinkage, direct stress due to applied loads, and flex-
urai stress due to bending. Cracks can be the net result EXPANSION JOINT MATERIAL
of ail three. Cracks will appear at any time and any place
where the stress within the concrete to pull it apart ex- Fig. 11. Isolation joints are used between the floor slab
ceeds the strength of the concrete to hold itself together. and fixed parts of building such as walls, columns, and
The magnitude of drying shrinkage inconcrete isaffect- machinery bases.
ed by the water content of the mix. More coarse aggregate
and less water mean less shrinkage (thus, less cracking) in
the concrete. Type of cement and cement content have
very little effect on drying shrinkage. The use of an accei-
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
erator admixture containing calcium chloride can in-
crease drying shrinkage significantly. The rate of drying
is influenced by thickness of the slab, humidity and tem-
perature of the surrounding air, and duration of expo- ISOLATION JOINT
sure. Drying shrinkage is an unavoidable, inherent prop-
erty of concrete, so the possibility of cracking exists. Con-
trol measures are taken to induce concrete to crack in pre- CONTROL JOINT
dictable, straight lines by proper jointing.

Kinds of Joints
Building use dictates the joint design and spacing for a
concrete floor on ground. The designer is always con-
fronted with the need to eliminate random cracking, so
crack control is an important aspect of floor perform-
ance to be included in the floor design. Three kinds of
joints are used:
1. Isolation joints (also called expansion joints)-to
allow movement between the floor and other fixed
parts of the building such as columns, wails, and
machinery bases
2. Control joints (also called contraction joints)-to
induce cracking at preselected locations
3. Construction joints-to provide stopping places
during construction
Isolation Joints
Isolation joints are placed wherever complete separation
between the floor and adjoining concrete is needed to
Fig. 12. Isolation joints around columns are circular or
square shaped.
Control Joints
Control joints act to relieve stress and with proper spac-
ing they eliminate the cause of uncontrolled random
cracking. They allow horizontal movement of the slab.
Control joints in industrial and commercial floors are
usually cut with a saw. They should be constructed to a
depth of generally one-fourth the slab thickness. In thick
slabs a crack inducer anchored to the subgrade immedi-
ately below the joint can be added to reduce the section.
The objective is to form a plane of weakness in the slab
so that the crack will occur along that line and nowhere
else, as shown in Fig. 13. Load transfer across a control
joint is provided by the interlocking of the jagged face
 formed at the crack. With long joint spacings or heavily
loaded slabs, dowel bars (coated to prevent bond with the
concrete) are used as load transfer devices. Dowel sizes
and spacings are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Dowel and Tiebar Sizes

and Spacings
- INDUCED CRACK Dowels

SAWED CONTROL JOINT Slab Total

depth, Diameter, length, Spacing,
, PREMOLDED JOINT MATERIAL in. in. in. in. c to c
5 56 12 12
6 # 14 12
7 7% 14 12
6 1 14 12
9 1% 16 12
10 1% 16 12
Tiebars

TONGUE AND GROOVE CONTROL JOINT

1
SAWCUT OR PREMOLDED
INSERT, ALIGN WITH CRACK
CRACK INDUCER , IYDUCER ON SUBGRADE

A+B=1/4DMIN
CONTROL JOINT IN THICK FLOOR SLABS
r PLASTIC OR HARDBOARD
1 PREFORMED STRIP
Construction Joints
Construction joints usually form the edges of each days
work. They are located to conform to the floor jointing
pattern and detailed and constructed to function as and
align with control joints or isolation joints.
Where there is no control or isolation joint, a butt-type
construction joint is satisfactory for thin floors, as shown
in Fig. 14. For thicker, more heavily loaded floors, a
tongue-and-groove joint is used or dowels are added to
the butt joint. Whenever continuous concrete placement
will be interrupted for 30 minutes or more, a bonded con-
struction joint should be inserted to avoid the formation
of a cold joint. A bonded construction joint in a plain slab
is a butt-type construction joint with tiebars as shown in
Fig. 14. Tiebar sizes and spacings are shown in Table 7.
Any reinforcement in the slab is conti,vuous through the
bonded construction joint.

Filling Joints
PREMOLDED INSERT CONTROL JOINT
The movement at control joints in a floor is generally very
SMOOTH DOWEL BAR COATED small. For some industrial and commercial uses, these
TO PREVENT BOND T , joints can be left unfilled. Where there are wet conditions,
hygienic and dustcontrol requirements, or considerable
traffic by small, hard-wheeled vehicles such as forklifts,
joint filling is necessary.
In many places, a resilient material such as an elasto-
meric sealant is satisfactory, but to provide support to
the edges and prevent spalling at the joints, a good quality
rigid or semirigid filler with a durometer Shore A-scale
hardness number of approximately 80 should be used.*
CONTROL JOINT WITH DOWELS

Fig. 13. Varieties of control joints. *ASTM Designation: 02240 and D676.
 EDGE EACH SIDE EDGE EACH SIDE SMOOTH DOWEL BAR
WITH I 18 IN. RADIUS 7 / PREVENT BOND WITH 118 IN. RADIUS 1 ,COATED TO PREVENT BOND

PREVENT BOND
BUTT-TYPE CONSTRUCTION JOINT BUTT-TYPE CONSTRUCTION
JOINT WITH DOWELS

EDGE EACH SIDE EDGE EACH SIDE

WITH 118 IN. RADIUS PREVENT BOND

D
D

TONGUE AND GROOVE BUTT-TYPE CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION JOINT JOINT WITH TIE BARS
(NOT A CONTROL JOINT)

Fig. 14. Varieties of construction jolnts.

The A scale is used for measuring the indentation hard-

ness of rubber, soft plastics, and other elastomers. A
hardness number of 80 would be considered as medium
hard. A rubber automobile tire has a hardness of approx-
imately 65. The D scale is designed to measure the hard-
ness of plastics and other semihard or hard materials.
AC1 302, paragraph 4.10, requires a D-hardness number
of 50.
Extruded-lead strips embedded in control joints give
support to the edges and thereby reduce spalling. Lead
strips, where permitted, are highly successful for heavy-
duty concrete floors where trucking is severe, especially 80
of the steel-wheel type.
Isolation and expansion joints are intended to accom-
modate movement, thus a flexible, elastomeric sealant
should be used.

.Joint Layout
A joint layout is illustrated in Fig. 15. Isolation joints are
provided around the perimeter of the floor where itabuts
the walls and around all fixed elements that restrain
movement of the slab in a horizontal plane. This includes
columns and machinery bases that pierce the floor slab.
With the slab isolated from other building elements, the
remaining task is to locate and correctly space control
joints to eliminate random cracking. Construction joints Fig. 15. Typical joint layout for concrete floor on ground
can be located by the floor contractor to accommodate with no reinforcement.
work schedules with the restriction that they coincide (in inches) for concrete made with less than 3%~in.-top-
with the control-joint pattern. Pipe trenches under slabs size coarse aggregate or 21%slab thicknesses for concrete
on ground (Fig. 16) require control joints placed directly containing greater than 3%-in. coarse aggregate. For low-
above each side of the trench. slump concrete, less than 4-in. slump, 3 slab thicknesses
are suitable. Suggested joint spacings are given in Table 8.
CONTROL JOINT

Load Transfer Across Joints

Fig. 16. Pipe trench jointing.
Spacing of Joints
Maximum spacing between joints depends primarily on
Slab thickness
Shrinkage potential of the concrete
Subgrade friction
Curing environment
Absence or presence of distributed reinforcement
Slabs made of high-slump concrete improperly cured
in a dry environment, with or without reinforcement, will
shrink excessively and crack extensively. Slabs made of
low-slump concrete properly cured in a moist environ-
ment, with or without reinforcement, will have minimum
shrinkage and few cracks. Jobsite practices are some-
where between these extremes. Local practice and mate-
rials may give satisfactory control of cracking at joint
spacings greater than shown in Table 8. Joint spacing to
eliminate cracking within the panel is not the same as
joint spacing to limit width of the opening at the joint.
The most economical floor construction is a plain (no
reinforcement) concrete slab with short joint spacing sup-
ported by a uniform subgrade. A rule of thumb for plain
slabs constructed with 4- to 6-in.-slump concrete is that
joint spacing (in feet) should not exceed 2 slab thicknesses
The passage of heavy loads on vehicles with small, hard
wheels over improperly made joints in a warehouse floor
can lead to spalling of joint edges and progressive deteri-
oration of the concrete. The building owner will be faced
with the prospect of expensive repairs that could have
been avoided had more attention been given to joint fill-
ing and to the factors that influence load transfer atjoints.
Load transfer across joints in concrete pavements has
been investigated in the laboratories of the Portland Ce-
ment Association (Fig. 17).* Following are summarized
observations from the investigation that are applicable
to industrial floors on ground.
Aggregate Interlock
Load transfer across control joints in slabs on-ground
takes place through the shear developed by interlocking
aggregate particles, provided there are no dowel bars or
reinforcing steel running through the joints. The effec-
tiveness of load transfer depends on
Joint opening
Slab thickness
Subgrade support
Load magnitude and number of repetitions
Aggregate angularity

Table 8. Suggested Spacing of Control Joints

Slab Less than Larger than Slump
thickness, %-in. aggregate: %-in. aggregate: less than 4 in.:
in. spacing, ft spacing, ft spacing, ft
5 10 13 15 Fig. 17. Laboratory testing device developed to apply
6 12 15 18
repetitive loads of known magnitude in a manner closely
7 14 18 21
8 16 20 24
simulating the action of wheel loads passing over a joint.
9 18 23 27
10 20 25 30

Note Gwen spacings also apply lo the distance from control founts to parallel
lsolatlon founts or to parallel constructlon joints Refer to text for other factors that *B. E. Colley and H. A. Humphrey, Aggregate Inrerlock ar Joints in
may call for different spacmg Spawigs greater than 15 11 show a marked loss In Concrete Pavemenrs. Research Department Bulletin DXl24, Portland
effectweness of aggregate Interlock to prowde load transfer across the lolnt Cement Association, 1967.
 Control joints are constructed in slabs on ground to
relieve tensile stresses caused by drying shrinkage. When
properly spaced, they control the location and direction
of cracks. At the plane of weakness produced by the joint,
restrained shrinkage forces are relieved by the crack that
forms below the saw cut (Fig. 18).
Load transfer across the crack is developed either by
the interlocking action of the aggregate particles at the
fractured faces of the crack (aggregate interlock) or by a
combination of aggregate interlock and mechanical de-
vices such as dowel bars. When load transfer is effective,
the stresses and deflections in the slab near the joint are
low and forklift and industrial trucks move smoothly
across the joint without damaging it.
Fig. 18. Irregular faces of crack that forms below sawed
control joint provide adequate aggregate interlock for
load transfer when short joint spacings are used.
Load Transfer Effectiveness
Joint effectiveness is measured as a percentage of the
ability of the joint to transfer load from the loaded slab
to the unloaded slab. If load transfer at a joint were per-
fect, the deflections of the loaded and unloaded slabs
would be equal and the effectiveness would be 100% If,
however, there was no load transfer at a joint, only the
loaded slab would deflect and the effectiveness would be
zero.
influence of Joint Opening
The opening of a control joint depends primarily on the
environment and on the spacing between joints. Load
transfer effectiveness was determined in the PCA labora-
tory for joint openings ranging from 0.015 to 0.085 in.
Effectiveness decreased as the joint opening became
wider. An opening of 0.035 in. or less showed good load
transfer effectiveness and endurance. Larger joint open-
ings were less effective at transferring load. Joint open-
ings of 0.025 in. were almost 100% effective.
Concrete in service exhibits less drying shrinkage than
laboratory test prisms. Therefore, a reduced shrinkage
coefficient can be used to calculate joint spacings that will
limit the width of joint openings. For example, if the re-
duced coefficient is 275 millionths, control joints at 10.5
ft will limit joint openings to 0.035 in. and 7.5 ft will limit
openings to 0.025 in. Use a short spacing between joints
to limit opening width.
influence of Slab Thickness
Investigation of the effect of slab thickness on load trans-
fer demonstrated that a thick slab with wider joint open-
ings can be equally as effective as a thin slab with narrow
openings. For an effectiveness of 60%, the openings in
joints of 7- and 9-in.-thick slabs were 0.025 and 0.035 in.,
respectively.
influence of Subgrade Support
While it is true that concrete floors on ground do not
necessarily require strong support from the subgrade to
successfully carry design loads, strong support from the
subgrade (as measured by k value) will increase joint ef-
fectiveness. Silts and clays have low support values, that
is, k = 50 to 100 pci, and hasten the loss of aggregate inter-
lock effectiveness afteronlya few repetitive loading cycles.
Sandy soils with midrange support values of k = 200 pci
can keep joint effectiveness at an acceptable percentage
limit of 50% through one million load cycles. Sand-gravel
and cement-treated subbases with high support values, k
= 300 pci and higher, keep aggregate interlock effective-
ness at high percentages through one million load cycles.
influence of Load Magnitude
Light loads of 5000 lb or less usually cause little or no
joint deterioration and probably do not need to be con-
sidered. Significant differences in aggregate interlock
effectiveness, however, develop under repetitive heavy
loads. Effectiveness decreases as the magnitude of load
increases. Joints that successfully provide load transfer
for one load condition may break down under a new,
heavier load condition.
influence of Aggregate Shape
Aggregate interlock is more effective in load transfer
when the aggregate is crushed gravel or crushed stone
rather than natural gravel. The higher effectiveness is
attributed to the angularity of the coarse crushed aggre-
gate particles.
How to improve Load Transfer Across Joints
The ability of a joint to effectively transfer repetitious
loading will be improved by
Keeping a small joint opening, 0.035 in.
Increasing the slab thickness
Strengthening the subgrade support
Using an angular coarse aggregate
Using dowel bars
Doweled Control Joints
In most industrial and commercial floors on ground, two
mechanisms are used to help transfer moving loads across
joints: keyways and dowels.
A keyed joint is made by attaching a beveled strip of
wood, or a preformed key, to the bulkhead against which
the slab is cast. The depression left in the edge of the slab
after the bulkhead is stripped is coated with bondbreaker
and then filled with concrete when the next slab is placed,
thus, in theory, keying the slabs together. But in practice
a keyed joint does not always remain tight. As the floor
slabs shorten due to drying shrinkage, the key loses con-
tact with its matching recess. Then as loads roll over the
joint, the slab edges deflect. This loss of load transfer is
an inherent weakness of keyed joints, especially in heavily
loaded floors.
The other method of load transfer-steel dowels-
seems to work better. The dowels continue to distribute
the load after the slabs shrink and pull apart. As noted
previously, control joints that open wider than 0.035 in.
are less than 100% effective at transferring wheel loads
across the joints in a concrete floor. However, dowels can
be used to supplement the load transfer produced by ag-
gregate interlock.
Placed at middepth in the slab, dowels resist shear as
loads cross the joint and thus help to reduce deflections
and stresses at the joint. Dowels should be smooth round
steel bars conforming to ASTM A615. Recommended
dowel dimensions and spacing are in Table 7.
Dowels should be free to move longitudinally in their
slots to accommodate joint movements due to expansion
or contraction of the concrete slab. Accordingly, before
delivery to the jobsite, at least one-half of each dowel bar
should be coated with a bondbreaking substance such as
one coat of lead or tar paint. If this is not done, lubricants
must be applied in the field to reduce friction. Plastic
dowel sleeves may be used instead of coating.
Dowels in Relnforced Slabs
In floor slabs reinforced with distributed steel for crack
control, the control joints are usually spaced too far
INTERMEDIATE
CRACKS
, cracks that develop as a result of subgrade restraint to
SAW M TO /!a IN.
WIDE, D/4 DEEP
1
FILL JOINT WITH SEALANT HAVING MINIMUM
SHORE A HARDNESS OF 80 (ASTM 02240)
Fig. 19. Reinforced (mesh-dowel design) floor slab.
apart-more than 15 ft- to gain much benefit from ag-
gregate interlock. Load transfer at these joints can be
enhanced by using dowels (see Fig. 19).
The integrity and serviceability of intermediate ran-
dom cracks that may occur between control joints is en-
sured by the distributed steel in reinforced slabs. But the
distributed steel must be properly sized, located 2 in.
below the slab surface, and discontinued at all control
joints in order to keep intermediate cracks tightly closed
and ensure aggregate interlock for effective load transfer
at the cracks.
Since dowels are designed to slip, permitting slab move-
ment at the joints, they must be accurately aligned parallel
to the floor surface and the centerline of the slab.
REINFORCEMENT FOR
FLOORS ON GROUND
Is reinforcement necessary?
. WITH UNIFORM SUPPORT AND SHORT
NO JOINT SPACING
. WHEN LONG JOINT SPACING IS
YES REQUIRED
l WHEN JOINTS ARE UNACCEPTABLE IN
FLOOR USE
When a long joint spacing is selected to minimize the
number of joints (shrinkage cracks may occur within the
panel) or when joints are unacceptable in floor use, then
distributed-steel reinforcement is placed in the slab.
The primary purpose of reinforcement in a slab on
grade is to hold tightly closed any cracks that may occur
between the joints so that aggregate interlock can func-
tion. It does not prevent cracking nor does it increase sig-
nificantly the load-carrying capacity of the floor. Since
critical flexural stresses occur in the top as well as the bot-
tom of concrete floors, the steel would have to be placed
in two layers to resist the stresses. To illustrate, if the rela-
tively small amount of reinforcement normally used in
floor slabs could be placed near both the top and bottom
of the slab, in a 6-in. slab the load-carryingcapacity would
be increased by approximately 3%.
The amount of steel reinforcement needed can be de-
termined by the traditional subgradedrag method as in
pavement design. This method provides sufficient steel
area to resist the tensile stress carried by the steel across
slab movement. The formula to determine the amount of
steel per linear foot is
/, - FLw
I ?C
in which
A, = cross-sectional area of steel, in square inches per
linear foot of slab.
F = coefficient of subgrade friction. (Designers use
1.5 or 2.0 for pavements; 1.5 is recommended for
concrete floors on ground.)
 L = s!ab length (or width if appropriate) between free
ends, in feet. (A free end is any joint free to move
in a horizontal plane.)
w = weight.of slab, in pounds per square foot. (For
regular weight concrete, designers use 12.5
pounds per inch of floor thickness.)
fs = allowable working stress of reinforcement, in
pounds per square inch. (The working stress of
steel is usually 0.67 or 0.75 times the yield strength
of the steel in pounds per square inch.)
The values shown in Fig. 20 were calculated by the sub-
grade-drag method. A value of 0.75 of the yield strength
was used because the consequences of a reinforcement
failure are much less important than in normal reinforced
concrete structural work.
Welded wire fabric
or
Steel bar mat
with yield strength
of reinforcement
exceeding 60,000 PSI
A, , SQ IN./FT when f, = 45,OOOPSI
0.18
0.16
006
0.04
0.02
01
20 30 40 50 60 70
DISTANCE IN FEET BETWEEN FREE ENDS
Fig. 20. Selection chart for distributed steel.
UNJOINTED FLOORS
An unjointed floor can be constructed when joints are
unacceptable. Three methods are suggested:
1. A prestressed floor can be built through use of post-
tensioning, a method in which steel strandsarepulled
taut after the concrete hardens to put a compressive
stress in the concrete. This will counteract the devel-
opment of tensile stresses and provide a crack-free
surface. Large areas, 10,000 sq ft and more, can be
constructed in this manner without joints.
2. Concrete made, with expansive cement can be used
to offset the amount of drying shrinkage to be antici-
pated after curing. Control joints are not needed
when construction joints are used at intervals of 40
to 120 ft. Large areas, to 20,000 sq ft, have been cast
in this manner without joints.
3. Large areas can be cast without control joints when
the amount of distributed steel is about one-half of
1% of the cross-sectional area of the slab. Special
effort should also be made to reduce subgrade fric-
tion in floors without control joints.
CONSTRUCTION
Workmanship
All parties-owner, designer, contractor-must agree
prior to bidding on the level of quality or class of work-
manship that will be necessary for the floorjob they want.
A good concrete floor on ground is the result of sensible
planning, careful design and detailing, complete specifi-
cations, proper inspection, good workmanship, and the
good intentions of each person sharing responsibility for
the end result.
Subgrades
Good construction begins with a well-prepared subgrade.
Many floor problems can be traced to poor subgrade
preparation. A poorly compacted and prepared subgrade
ranks high as a cause of settlement cracking and failure
to carry the applied loads.
The subgrade should be uniform, firm, and free from
all sod, grass, humus, and other rich organic matter as
these materials will not compact to give good support to
the floor. Subgrade support should be reasonably uni-
form with no abrupt changes from hard to soft spots with-
in the floor area. To construct a reasonably uniform sub-
grade, special care must be taken to ensure that there is
control of the three major causes of nonuniform support:
(1) expansive soils, (2) hard spots and soft spots, and (3)
backfilling.
The subgrade must be brought to within required toler-
ances at the specified grade and level. The use of laser
alignment tools to control grading operations will make
the surface as level as possible; or a scratch templet can
be used to reveal high and low spots. Occasionally a chok-
er fill should be added to bind the surface before final
compaction with a vibratory roller, heavy-plate vibrator,
or a tandem roller. A reasonably accurate, level subgrade
will ensure that the correct thickness of concrete is placed.
If the surface is too uneven, concrete will be wasted and
the potential for random cracking will be increased. The
subgrade should be moist when concrete placement be-
gins (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21. Subgrade must be moist when concrete is placed.
Expansive Soils
Excessive differential shrinkage and swelling of expan-
sive soils causes heaving in the subgrade and creates non-
uniform support. As a result, the floor slab may become
distorted and crack. Compaction of highly expansive soil
when it is too dry can lead to detrimental expansion and
softening of the subgrade as it takes on moisture with
time. If an expansive-soil subgrade is too wet when the
slab is cast, subsequent drying and shrinkage of the soil
can cause settlement and leave the slabedges unsupported
and likely to crack under appiied loads.
Selective grading, crosshauling, and mixing of sub-
grade, soils make it possible to obtain uniform conditions
in the upper part of the subgrade. Compaction at 1% to
3% above standard optimum moisture* minimizes sub-
grade weakening due to changes in moisture content and
gives it relatively uniform stability. Placement of a dense-
ly graded blanketing layer (subbase or cushion) on the
subgrade will minimize changes in the moisture content
of the subgrade and provide a stable working platform
for floor construction.
Hard Spots and Soft Spots
To prevent bending and cracking of the slab from sub-
grade settlement or riding on hard spotsand bridging over
soft pockets, special care must be taken to dig out hard
and soft spots and backfill them with soils similar to those
in the surrounding area. The moisture content and den-
sity of the replacement soil should be as similar as pos-
sible to the adjacent soils. At the edges of the area, the re-
placement soil should be intermixed with in-place soil to
form a gradual transition zone.
Backfilling
Backfilling at footings, foundations, and utility trenches
should consist of soils like those surrounding the trench
and should be compacted or consolidated in moderate
layers. Every attempt should be made to restore as much
as possible the original uniformity of the subgrade.
Subbase or Cushion
A satisfactory floor on ground can be built without a sub-
base, but a subbase is frequently used as a leveling course
for fine grading and a cushion that will equalize minor
surface irregularities and contribute to uniform support.
It also serves as a capillary break between the floor slab
and a subgrade that is water soaked most of the time.
Where a subbase is used, the floor contractor should
place a 4-in.-thick layer of material. The subbase should
*ASTM Designation: D698
be fine-graded and compacted to maximum density im-
mediately before placing concrete. Unless the subbase is
well compacted, it is better to leave the subgrade uncov-
ered and undisturbed. Subgrades and subbases can be
compacted with small portable vibrators and rollers.
Hand tampers can be used in confined places. On large
floor projects, compaction equipment similar to that used
in highway or airport construction can be used.
Vapor Barrier
Many of the moisture problems associated with floors on
ground can be minimized or eliminated by proper prelim-
inary grading, correct selection of fill or subbase mate-
rials, and installation of a vapor barrier.
A vaporproof barrier should be placed under all con-
crete floors on ground that are likely to receive an imper-
meable floor finish or used for any purpose where the
passage of water vapor through the floor is undesirable.
Good quality, well-consolidated concrete at least 4 in.
thick is impermeable to the passage of liquid water from
the ground unless the water is under considerable pres-
sure; but concrete several times that thick is not imper-
meable to the slow passage of water vapor.
Water vapor normally passes through the concrete and
evaporates at the top surface if it is not sealed. Floor cov-
erings such as linoleum, felt- or fabric-backed composi-
tions, cork tile, carpet, wood, and synthetic surfacing
effectively seal the moisture within the slab where it even-
tually may cause problems with the covering. When fur-
niture, boxes, pallets, and other objects are placed on a
floor lacking a vapor barrier, moisture can condense be-
neath them, causing dampness and mildew.
Vapor-barrier materials with a permeance of less than
0.30 perms are suitable for floor-on-ground construction.
Acceptable materials are available in preformed sheets
or mastics that will resist deterioration and punctures
from subsequent construction operations.
Vapor-barrier material placed directly under the slab
also functions as a slipsheet to reduce subgrade drag fric-
tion, permitting freer slab movement and reducingcrack-
ing in the slab. It will prevent the loss of mixing water
down into the subgrade and, therefore, requires a com-
pensating adjustment in the mix design.
A vapor barrier may contribute to the slabs upward
warping (curling). A layer of sand below the slab will al-
low some moisture loss at the bottom of the slab. When a
vapor barrier is used, a 3-in-thick layer of sand should
be placed over the vapor barrier to prevent or minimize
warping. The sand layer also protects the vapor barrier
from puncture during construction operations.
Insulation Under Slabs
Placing insulation under slabs on ground to conserve
energy cannot be justified. Tests by the National Bureau
of Standards* proved the temperature of the slab aver-
ages only 5O F to 6 F below room temperature to within
24 in. of an outside wall. In cold climates, therefore, in-
sulation is needed only at the perimeters of the slab. This
practice is recommended by Model Code for EnergyCon-
servation** and other major codes and standards.
Slab thickness Tolerances
Acceptable thickness tolerances for slab-on-ground con-
struction as stated in AC1 117, Standard Tolerances for
Concrete Construction and Materials (Section 2.1.5), are
+3/8 in. and --i/4 in. for slabs with cross sections up to 12 in.
thick and +A in. and -% in. for slabs of more than 12-in.
thickness.
Finishing Concrete Floors
Finishing concrete floors never should be done by inex-
perienced, unskilled workers. Finishing is a critical task
that for best results requires the work of skilled cement
masons. Two stages are usually required in producing a
finished surface: (1) placing, compaction, and truing (to
a rather rough surface) of the struck-off or screeded sur-
face by the use of a hand or power-driven float; and (2)
the final compaction and smoothing (to a tine texture)
by steel-troweling with a hand or power-driven trowel.
If a coarse texture is desired, the steel-troweling may be
omitted. A very fine grained (nonslip) swirl finish can be
attained by light troweling; a very smooth hard finish is
the result of repeated troweling.
There are three basic finishes for a concrete slab sur-
face: screeded, floated, and troweled.
A screeded finish is the result obtained when the sur-
plus concrete is removed immediately after consolidation
by striking off with a straightedge or templet across edge
forms or screeds set as guides. There are instances in
building where a screeded finish is all that is needed.
A floated finish is normal for outdoor slab surfaces.
Floating follows screeding and should not be done until
some stiffening has taken place and the water sheen has
disappeared. Floating should work the concrete no more
than necessary to produce a surface that is level, uniform
in texture, and free of foot and screed marks. If a troweled
or broomed finish is to be applied, floating should leave
a small amount of mortar, without excess water, on the
surface to permit effective troweling or brooming.
A troweled finish is used on inside floor slabs. Trowel-
ing should not be done until after the moisture film and
sheen have disappeared from the floated surface and the
concrete has hardened enough to prevent an excess of fine
material and water from being worked to the surface.
Steel-troweling is performed with a firm pressure that
will close the open, sandy surface left by floating into a
hard, dense, uniform surface free of blemishes, ripples,
and trowel marks.
A hard steel-troweled (burnished) finish is a special Iin-
ish that provides added resistance to abrasion and wear.
After the first troweling the surface is troweled again (and
*BMS Report 103, 1945.
**U.S. Department of Energy, December 1977.
 again) until it has a somewhat polished (glossy) look.
A fine-textured, swirl finish that is not slick can be ob-
tained by retroweling the surface with the trowel held flat
and moved in a circular motion immediately after the
first regular troweling.
A steel-troweled floor has increased strength near the
surface and therefore greater wear resistance. Steel trow-
eling helps the cosmetic appearance and provides a sur-
face that is easier to clean.
Industrial and commercial floor slabs should have a
troweled finish. There are no compelling reasons to trow-
el finish an outdoor slab. If a light broom finish is wanted,
broom the surface after troweling it. If a rough broom
finish is desired, rough broom over a floated finish.
Concreting Procedures
Floors cast under the protective cover of a tight roof with
the building sidewalls in place are apt to be better con-
structed than floors cast out of doors. Outside work can
be adversely affected by the weather (sun, heat, cold,
wind, and rain) and have a greater risk of future problems
such as cracking, crazing, curling, and surface dusting.
The semimanual methods recommended here for plac-
ing, consolidating, and finishing concrete floors require
the use of mechanical equipment for striking off, com-
pacting, and finishing.
Edge Forms
The surface-finish tolerance of the floor slab depends on
careful setting of the edge forms and temporary inter-
mediate screed guides with the use of a leveling device.
Edge forms and screed guides must be supported firmly
by wood or steel stakes driven solidly into the ground to
prevent any movement during mechanical strikeoff and
consolidation. Loose edge forms cause uneven floors.
Temporary screed guides that are not positively posi-
tioned can be displaced, causing uneven floors. All forms
should be straight, free from warping, and of sufficient
strength to resist concrete pressure without bulging. Edge
forms should be full slab depth and continuously sup-
ported on the compacted subgrade or subbase; for this
reason steel road-type forms are preferred. Vibratory
strikeoff and compaction equipment slides easily on a
steel surface. A form release agent must be applied to the
forms before concreting for easier form removal.
When a continuous vapor barrier is required under the
floor slab, special care is needed to place the barrier sheet
correctly under the edge forms before the pins are driven.
Positioning Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcing bars or welded-wire fabric (wire mesh) are
used in floor slabs for crack control. In order for rein-
forcing bars or mesh to bond properly with the concrete,
they should be free of mud, oil, or other coatings that
would adversely affect the bonding capacity. The rein-
forcement should be placed at or above the center of the
slab-2 in. below the surface is suggested-and if it is to
function properly for crack control, some failproof way
must be used to hold it in that position. Reinforcement
can be supported on chairs, slab bolsters, or small con-
crete bricks and blocks. Support accessories for wire
mesh must be more closely spaced than for reinforcing
bars. The practice of laying the mesh on the subbase or
subgrade before concrete is placed and hooking it up into
position after concrete has been placed is not recommend-
ed because this gives no assurance that the mesh will stay
in the concrete in straight lengths or on a true plane at the
correct distance below the surface.
Flat-sheet mesh can be placed by the sandwich method
in two-course work. This involves first placing a layer of
concrete struck off 2 in. below the finished grade. The
mesh is laid on this layer and then the top 2-in. layer of
concrete is placed. Work must be completed quickly so
that the top layer is placed while the bottom is still plastic.
Flat-sheet fabric can be depressed into the slab by what
is termed walking in. The concrete is placed full depth
and struck off. The flat sheet is then placed on the surface
and the finishing crew carefully walks on it, forcing it into
the concrete. Accurate positioning of the steel fabric is
difficult with this method.
Wherever dowels or tiebars are placed in joints, they
must be accurately aligned and spaced and held parallel
to the surface during concreting.
Placing and Spreading
Rutted or marred subgrade or subbase surfaces must be
regraded and recompacted before placing concrete. There
are several ways to place fresh concrete where it is needed,
including directly from a truck mixers chute, by buggy
on wooden ramps, by crane with bucket, by conveyor
belt, or by pump.* Concrete should be placed continu-
ously as closely as possible to its final position and slightly
above the top of the edge forms or screed guides. It is then
spread with shovels, special concrete rakes, or come-
alongs. Air is trapped in the concrete during mixing and
placing, and this air must be removed by consolidation.
Striking Off and Consolidating
Concrete is brought to its initial level and surface by the
first operations of strikeoff, consolidation, and darbying
or bullfloating. Striking off is best done with mechanical
equipment riding on the side forms (Figs. 22,23, and 24).
Where surface tolerance is important, the strikeoff lane
width should be limited to 20 to 24 ft. The limited width
makes it possible to bullfloat and use a crossrod or
straightedge more accurately.
Surface vibration is recommended for slabs of up to 8-
in. thickness. When floors contain heavy reinforcement
and conduit or when they are thicker, internal spud vibra-
tors must also be used, or the slab should be placed in
layers while the concrete remains plastic. When a thick
slab has been compacted by internal vibrators, final com-
paction of the surface should be done with a beam- or
*See Transporring and Handling Concrete, Portland Cement Asso-
ciation publication IS178T. 1974.
Fig. 22. Strikeoff can be done with a double-beam
vibratory screed.
Fig. 23. A roller screed can be used to strike off and level
the concrete.
truss-type surface vibrator. The initial strikeoff and con-
solidation of the concrete will have a greater effect on sur-
face tolerances and levels than subsequent operations of
floating and finishing. The secret of proper strikeoff and
compaction is to maintain an adequate surcharge of con-
crete at the screed face; a Gin.-thick slab needs a surcharge
of about 1 in.
Strikeoff and consolidation must be completed before
any excess water bleeds to the surface. If power-driven
equipment is used properly to strike off low-slump con-
Fig. 24. After strikeoff with vibratory equipment, the
surface may be ready for finishing without darbying or
bullfloating.
Crete, the surface will be ready for edging and finishing
with power floats and trowels with very little handwork
necessary.
Leveling
Bullfloating to bring the surface to the specified level
(Fig. 25) should immediately follow screeding and must
be completed before any bleed water is present on the sur-
face. Any finishing operation performed while there is
excess moisture or bleed water on the surface can cause
surface defects. This is the basic rule of concrete finishing
and it cannot be overemphasized. One of the purposes of
the bullfloat is to eliminate ridges and fill in surface voids
left by striking off and consolidating. In addition, it
should slightly embed the coarse aggregate. This prepares
the surface for subsequent edging, floating, jointing, and
troweling.
Darbying is done for the same reason as bullfloating,
that is, to correct small irregularities and smooth out
ridges left by striking off (Fig. 26). Because of its long
handle, the bullfloat is easy to use on a large area, but the
length of the handle detracts from the leverage, so that
close tolerances are difficult to achieve. The bullfloat may
slightly depress the surface near an edge form and a darby
must then be used to relevel the surface.
Where close tolerancesare required, a scraping straight-
edge can be used to advantage. Minor surface irregulari-
ties and excess laitance are removed by scraping with a
IO-ft straightedge (Fig. 27). It should be used with a
smooth, continuous action to float the surface; a jerky,
cutting action is used only for removing high spots. Each
pass should overlap one-half the length of the previous
pass. Surface smoothness should be checked as late in the
finishing operations as possible but while the concrete is
Fig. 25. Bullfloating corrects small irregularities and
smooths out ridges.
Fig. 26. Darbying brings the surface to the specified level.
still plastic enough to permit surface corrections. Testing
is done by lifting and lowering a checking straightedge in
successive positions.
A slight stiffening of the concrete is necessary before
proceeding with finishing operations. Depending on job
conditions, it is usually necessary to wait for a time. No
operation should follow until the concrete will sustain
foot pressure with only about /4-m. indentation (Fig. 28).
Edging
Edging may be required along isolation and construction
joints. The purpose is to densify the concrete at the edge
of the slab, making it more durable and less vulnerable to
spalling and chipping. Edging should be done when all
Fig. 27. A scraping straightedge removes minor surface
irregularities and excess laitance.
Fig. 26. Floating is begun when the water sheen has
disappeared and the weight of a person leaves only a
slight indentation on the concrete surface.
bleed water has left or been removed from the surface.
Before running the edger, the concrete should be cut away
from the forms with a pointed masons trowel or margin
trowel (Fig. 29). An alternative to using an edging tool
at construction joints is to lightly grind the edges with a
silicon carbide stone after the forms are stripped and be-
fore the adjacent slab is placed.
 when the concrete will support the weight of a person
(leaving a footprint with only a slight indentation on the
surface), and when mortar is not thrown by the rotating
blades, the concrete is ready to be floated (Fig. 28). Float-
ing should start along walls and around columns and then
move systematically across the surface, leaving a matte
finish.
Marks left by the edger should be removed by floating.
During the interval between power-floating and the first
power-troweling, a steel hand trowel should be used along
the edges to give an improved surface and keep the con-
crete level with the side forms.

Jointing
While the edging is being done, or immediately after, the
control joints should be made unless they are to be sawed.
Jointing is a most important finishing step since proper
jointing can eliminate unsightly random cracks.
a Control joints can be made with a hand groover, a pre-
formed insert, or a power saw. The joint should extend
into the slab one-fourth of the slab thickness. A cut this
deep weakens the slab and induces a crack to form be-
neath the joint where it is inconspicuous.
There are few instances in industrial and commercial
floor work when a hand groover is used to make joints,
however when used its thin bit must be deep enough to
cut the slab one-fourth of the depth. An alternative is to
press a preformed insert into the fresh concrete until the
top is flush with the surface; finishing operations can then
continue.
On large floors it is more convenient to cut joints with
a power saw fitted with an abrasive or diamond blade
(Fig. 30). Again, saw cuts must be one-fourth the slab

Fig. 29. Edging densifies the concrete at the edge of the

slab: (a) cutting away with a margin trowel, (b) running
the edger.

Floating
Floating has four purposes: ( 1) to depress large aggregates
to just slightly beneath the surface; (2) to remove slight
imperfections and even out humps and voids for a level or
plane surface; (3) to compact the mortar at the surface in
preparation for later finishing operations; and (4) to keep
the surface open so excess moisture can escape.
Floating the stiffened concrete is done by machine.
Either a power float with rotating steel disc or a troweling
machine equipped with float blades is used almost flat on
the surface. Changes in concrete temperature, air temper-
ature, relative humidity, and wind make it difficult to set
a definite time to begin floating. In cold weather, it might Fig. 30. Control joints can be made by a power saw. These
be 3 hours; in hot weather, the concrete may stiffen very joints induce straight-line cracking at predetermined
rapidly. However, when the water sheen has disappeared, locations.
thickness. Sawing usually begins as soon as the surface
is firm enough so that it will not be tom or damaged by
the blade, usually within 4 to 12 hours after the concrete
hardens.
The method of constructing control joints must relate
to the service use of the floor. Wide joints and inserts, for
example, may perform poorly under small hard wheels.
Troweling
A power trowel is like a power float except that it is fitted
with smaller, individual steel-trowel blades that can be
tilted slightly to exert pressure on the surface. Generally,
greater tilt will produce a smoother, more dense, bur-
nished slab surface.
Power-troweling should start when the excess moisture
brought to the surface by initial power-floating has evap-
orated and the concrete is not sticky (Fig. 3 1). The wait-
ing time between floating and troweling depends upon
the absence or presence of an admixture in the concrete
and the atmospheric condition at the surface.
Fig. 31. Power troweling is begun when excess moisture
brought to the surface by floating has evaporated and the
concrete is not sticky. Two or more passes frequently are
required.
Power-troweling should be done in a systematic pat-
tern. Two or more passes frequently are required to in-
crease the compaction of fines at the surface and give
greater resistance to wear. Time must be allowed between
each troweling for the concrete to stiffen and the water
sheen to disappear. The tilt of the trowel blades should
be increased with each pass to exert additional pressure
as the concrete hardens. Each successive troweling should
be made in a direction at right angles to the previous pass.
Curing
Curing the concrete has a significant influence on the
strength, wear resistance, final quality, and performance
of the wearing surface. When done correctly, curing re-
duces the risk of cracking, crazing, curling, and dusting.
The purpose of curing is to maintain favorable condi-
tions under which concrete hardens and continues to gain
strength and wear-resistance by keeping it moist and
warm for a fixed period of time. A concrete floor slab has
a large exposed surface area in relation to its volume. This
means that water will evaporate very quickly from an un-
protected surface causing early drying and leavinga weak,
cracked, crazed, dusting floor. Prompt and adequate cur-
ing, therefore, is mandatory. The slab should be continu-
ously moist-cured for at least 7 days. A longer period is
desirable.
Three alternate methods of curing are suggested:
1. Wet-cure by fully covering the surface with wet bur-
lap as soon as it can be placed without marking the
surface (Fig. 32). Keep the burlap continuously wet
and in place as long as possible.
Fig. 32. One method of wet-curing is to completely cover
the surface with wet burlap, keeping it continuously wet
during the curing period.
2. Wet-cure by fully covering the previously wetted
surface with plastic sheeting or waterproof paper as
soon as it can be placed without marking the surface
(Fig. 33), and keep in place as long as possible.
3. Seal the slab surface and edges by spraying a liquid-
membrane-forming curing compound on the fin-
ished surface. The curing compound should be a
type that leaves no permanent discoloration on the
surface and does not interfere with the application
of any subsequent surface treatment or overlay.
A combination of these methods can be used. For ex-
ample, a cover of burlap, plastic, or paper can be kept on
for 5 days and then a liquid-membrane-forming curing
compound can be applied so that the concrete will dry out
slowly and extend the period of curing.

Fig. 33. Wet-curing can also be done by covering the
previously wetted surface with plastic sheeting for as long
a period as possible.
When moist-curing is completed, the concrete should
not be subjected to forced or rapid drying out. Drying out
should be a long, slow process.
The surface of a newly completed floor slab should be
protected. Subsequent construction activities must not
be allowed to damage the surface through neglect and
carelessness. These rules should be followed:
1. Keep foot traffic off for 1 day.
2. Keep light, rubber-tired vehicles off for 7 days.
3. Leave plastic or waterproof-paper curing sheets in
place as long as possible.
4. Protect the surface with sheets of hard board where
heavy traffic is expected.
Acceptable Surface Tolerances
AC1 302, Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construc-
tion, gives four classes of surface finish tolerances:
Class AA Surface Finish Tolerance. Depressions in
floors between high spots shall not be greater than / in.
below a IO-ft-long straightedge.
Class AX Swface Finish Tolerance. Depressions in
floors between high spots shall not be greater than 3/16 in.
below a IO-ft-long straightedge.
Class BX Surface Finish Tolerance. Depressions in
floors between high spots shall not be greater than 716 in.
below a IO-ft-long straightedge.
Class CX Surface Finish Tolerance. Depressions in
floors between high spots shall not be greater than 1% in.
below a IO-ft-long straightedge.
When an especially flat, smooth floor is required (at
increased cost), limits can be set for deviations from
datum and tolerances across joints. For example, for
large open areas, A in. from end to end and side to side
can be tolerated. In other words, the entire floor surface
would fall within a plane of + 1% in. from the datum floor
elevation shown on the building plans. The tolerance
across a joint should be A2 in. Surface irregularities can
be measured with a profilograph floorcontour-measur-
ing instrument. The instrument can be used to monitor
placing and finishing techniques on a day-today basis.
High-density industrial warehouses using high-rise-
storage racks and high-lift-turret trucks require especially
flat floor surfaces for efficient operation. Knownas super-
flat floors, the differences in elevation of the surface of
these slabs must be minimal over distances of from as
little as 12 in. to as much as 10 ft, often a maximum of %2
in. in the former and /8 in. in the latter. Since construction
of such closely toleranced floors can be expensive, the
exact requirements for a project must be established
through consultation between the handling equipment
manufacturer, owner, and specifier, and then clearly out-
lined in the job specifications along with the method of
measurement as well as corrective techniques (usually
grinding) to bring an out-of-tolerance area back to a sat-
isfactory degree of flatness.
SPECIAL FINISHES FOR
CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS
A variety of methods and proprietary products are avail-
able that will, in specific instances, improve wear resist-
ance or chemical resistance, reduce dusting, or improve
the appearance and ease of maintenance of concrete
floors.
The finish and the method of obtaining it depend largely
on how the floor is to be used. Manufacturers directions
should be closely followed, but first the floor surface
must be of good quality before treatment, otherwise the
benefits will be short lived.
Dry-Shake Flnlshes
Wear resistance can be improved for light-to-medium-
wear floors or heavy-wear floors by embedding into the
concrete surface a selected natural or metallic aggregate,
usually blended with portland cement. The procedure
can be as follows. For light-to-medium wear, after float-
ing the surface, apply half of the shake quantity and float
it in. Wait for the concrete to set hard enough to resist a
heel imprint, then apply the remainder of the shake and
power steel trowel the surface.
For heavy-wear floors, apply one-third of the shake
quantity immediately after strikeoff. Wait for bleed water
to disappear, then apply the second third of the shake and
float it in. Wait for theconcrete to partially harden enough
to resist a heel imprint, then apply the remaining shake
material and power steel trowel to a dense, hard surface.
Shake finishes require special skills and should be en-
trusted only to experienced craftsmen.

High-Strength-Concrete Toppings
Where close tolerances are needed or abrasive conditions
require concrete of exceptionally high strength, it be-
comes economic to apply a deferred concrete topping.
Toppings are put in place before the base slab hardens
(monolithic) or after hardening (separate).
Monolithic Toppings
The thinnest topping can be used, between r/fi in. to 1 in.,
consequently the base concrete slab should be placed and
compacted to leave the surface below the finished level by
this amount. The topping concrete then is placed and
vibrated while the base remains plastic. In this way the
topping becomes part of the structural thickness of the
slab. Construction procedures, panel sizes, joints, and
jointing arrangements are the same as those specified for
the slab itself.
Separate Bonded Toppings*
Separate bonded toppings 3/, to 1 $5 in. thick** are applied
after the base structural slab has hardened. A fully bond-
ed topping is considered a part of the structural thickness
of the floor because the base slab and the topping act to-
gether as a monolithic slab. Thickness is based on the
flexural strength of the base slab. Being thin, these top-
pings have little load-carrying capacity of their own and
their satisfactory performance depends upon their being
fully bonded to the base slab. The slab must be roughened
with the coarse aggregate exposed, blown clean of dust
and debris, and dampened. Immediately before the top-
ping concrete is placed, a 1: 1 cement-sand slurry or a neat
cement paste, each of a creamy consistency, should be
brushed into the surface. The topping must be placed be-
fore the slurry dries out.
High-strength-concrete-topping mixes (monolithic or
bonded) should be made with special aggregates selected
for hardness, surface texture, and particle shape that will
produce concrete with a hard, wear-resistant finish.
These toppings should have high strength, low shrink-
age, and finished surfaces that are resistant to abrasion
and not slippery-properties achieved by limiting the
aggregate-cement ratio and the type of aggregateselected.
A water-cement ratio of 0.40 (by weight) or less, an aggre-
gate-cement ratio of 3 (by weight), and goodquality
coarse aggregate with a natural sand have proved to be
suitable.
Separate Unbonded Toppings*
Unbonded toppings are used when the existing floor slab
is cracked or otherwise not suitable to receive a fully
bonded topping. The base slab should be covered with a
separation sheet of polyethylene or waterproof paper to
ensure there is no bond between the existing and new con-
crete. A minimum thickness of 3 in. is recommended, but
for floors subject to very heavy moving loads or severe
impact, a 6-in. thickness is suggested for the topping.
Joints in the new topping can be laid out in panels to the
most suitable size and shape, taking into account the
thickness of the topping and the amount of reinforcement
provided (if any). Isolation joints in the base slab, how-
ever, should be extended up through the topping.
Vacuum Dewatering
Vacuum dewatering of the floor slab immediately after
placing and compaction is a method of reducing water
content in the concrete. The process quickly prepares the
surface for final finishing and can reduce shrinkage of the
concrete, increase compressive strength, and improve the
wear resistance of the slab surface.
A vacuum system consists basically of a plastic-sheet
top cover and a bottom filter cloth of nylon netting that
are placed over the fresh concrete immediately after strik-
ing off and leveling. The top sheet is fitted with suction
channels leading to a single vent connected to the vacuum
generating unit. The system is claimed so effective that
water is drawn out of the concrete down to a depth of
about 10 in. at an extraction rate of about 21% minutes for
each 1 in. of slab thickness.
Surface Grinding
Surface grinding is a technique that claims to eliminate
dusting of the floor surface due to laitance brought to the
surface by the troweling. The concrete is placed, com-
pacted, and brought to as true a surface as possible by
bullfloating and a scraping straightedge. Instead of fur-
ther finishing in the usual way, thesurface is immediately
covered with polyethylene sheets and cured for 36 to 48
hours. The sheets are then removed and theentire surface
is ground with a special machine. The low-speed grinding
action removes all laitance, leaving a smooth, hard, dur-
able surface. For best results, highquality concrete must
be used.
Sealing Concrete Floors
Floor sealing products are not floor finishes, but are men-
tioned here since they are a means of upgrading a floors
wear resistance, reducing dusting, and improving chemi-
cal resistance. Sealer products normally used are based
on sodium silicate or a type of silicofluoride. It is impor-
tant to note that these products will not convert a poor-
quality floor into a goodquality floor.
Sodium Silicate (Water Glass)
The cement hydration reaction that takes place during
curing produces hydrated lime [Ca(OH)z] within the
concrete that is converted to calcium carbonate after pro-
longed exposure to air. When a dilute solution of sodium
metasilicate (NazSiOJ) soaks into the surface, the sili-
cate reacts with calcium compounds to form a hard,
*See also Resurfacing Concrete Floors, Portland Cement Associa-
tion publication IS144T. 1981.
**Minimum and maximum recommended by AC1 3 0 2 .
glassy substance within the pores of the concrete. This
new substance fills the pores and after drying gives the
concrete a denser, harder surface. The degree of improve-
ment is dependent upon the depth of penetration by the
silicate solution. Therefore, the solution is diluted sig-
nificantly to allow adequate penetration.
The treatment consists of three or four coats applied
on successive days. On new concrete, a period of airdry-
ing for 10 to 14 days after moist-curing ends gives a rea-
sonably dry surface to gain maximum penetration. The
first coat should be a solution of 4 gal of water to 1 gal of
silicate. The second coat should be the same solution
applied after the first one has dried. The third coat should
be a 3-to-1 solution applied after the second coat has
dried. The treatment is completed as soon as the concrete
surface gains a glassy, reflective finish. Water-glass treat-
ment will stop dusting, improve hardness, and increase
resistance to chemical attack, such as from organic acids.
Silicofluorldes
Zinc, sodium, and magnesium silicofluoride sealers are
applied in the same manner as water glass. Each of the
fluoride compounds can be used separately or in combi-
nation, but a mixture of 20% zinc and 80% magnesium
gives excellent results. For the first application, 1 lb of
the fluoride compound should be dissolved in 1 gal of
water. For subsequent coatings, the solution should be 2
lb to each gallon of water. The floor should be mopped
with clear water shortly after the preceding application
has dried to remove encrusted salts. Safety precautions
must be observed when applying fluorides owing to the
toxicity of the fluorine salts. Fluoridation of concrete
surfaces increases the chemical resistance and hardness
of the surface.
Linseed Oil
One of the oldest proved techniques to protect exterior
concrete slab surfaces from cycles of freeze-thaw and de-
icer chemicals is a linseed-oil treatment. The treatment
consists of two or more applications of commercial-grade
boiled linseed oil mixed with a solvent such as mineral
spirits. The first application should be a mixture of equal
parts of oil and solvent applied on a dry surface with a
coverage of 400 sq ft per gallon. The second application
can be from one-half to full-strength oil applied to cover
600 sq ft per gallon after the first treatment has been ab-
sorbed. Linseed oil-water emulsions also are available.
Floor Coatings
Numerous synthetic floor coatings are available such as
epoxies, polymers, polyurethanes, chlorinated rubbers,
and phenolics. These products in appropriate circum-
stances offer good abrasion and chemical resistance and
also can be pigmented for attractive color.* The manu-
facturers directions must be followed closely.
*For information on painting concrete, see fainring Concrere.
land Cement Association publication ISl34T. 1980.
Seamless Floor Surfacings
Various types of plastic-reaction products (that is, two-
part mixes that harden in place by chemical reaction) and
plasticized synthetic resin are used as seamless surfacings
on concrete floors. The three principal systems used for
these products are polyesters, polyurethanes, and epoxies.
Resin suppliers can adjust their formulations to suit a
particular application. Whatever the variations made,
each has been found to have its own limitations, peculi-
arities, and special uses. A factor common to all three is
the need for a goodquality, well-constructed floor slab
and for attention to detail in application.
Polyesters have a high shrinkage factor that limits their
use to systems where this volume change can be easily
controlled; They have good adhesion as well as good
wear resistance.
Polyurethunes are suitable for use in clear, decorative,
multicoat systems. They require a dry floor, which means
a considerable drying period must follow moist-curing
before these products are applied.
Epoxies are made from a wide range of resins and hard-
eners and are available in a wide variety of products. They
possess hardness, high strength, good bonding strength,
and chemical resistance. They are available as paints-
pout-able or flow applied-and as mortars.
REPAIRS AND OVERLAYS
Correct design, quality materials, and good construction
should produce a floor that theoretically will be free of
major maintenance. In actual use, however, conditions
arise that expose the concrete tochemicalattack, mechan-
ical impact, and abrasive wear not anticipated in the
design. If good maintenance practices are neglected, the
floor may never provide the long-life serviceability for
which it was intended.
Normal maintenance cleaning will keep the floor at-
tractive, safe to work on, and free of harmful chemicals
and abrasive objects. When a floor slab becomes badly
worn with broken areas or utility cuts and spalling at
cracks and joints, countless materials and methods are
available for repairs as well as a wide divergence of views
on how the repairs should be made. In many instances,
expediency dictates that the work be done without adher-
ing to correct basic principles and the result is an unsatis-
factory repair.
The basic principles of successful repairs include deter-
mining the cause and extent of the damage, careful prepa-
ration of the old concrete, the placement and curing of
highquality replacement concrete, and rejointing where
needed. The information and recommendations that fol-
low are a guide to obtaining satisfactory results.
Evaluation of Damage
Port- Evaluation of damage is necessary not only to determine
the method of repair to be used but also to ensure that the
repair will be permanent and the damage will not extend
into the concrete surrounding the repaired area. Follow-
ing are the principal factors to be considered before mak-
ing a final decision on repair:
1. The general condition of the floor slab,* that is, loss
of slab support, strength and thickness of the con-
crete, the extent of badly worn areas, joints, cracks,
and contamination of the surface by oil or grease,
paint, chemical attack,** and staining.?
2. Intended use of the floor after repair-which may be
quite different from its previous or present use.
3. Limitations to raising the level of the finished floor.
4. Time allowed for repair work.
Preparation of Old Concrete
Surface preparation is vital to production of a satisfac-
tory concrete repair. Irrespective of materials, method,
system, or thickness to be used, the keystone of success
is a clean, strong bonding surface with a suitable mechan-
ical key that is free of contamination, laitance, and dust.
Selection of a suitable method of surface preparationcan
be made from the following:
Cleaning Concrete Floors
Wet Cleaning. A floor can be brought to an acceptably
clean standard by wet cleaning. Two materials, one acid
based and the other alkali based, are commonly used in
three separate operations: (1) degreasing, (2) acid treat-
ment, and (3) neutralizing. Cleaning operations should
be performed only under conditions where appropriate
safety precautions are taken.
Degreasing is accomplished by a mixture of a cleaner
and curing-compound remover (a chlorinated, emulsifi-
able solvent), an industrial grease remover (a highly alka-
line, low-phosphate, biodegradable detergent), and lib-
eral amounts of water. The mixture is used to scrub the
surface-repeatedly if necessary-for added cleaning
effect. The surface finally is rinsed and scrubbed withclear
water, vacuumed damp-dry, and then allowed to air-dry.
Acid treatment of the surface is accomplished byapply-
ing an etching solution (a mild organic acid combined
with detergents, emulsifiers, and solvent) to the dry floor.
The solution is scrubbed over the floor, followed by a
vacuum machine to pick up residual material. Thesurface
is then rinsed, scrubbed clean of acid solution, and dried.
Neutralization of the surface for any residual acid is
necessary. This is done by wetting the surface with clear
water, sprinkling on a detergent cleaner (highly alkaline,
high-phosphate, nonresidue detergent), scrubbing, rins-
ing with water, and vacuuming damp-dry. The surface is
then rinsed again with clear water, vacuumed damp-dry,
and allowed to airdry before applying the new surface
finish.
An acid treatment is recommended only for cleaning
floor surfaces that are to receive a new surface finish.
Other wet cleaning methods include high-pressure
water-jet blasting and steam cleaning. Selection of meth-
od depends on the type and severity of contamination.
Drycleaning. Mechanical methods offer an efficient
and economical way to dryclean a concrete surface.
Equipment is available for scabbling, scarifying, grind-
ing, shotblasting, planing, and flame cleaning. Some
machines have a variety of interchangeable cutting and
brushing heads.
Scabbling uses an air-driven machine that has a vary-
ing number of pistons mounted in a block. Each piston
is fitted with a tungsten carbide bit. Operating much the
same as a bushhammer or chipping hammer (Fig. 34), the
striking action shatters away the surface contamination,
exposing a clean, sound concrete with a good mechanical
key for bonding.
/ .
* I
Fig. 34. Weak, defective concrete can be removed with a
chipping hammer.
Scarifying uses a power-driven tool with a rotary head
that can be fitted with a wide variety of scrubbing brushes,
cutting wheels, scouring brushes, and steel scarifying
brushes.
Grinders can be used to remove weak, friable laitance;
improve levels; and remove high spots and trowel and
other marks. Grinding also can be used to produce a
smoother, more wear-resistant floor.
Shotblasting is done by closed-cycle steel-particle bom-
bardment that is virtually dust-free to remove any sur-
face contaminants.
Planing machines can remove laitance, paint marks,
pitch adhesives, and thermoplastic adhesives and can re-
duce the level of the concrete. Other uses includegrooving
the concrete and making nonskid surfaces. The machines
have hardened-steel cutting wheels for hammering off
the surface.
*How lo Prevent Concrete Slab Surface Deficts, Portland Cement
Association publication IS177T. 1977.
** Effecrs of Subsrances on Concrete and Guide TO i+otective Treat-
ments, Portland Cement Association publication ISOOIT, 1981.
t Removing Stains and Cleaning Concrete Surfaces, Portland Ce-
ment Association publication IS214T. 1982.
 Flame treatment involves moving a multiflame blow-
pipe with an oxygen-acetylene flame over a floor surface
at a uniform speed. Oils, paints, and other organic sub-
stances are burned away, moisture in the surface of the
concrete is evaporated, and the surface layer is melted or
spalled off. The treatment removes laitance to a depth of
0.04 to 0.08 in.
After drycleaning a concrete surface, all residue must
be removed. Various industrial vacuum machines are
available to remove microdust particles from the pre-
pared surface.
Concrete Overlays
When surface wear has reached a point considered detri-
mental to building operations, action is required to re-
build and restore the original surface. The choice of repair
method depends on cost, volume of the repair area, ac-
ceptable downtime, required strength, required chemical
and abrasion resistance, and ambient conditions while
repair is under way. The resurfacing methods available
can be classified as those using-
1. Normal or highearly-strength portland cement con-
cretes and mortars
2. Polymer- and resin-modified portland cement con-
cretes, that is, PVA- and latex-modified concrete.
3. High-alumina-cement concrete and mortar
4. Plastic concretes, that is, resin-bound mortars-
usually epoxy or polyester based in two-component
systems
Following are basic recommendations for repairing
concrete floors with normal or high-early-strength port-
land cement concretes and mortars.
Bonded Patching+ (% to 2 in. Thick)
Surface preparation is the key to producing a well-bond-
ed, shallow concrete patch. Failure of a patch to tightly
bond usually is due to a lack of preparation so that bond
is prevented by laitance, dust, and contamination on the
floor surface.
All weak and defective concrete must be removed, pref-
erably by saw-cutting 3/4 in. deep around the perimeter of
the patch, followed by removal of defective concrete with
a jackhammer not heavier than the nominal 30-lb class.
Chipping hammers not heavier than the nominal 15-lb
class can be used to remove concrete surrounding any
reinforcing bars. Handtools such as hammers and chisels
should be used to remove all final particles of unsound
concrete. Sandblasting or water-jet blasting should be
used to clean the exposed reinforcement of all visible rust
and clinging concrete and clean all surfaces against which
new patch concrete will be placed, Prior to placing new
concrete, the surface should be blown clean by airblast
and then flushed with water. Puddles of free water must
be removed before placing the patch.
Just before the new concrete is placed, the cleaned sur-
face should be brushed with a thin (I/s-in.) coat of freshly
mixed grout consisting of sand, cement, and water. This
bonding grout should have equal parts of fine sand (No. 8
maximum size) and portland cement mixed with water to
give a creamy consistency.** Neat cement grout (without
sand) also may be used. The grout should be applied at
a rate that will keep it from drying out before it is cov-
ered with new concrete.
Mix Proportions for Patching Concrete. When normal
or high-early-strength portland cement is used for the
repair, the mix proportions for concrete and mortar
should be as follows:
Mortar (for patches less than 1 in. thick):
I part portland cement
2!4 to 3 parts sand
Concrete (for deeper patches):
1 part portland cement
2% parts sand
2% parts coarse aggregate-maximum size about
one-half the patch depth
The materials are proportioned to make a low-slump
mix using not more than 5 gal of water per bag of cement
(a water-cement ratio not to exceed 0.44 by weight). Ex-
terior concrete subjected to freeze-thaw cycles and deicer
chemicals needs an adequate system of air entrainment
with a 5% to 7% total air content (9% for mortar). Where
rapid reuse of the patched area is needed, calcium chlo-
ride, not to exceed 2% by weight of cement (added to the
mixing water at the jobsite), can be used to accelerate
hardening and early-strength gain of the concrete.
CAUTION: Calcium chloride should not be used when
dissimilar metals or electrical conduit are encased in the
concrete.
Placing and Finishing the Concrete. Some type of
surface vibration is mandatory for compacting surface
patches. A hand-operated vibratory screed or strikeoff
is effective as is a portable plate vibrator or compactor
float. Hand tampers can be used when power equipment
is not available.
New concrete should be placed and struck off slightly
above the final grade and then mechanically vibrated,
screeded, and floated to final grade. When a stiff, low-
slump mix is used, there will be no water gain on the sur-
face and troweling can begin immediately. Troweling
should not be done when there is free water on the surface
and should not be done to the extent that free water will
be brought to the surface. When the surface has become
quite hard, it should be given a second and third trowel-
ing to produce a very hard, dense finish.
Curing. Evaporation of water from thin-concrete
patches is rapid and if not prevented immediately after
the concrete is finished, rapid evaporation may cause
surface crazing, cracking, and curling. Rapid drying can
be prevented by covering the patch with wet burlap. The
*Bonded patching applies to relatively small areas on the concrete
surface. The basic principles are the same for large areas, but large areas
can be reoaired more efficiently with customary mechanical finishing
equipment supported on guide rails. Such construction is called thin-
bonded resurfacing rather than patching.
**Bonding Concrete or Plaster to Concrete, Portland Cement Associ-
ation publication IS139T. 1976.
surface should be kept continuously wet for 24 hours, and
then covered with polyethylene film or waterproof paper
for an additional 48 hours. Ambient conditions (hot or
cold, dry or humid, calm or windy) dictate the choice of
a satisfactory curing method.
Thin Bonded Overlay*
A fully bonded concrete topping can be % in. or more
thick, while for unbonded construction the minimum is
3 in. The thickness of overlays limits where they can be
used because they raise the level of the floor.
The best surface preparation for a bonded overlay is
obtained with one of the drycleaning methods described
previously. If contamination is present after drycleaning,
then wetcleaning methods should be used to further
cleanse the surface. An effective check for contamination
is to sprinkle water on the concrete: if the water forms
little globules, contaminants are present that will inter-
fere with bond. If the water is immediately absorbed, it
can be assumed that the concrete is clean.
Mix Preparation for Bonded Overlays. Volume pro-
portions are suitable for small patches; but for large re-
surfacing jobs, weight batching should be used to elimi-
nate variations in quality. The mix design varies, depend-
ing upon the depth of concrete to be placed. The water-
cement ratio can range from 0.45 to 0.33, using 6 to 9 or
10 bags of portland cement per cubic yard, and producing
concrete strengths at 28 days from 4500 psi to 9000 psi.
Aggregates can be selected for their hard-wearing and
abrasion-resisting qualities. A low-slump concrete, 2 in.
to 4 in., generally works well. Adjustments in consistency
depend on thickness of topping, temperature, and equip-
ment available to do the work. A water-reducing admix-
ture can improve workability of low-slump concrete, and
a superplasticizer can produce high-strength concrete at
normal consistencies.
Formwork. The same principles that apply to edge
forms in general apply to topping forms. The method of
installing and anchoring varies greatly depending on the
job conditions. The forms and intermediate screeds must
be set to grade and positively anchored in position to
maintain a true level.
Laying the Topping. The topping should be placed in
small panels. The rate at which this work is completed
should not be overestimated. The topping must be well
compacted to ensure bond, strength, and durability. On
large projects, a self-propelled finishing machine with
vibrating screed should be used. On smallerjobs, a manu-
ally operated vibratory screed or tamper can give satis-
factory results.
Various methods of finishing floor slabs have already
been discussed. The new surface must be cured for at
least 3 days. One practical and satisfactory method is to
cover the surface with polyethylene sheets, with laps
sealed and all edges held down. After removing thesheets,
an application of curing compound will extend the curing
period.
All joints in the original floor must be duplicated
exactly in the new topping; that is, they must be located
directly over the joints in the original slab and must be of
equal or slightly greater width. Duplicating joints can be
done without difficulty by placing inserts in the new con-
crete after screeding the surface. Saw cuts must be timed
to avoid reflective cracking from the joint in the old slab
below.
Unbonded Toppings
The minimum thickness of an unbonded topping is 3 in.
with 6 in. suggested for floors carrying heavy moving
loads and subjected to severe impact. The amount of
work required to prepare the old slab is negligible, con-
sisting only of sweeping clean and filling in badly worn
areas and holes with a cement and sand mortar.
A separation layer should be used to ensure that there
will be no bond between the old and new concrete. A4-mil
polyethylene sheet is adequate for this purpose. The sepa-
ration layer prevents cracks in the old floor from being
reflected through into the new topping. It also reduces
friction at the interface so that the new topping can move
(from drying shrinkage and thermal changes) indepen-
dently of the floor below.
The concrete mix proportions should be the same as
those suggested for bonded toppings or for new floor
construction.
Placing and finishing operations are similar to those
used to construct a new concrete floor. An unbonded
overlay permits control and construction joints in the old
slab to be ignored. The new topping can have a jointing
arrangement designed for the most convenient panel size
and shape, taking into account the thickness of the top-
ping and the amount of reinforcement provided (if any).
However, isolation joints in the old slab must be repeated
in the new topping.
Repair of Cracks and Joints
Although joints are placed in concrete floors to provide
crack control, sometimes problems arise from heavy
usage, improper joint design or location, and careless
construction methods. The greatest portion offloor main-
tenance is for crack and joint repair.** The principal
causes of distress are
Poor subgrade support
Inadequate load transfer
Floor overloads
Excessive joint spacing
Joint filler failures
When a problem develops, its cause should be found
and corrected before any repair is undertaken.
Filling Cracks (Sealing)
Only those cracks that are open wide enough to permit
the entry of a pourable joint filler or a mechanical routing
*Resurfacing Concrere Floors. Portland Cement Association publi-
cation IShUT, 1981.
**For repair of outdoor paving, storage yards, driveways, etc., see
Maintenance of Joints and Cracks in Concrete Pavement, Portland
Cement Association publication ISl88P, 1976.
 tool should be filled. Tightly closed cracks subject only
to light industrial traffic should be left alone, but kept
under observation and filled only if they open up or show
signs of spalling.
Each side of the open crack must be refaced so that the
surfaces are cc mpletely free of dust, dirt, debris, and any-
thing else that might prevent bonding of the new filler
material. Special tools such as random<ut saws or crack
grindersand vertical-bit routers should be used. The
crack should be refaced to a l-in. minimum depth or its
full depth without deepening, whichever is less, and then
blown out with compressed air ahead of refilling.
Fig. 35. Joints and cracks that move can be refilled with
flexible sealant.
High-strength epoxy resin adhesives should not beused
to rebond and seal cracks where subsequent appreciable
movement is expected, since this could lead to cracking
elsewhere in the floor. A flexible epoxy or an elastomeric
filler should be used in cracks that move (Fig. 35).
If further movement is unlikely, a rigid mortar such as
cement and sand; cement, sand, and latex; or epoxy and
sand should be used. The crack should first be cut out
with a special tool and thoroughly cleaned, as described
for patching, before the mortar is put in place. The mor-
tar must be thoroughly compacted and cured in a manner
suitable to the particular material used.
Refilling Joints (Resealing)
Where joint filler has failed, the old filler must be removed
to a depth that will accommodate the new sealant. The
same procedures and sealant materials for filling cracks
are used for refilling joints.
Fig. 35. Spalled concrete at a joint can be removed by
cutting with a saw.
Patching S~dls
Spalling is the dislodging of fragments of concrete from
the slab at the joint edges, usually from the repeated im-
pact of hard wheels moving across the joint.
The procedures for bonded patching should be used to
repair spalls. The spalled concrete should be removed
to at least a Zin.-minimum depth and the area blown
clean (Fig. 36). A coating of bonding grout should then
be applied and the patching mortar compacted into place,
finished, and wet-cured. The joint can be reformed by
placing in the joint groove a thin strip of wood, metal, or
plastic that has been coated orcovered with a bond-break-
ing material. The patching mix should then be compacted
from one or both sides against the form.
Individual spalls that occur on both sides of ajoint can
also be repaired by patching the entire cavity and reform-
ing the joint with a saw cut as soon as possible after the
patch is placed. The joint in the patch must be equal in
width to the old opening or slightly wider and it must be
to the full depth of the patch to avoid subsequent spalling.
There is a lesson to be learned from the patching and
repair of concrete floors: At the time a new building is
constructed, it is essential that the concrete work be prop-
erly designed and executed and that the quality of the
concrete work be correct for the intended use. If the les-
son is ignored, great annoyance and expense can arise
from the resultant repairs.