0099-2399/97/2302-0077503.
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JOURNALOF ENDODONT{CS
Copyright 1997 by The American Association of Endodontists
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES
Cyclic Fatigue Testing of Nickel-Titanium
Endodontic Instruments
John P. Pruett, DDS, David J. Clement, DDS, and David L. Carnes, Jr., PhD
Cyclic fatigue of nickel-titanium, engine-driven in-
struments was studied by determining the effect of
canal curvature and operating speed on the break-
age of Lightspeed instruments. A new method of
canal curvature evaluation that addressed both an-
gle and abruptness of curvature was introduced.
Canal curvature was simulated by constructing six
curved stainless-steel guide tubes with angles of
curvature of 30, 45, or 60 degrees, and radii of
curvature of 2 or 5 mm. Size #30 and #40 Light-
speed instruments were placed through the guide
tubes and the heads secured in the collet of a
Magtrol Dynamometer. A simulated operating load
of 10 g-cm was applied. Instruments were able to
rotate freely in the test apparatus at speeds of 750,
1300, or 2000 rpm until separation occurred. Cy-
cles to failure were determined. Cycles to failure
were not affected by rpm. Instruments did not sep-
arate at the head, but rather at the point of maxi-
mum flexure of the shaft, corresponding to the
midpoint of curvature within the guide tube. The
instruments with larger diameter shafts, #40, failed
after significantly fewer cycles than did #30 instru-
ments under identical test conditions. Multivari-
able analysis of variance indicated that cycles to
failure significantly decreased as the radius of cur-
vature decreased from 5 mm to 2 mm and as the
angle of curvature increased greater than 30 de-
grees (p < 0.05, power = 0.9). Scanning electron
microscopic evaluation revealed ductile fracture
as the fatigue failure mode. These results indicate
that, for nickel-titanium, engine-driven rotary in-
struments, the radius of curvature, angle of curva-
ture, and instrument size are more important than
operating speed for predicting separation. This
study supports engineering concepts of cyclic fa-
tigue failure and suggests that standardized fa-
tigue tests of nickel-titanium rotary instruments
77
Printed in U.S.A.
VOL. 23, No. 2, FI~BRUARY1997
should include dynamic operation in a flexed state.
The results also suggest that the effect of the ra-
dius of curvature as an independent variable
should be considered when evaluating studies of
root canal instrumentation.
Instrument separation is a serious concern in endodontics. Because
stainless-steel instruments usually deform before they separate,
dentists can inspect them for visible signs of instrument deforma-
tion. A deformed instrument usually shows severe bending or
unwinding of the flutes, indicating that the elastic limit of the metal
has been exceeded and that the instrument should be discarded.
Nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) endodontic instruments were intro-
duced to facilitate instrumentation of curved canals. Ni-Ti instru-
ments are superelastic and will flex far more than stainless-steel
instruments before exceeding their elastic limit (1, 2). This flexi-
bility is an important property that allows preparation of curved
canals while minimizing transportation (3). Despite this increased
flexibility, separation is still a concern with Ni-Ti instruments, and
they have been reported to undergo unexpected fracture (4). Sep-
aration can occur without any visible signs of previous permanent
deformation, apparently within the elastic limit of the instrument.
Visible inspection, therefore, is not a reliable method for evalua-
tion of used Ni-Ti instruments.
The American Dental Association (ADA) Specification No. 28
(5) stipulates the design requirements, testing procedures, and
physical properties for endodontic instruments. Tests detailed in
ADA Specification No. 28 are conducted in a static mode. Instru-
ments are fixed at the tip and are twisted until failure to determine
instrument resistance to fracture under torsional loading. Angular
deflection is used to detertnine stiffness when instruments are bent
to predetermined angles of 30, 45, and 90 degrees. Tests described
in ADA Specification No. 28 are appropriate for establishing
minimum strength requirements of Ni-Ti hand instruments placed
under a static load (I, 2, 6, 7), but ADA Specification No. 28 is not
an appropriate test of the dynamic characteristics of engine-driven
rotary instruments. All Ni-Ti, engine-drivenrotary systems require
that the instrument be activated at a predetermined rpm before
insertion into the canal. Therefore, to test rotary instruments, the
78 Pruett et al.
tip should not be statically locked, but allowed to rotate freely.
Because ADA Specification No. 28 does not consider canal ge-
ometry, it also does not consider fatigue and breakage of rotary
instruments operated in flexed conditions while preparing curved
canals. The phenomenon of repeated cyclic metal fatigue caused
by canal curvatures may be the most important factor in instrument
separation (2, 8).
Ni-Ti instruments exhibit superelastic behavior and remain
within their elastic limit in situations that would cause permanent
plastic deformation in stainless-steel instruments (1, 2). Metal
fatigue (cyclic fatigue) leading to fracture and separation can occur
below the elastic limit of the instrument (without permanent de-
formation) through known mechanisms called slip bands (9). Such
fatigue mechanisms occur microscopically and are not visible to
the eye. Cyclic fatigue is caused by repeated tensile-compressive
stress. Rotation subjects an endodontic instrument to both tensile
and compressive stress in the area of the curve. Instruments placed
in curved canals deform, creating stress within the instrument. Half
of the instrument shaft on the outside of the curve is in tension, and
that half of the instrument shaft on the inside of the curve is in
compression. Each rotation within a curved canal causes an instru-
ment to undergo one complete tension-compression stress cycle.
This is the most destructive form of cyclic loading (9).
Although some dynamic testing has been performed on Ni-Ti
and stainless-steel endodontic instruments (2, 8, 10-13), fatigue
testing remains undeveloped as an endodontic instrument testing
methodology (2, 10, 11). Stress levels during cyclic loading are
generally dependent on the actual shape of the curvature and the
applied loads. This stress is greatest in the area of curvature (14).
More severe bends create greater stress (14); and larger, stiffer
instruments will experience greater stress than smaller instruments
when confined to the same curved canal shape.
The purpose of this study was 2-fold; first to introduce a new
method of determining canal curvature. A new method was nec-
essary because canal curvature had to be described in parameters
known to determine instrument stress and therefore affect instru-
ment fatigue life. Second, cyclic fatigue was examined in a com-
mercially available Ni-Ti instrument system. The study examined
the effect of instrument operating rpm, shaft diameter, and canal
curvature (including angle of curvature and radius of curvature) on
the fatigue life and resulting separation of Ni-Ti alloy endodontic
instruments.
MATER~LS AND M E T H O D S
This study required defining the parameters of canal curvature
in a more exact manner than generally used in endodontic research.
Canal curvature is usually depicted by a single parameter, an
arbitrary angle measured in degrees as described by Schneider (15)
(Fig. 1). To determine the degree of root curvature, he scribed a
line parallel to the long axis of the canal. A second line was drawn
from the apical foramen to intersect with the first line at the point
wherein the canal began to leave the long axis of the canal. The
acute angle formed (a) was defined as the degree of root curvature.
The shape of any root canal curvature is more accurately de-
scribed using two parameters: angle of curvature (a) and radius of
curvature (r) (Fig. 2). To determine these parameters, a straight line
is drawn along the long axis of the coronal portion of the canal. A
second line is drawn along the long axis of the apical portion of the
canal. There is a point on each of these lines at which the canal
deviates to begin (point a) or end (point b) the canal curvature. The
Journal of EndodonUcs
30
A B
FIG 1. Degree of root canal curvature. The method described by
Schneider for determining canal curvature uses only one parameter
to define the angle. Tt =, two simulated teeth demonstrate how a
difference in abruptne~,, of the curve (radius of curvature) will vary
the degree of curvature as measured by this method. A has an angle
of 43 degrees and B has an angle of 52 degrees, even though both
angles measured according to our method equaled 60 degrees.
Location of the curve along the canal will also change the measured
angle.
curved portion of the canal is represented by a circle with tangents
at points a and b. The angle of curvature is the number of degrees
on the arc of the circle between points a and b. Angle of curvature
can also be defined by the angle formed (c~1 and c~2) by perpen-
dicular lines drawn from the points of deviation (a and b) that
intersect at the center of the circle. The length of these lines is the
radius of the circle and defines the radius of the canal curvature.
The radius of curvature (r I and r 2) is the length of the radius of the
circle measured in millimeters. The radius of curvature represents
how abruptly or severely a specific angle of curvature occurs as the
canal deviates from a straight line. The smaller the radius of
curvature, the more abrupt the canal deviation. The parameters of
angle of curvature and radius of curvature are independent of each
other. Canals can have the same angle of curvature while having
different radii of curvature, resulting in more abrupt curves.
Because controlled cyclic fatigue studies on Ni-Ti, engine-
driven endodontic instruments had not previously been performed,
pilot studies were required to develop a test apparatus and specify
the test parameters. The parameters of radius of curvature and
angle of curvature needed to be defined narrowly enough to allow
accurate data collection. Extracted teeth with severe root curva-
tures suggesting possible high-stress conditions leading to instru-
ment separation were radiographed. Radiographs were also made
of teeth treated clinically in which separation of Ni-Ti Lightspeed
instruments had occurred. The radius of curvature of the canals in
these teeth was determined by using a circle gauge aligned over the
image of the canal profile. Additionally, size #30 Lightspeed
instruments were operated through bent needles simulating in-
creasing canal curvatures. Instruments tested in canals having a
5-mm radius of curvature with an angle of curvature of 30 degrees
separated as a result of cyclic fatigue. Stress levels induced by
lesser curvatures did not result in instrument separation (occurring
in over 30 min at a speed of 2000 rpm) within the time frame for
the test apparatus or data collection. Thus, angles of curvature of
30, 45, and 60 degrees were chosen for evaluation at radii of
curvature of 2 and 5 mm.
To simulate instrumentation conditions during use, a clinically
Vol. 23, No. 2, February 1997
o~=60 o~z=60
r2=2rnrn
'A B
FIG 2. Radius of curvature and angle of curvature. New method of
describing canal geometry using two parameters. Radius of curva-
ture (r) and angle of curvature (e) are determined on the same teeth
as in Fig. 1. These teeth accurately depict the guide tubes used in
this study that had a 60-degree angle ((~1 = (x2).Angle of curvature
(c~) is determined by the angle formed by the lines that intersect at
the circle's center. These two lines are perpendicular to the lines
drawn along the long axes of the coronal and apical portions of the
root canal space. Points a and b are the points wherein the canal
deviates from the straight lines and either begin or end the curved
portion of the root canal space. Angle ((~) is taken to be the angle
formed by the arc in degrees between points a and b. The a r c lies
on a circle whose size is specified by it's radius, and the circle's
radius is taken to be the radius of curvature of the canal in that local
area. The circle's radius is the radius (rl and r2) of the curved portion
of the root canal space and defines how abruptly the canal curves.
The canal geometry of these two teeth differs only in the radius of
curvature (r~ and r2) , whereas the angle of curvature ((x1 and (x2)
equals 60 degrees. A represents a sweeping canal curvature having
a 5-mm radius of curvature (rl). B represents an abrupt canal cur-
vature having a 2-mm radius of curvature (r2). Clinically, the radius of
curvature and angle of curvature of any root canal space could be
measured using this technique with the aid of a circle gauge.
applicable head torque load was determined. Data were obtained
by measuring the resultant torque when highly calcified canals in
lower central incisors were instrumented while mounted in a dy-
namometer. Canal preparation with successively larger Lightspeed
instruments was performed. When small instruments did not ac-
tively engage and cut the dentin walls during the preparation of
lower central incisors, no perceptible torque values could be re-
peatably recorded. When active dentin cutting occurred, recorded
torque values ranged from 6 to 14 g-cm. Therefore, a preset torque
of 10 g-cm was applied to the test instruments during all of the test
conditions.
Size #30 and #40 Lightspeed instruments (Lightspeed Technol-
ogies, Inc., San Antonio, TX) were evaluated. Lightspeed instru-
ments were chosen because their noncutting shafts offer the ad-
vantages of predictable shaft diameters. This also eliminated the
variables of instrument taper and flute design on metal fatigue and
breakage. Size #40 was selected because it is the minimum master
apical size advocated for the Lightspeed technique. Size #30 was
selected because it is comparatively smaller in size and has a head
design that is nearly parallel. In addition, Lightspeed instruments
were chosen because their use has been advocated over a wide
range of operating speeds. Ten instruments of each size were tested
in each of the six different experimental canal shapes (3 angles c~
each of 2 radii r) at three different speeds (750, 1300, and 2000
rpm). This produced 18 test groups for each instrument size. Each
instrument was operated to failure.
Cyclic Fatigue of Ni-Ti Rotary Instruments 79
Test Support Block
Guide Tube
Holddown
.~" ,. Clamp
Ni-Ti Lightspeed Instrument
I I
Dynamometer Collet
Input shaft to dynamometer, data aquisition computer
LJ
FIG 3. Test apparatus. Cut-away view of a Lightspeed instrument
inserted through the lumen of a stainless-steel guide tube clamped
in the dynamometer collet. The instrument shank butts up against
the end of the guide tube, ensuring that each instrument was placed
to the same depth within the artificial canal. The dynamometer
allowed free rotation of the instrument during the cyclic fatigue test,
yet was capable of applying torsional preload to simulate clinical
use,
Both radius of curvature and angle of curvature were used to
define accurately the curvatures of artificial canals used in this
study. Artificial canals were fabricated from 18-gauge, stainless-
steel needles having an internal diameter of 0.83 ram. Reference
radii were measured to the inner aspect of the curve of the guide
tubes. A 2-mm radius represented an abrupt curvature; and a 5 mm
radius represented a sweeping curvature (Fig. 2), each with angles
of curvature of 30, 45, and 60 degrees. This resulted in six artificial
canals. One end of the artificial canal butted against the flat shank
of the instrument, and the center of radius in the curved segment
of the canal was 7 mm from the tip of the instrument (Fig. 3). The
head of the instrument protruded - 2 mm from the artificial canal.
A test stand (Fig. 3) was constructed that aligned the inner aspect
of the artificial canals with the centerline of the dynamometer and
held them securely in place. Instruments were inserted through the
canals, and the heads were clamped in the collet of the Magtrol
Dynamometer (Magtrol, Inc., Buffalo, NY). Clamped instruments
could rotate freely within the tube assembly. An Aseptico electric
handpiece (Aseptico model AEU-17, Aseptico, Inc., Woodinville,
WA) was attached to the instrument shank. The experimental
operating speed of 750, 1300, or 2000 rpm was adjusted using the
dynamometer readout that provided a more accurate rpm determi-
nation than did the readout on the Aseptico control box. Rotation
at the desired speed was achieved by activating the Aseptico
electric handpiece.
This study used instrumentation equipment specified in ADA
Specification No. 28 for torsional testing: the Magtrol Dynamom-
80 Pruett et al.
eter. The dynamometer allows the torque applied to the instrument
to be preset and measured while the instrument rotates. All instru-
ments were operated with a head load of 10 g-cm torque. A
software program (Sunset Resources, Inc., San Antonio, TX) was
written for an IBM-compatible computer to permit data collection
while the instrument was rotating. An 18-rain time limit for data
collection was set as limited by the data collection program, but
instrument separation always occurred within 5 min of beginning
the test. Data collection from the dynamometer consisted of con-
tinuous torque, and rpm readouts were comprised of 10 averaged
readings/s. The time of instrument failure was determined when
the torque values suddenly dropped, indicating instrument separa-
tion. The number of cycles to failure was calculated from the rpm
data by multiplying the rpm by the time to failure. Data analyzed
were the number of cycles to failure for each instrument tested
under the specified angle of curvature, radius of curvature, rpm,
and instrument size conditions. Data were analyzed by analysis of
variance (ANOVA), with the Neuman-Kuels procedure serving as
the post-hoc test using a 95% confidence level.
Fractured instrument fragments were collected by group. Rep-
resentative samples of the fracture surface from the various groups,
and sizes were examined under scanning electron microscopic
magnification with a JSM-840 scanning electron microscope
(Japanese Electronic and Optical Ltd., Japan). Another group of
instruments was partially cycled (75 to 80% to failure) using mean
cycles-to-failure data from the matching experimental groups.
These instruments were then mounted in both unflexed and flexed
positions with the area of interest visible in side view, and exam-
ined under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For comparison,
new same-sized instruments were mounted in the same manner and
examined under SEM.
RESULTS
Operating rpm
Multivariable ANOVA indicated that operating rpm was not a
significant factor affecting cycles to failure (p < 0.10 for size #30;
p < 0.06 for size #40) (Fig. 4). No difference in cycles to failure
was recorded between the 750, 1300, and 2000 rpm groups within
the two instrument sizes. This was further verified by one-way
ANOVA, wherein only 2 of the possible 36 groups in the size #30
and #40 instrument groups had cycles to failure that varied when
rpm was the only independent variable evaluated.
Instrument Shaft Diameter
Shaft diameter had a significant effect on cycles to failure (p <
0.00001). Cycles to failure significantly decreased with an increase
in instrument size. At all radii and angles tested, the larger size #40
instruments (0.269 mm shaft diameter) failed at significantly fewer
cycles to failure than the size #30 (0.223 nun shaft diameter),
regardless of rpm (Fig. 4).
Radius of Curvature
Cycles to failure significantly decreased as the radius of curva-
ture decreased (Fig. 5). The more abrupt 2-ram radius groups had
significantly fewer cycles to failure than the 5-mm radius groups
(p < 0.00001). This was consistent for both instrument sizes.
Journal of Endodontics
800
700
600
500
400
300
J
l
200
100
0
750 rpm 1300 rpm 2000 rpm
I I size #30 Size #40
FiG 4. Effect of operating rpm and shaft diameter. Cycles to failure
is depicted for each instrument size at operating speeds of 750,
1300, and 2000 rpm. The asterisk and its absence indicates statis-
tically similar groups, which shows clear statistical differences ac-
cording to size. Cycles to failure was not affected by operating
speed within the size #30 and #40 instrument groups. The size #40
instruments had significantly fewer cycles to failure than size #30
instruments.
Radius of curvature was the most consistent parameter describing
root canal curvature that predicted instrument separation occurring
as a result of cyclic fatigue.
Angle of Curvature
Instruments operated in 45- and 60-degree angles of curvature
were not significantly different and failed at significantly fewer
cycles than instruments operated at 30 degrees (p < 0.00001).
When the effect of angle was examined by analyzing the data from
four subgroups of 2 and 5 mm radius, for each instrument size, this
same trend was apparent (Fig. 6). The exception was the size #40,
2-mm radius group. Each successive increase in angle of curvature
(30-, 45-, and 60-degree groups) resulted in significantly decreased
cycles to failure.
Instrument Separation
Instrument separation always occurred at the point of maximum
flexure within the artificial canals, the midpoint of the curved
segment of the tubes. Separation never occurred immediately be-
hind the head of the instrument (Fig. 7).
SEM Analysis
Partially fatigued instruments seemed normal both to the naked
eye (Fig. 8A) and when viewed under SEM in an unflexed state
(Fig. 8B). Under flexure (Fig. 8C), opening of the fractures was
evident under SEM and generally seemed to be associated with
flaws on the instrument surface (Fig. 8D). These initiated fractures
were located at the point of maximum curvature within the tube
along the instrument shaft.
The fatigue failure of the instrument can be broken down into
stages (Fig. 9). Evidence of these stages was visible upon higher
magnification (1900) under SEM examination (Fig. 9B). Stage I,
crack initiation and growth, was characterized by the smooth,
almost featureless area at the periphery of the fracture face. Stage
Vol. 23, No. 2, February 1997 Cyclic Fatigue of Ni-Ti Rotary Instruments 81

A A
1000 1000
900 gO0
800 8OO
700 ~ 700
600 ~ 600
500 O 500
400 ~ 400
O 300 ~ 300
O O
200 2O0
100 100
0 0
30 degrees 45 degrees 60 degrees 5mm Radius 2ram Radius
SIZE #30 SIZE #30
30 degrees ~ 45 degrees ~ 60 degrees
5mm Radius ~ 2ram radius

B B
1000 1000

900 900

800 800

700 =. 700

600 600

500
400
O
I-

J
500
400
i
o
>. 300
300
o
200 200

100 100

0 0
5ram Radius 2ram Radius
30 degrees 45 degrees 60 degrees
SIZE #40
SIZE #40
30 degrees ~ 45 degreee ~ 60 degrees
] 5rnm Radius ~ 2ram Radius
FIG 6. Effect of angle of curvature. Angle subgroups are arranged
FIG 5. Effect of radius of curvature. The effect on cycles to failure in according to radius of curvature for size #30 (A) and #40 (B) instru-
the size #30 (A) and #40 (B) instruments is depicted in accumulative ments. Forty-five degree or 60-degree angles in both instrument
rpm groups. The more abrupt 2-ram radius curvatures demon- size groups had significantly fewer cycles to failure than the 30-
strated significantly fewer cycles to failure than the 5-ram radius degree angle groups (*). The size #40, 2-mm radius subgroup varied
curvatures (*), regardless of angle. from this pattern, with all angles having significantly different cycles
to failure (** and ***).

II, crack propagation, was typified by striations. Each striation

represents the progression of the crack caused by tension during
one rotation of the instrument. Fractures propagated from the
periphery of the instrument toward the center. Stage ]II, ultimate
ductile fracture, was seen in the center of the fracture surface (Fig.
9A). Microvoid formation and dimpling typically characterized
ductile fracture.
DISCUSSION
This is the first comprehensive study of cyclic fatigue that
incorporates canal geometry as a factor in the breakage of Ni-Ti
rotary instruments. All instruments were allowed to rotate freely
under a 10 g-cm torsional load through artificial curved canals until
separation occurred. Instruments were not statically loaded until
failure as described in ADA Specification No. 28 (5), and instru-
ment separation did not occur because of static torsional overload-
ing. The results indicate that cyclic fatigue is an important factor
in the separation of Ni-Ti rotary instruments used clinically, and
that specific measurable parameters of canal geometry and instru-
merit size exist, which significantly reduce instrument cyclic fa-
tigue life.
There is a clear need for the development of a test protocol for
the cyclic fatigue of Ni-Ti, engine-driven rotary instruments.
Brantley et al. (10) and Luebke et al. (11), in studies on stainless-
steel rotary instruments, have also advocated the development of a
cyclic fatigue test protocol that simulates clinical conditions of
instrument use. Serene et al. (2) published a short volume on Ni-Ti
instruments, including results from a preliminary study on rotation
to breakage (cyclic fatigue) of hand instruments. A significant
difference was found between conventional stainless-steel files and
all Ni-Ti file groups. It was also noted that in rotation-to-breakage
studies of Ni-Ti files that allowed free tip rotation, the range of
results within each same-size group was large and unpredictable.
That preliminary information on rotation-to-breakage of hand in-
struments stated that the instruments were rotated in a 90-degree
metal tube until they broke. Defining the test parameters in such a
limited manner, without strictly controlling the variables of curve
geometry, may explain the variability in rotation-to-breakage (cy-
82 Pruett et al.
FIG 7. Location of separation. Randomly selected size #40 Light-
speed instruments that were cycled to failure. All instruments tested
showed the same pattern of separation, with fractures occurring
within the guide tube at the midpoint of the curved segment.
FIG 8. Partially separated instruments. Partially separated instru-
ments appear normal to the eye (A), and under SEM evaluation in an
unflexed state at x150 original magnification (B). Arrows indicate
the location of the fracture in-the unflexed instrument, which is
closed and not apparent. Upon mounting the instrument shaft in a
flexed (stressed) position (C), incomplete fractures became appar-
ent under SEM examination at x150 original magnification (D).
Arrows indicate the same site of examination of the instrument shaft,
which correlated to the midpoint of the curved segment of the guide
tube.
cles to failure) results and the conclusion drawn concerning Ni-Ti
instruments. Parameters including radius of curvature, angle of
curvature, instrument size, and the point of maximal instrument
flexure were all found to have a significant effect on the number of
cycles to failure and location of breakage in our study. All of these
factors should be considered when developing a test protocol for
the examination of cyclic fatigue.
Mathematics and engineering principles (14) suggest that a
system is needed that describes canal geometry in terms that
consistently describe the state of stress and cyclic fatigue on a
flexed instrument shaft. The independent variables that describe
canal shape are radius of curvature and angle of curvature. The
usual method of measuring canal curvature published by Schneider
(15) in 1971 provides a means of estimating canal shape using a
single parameter: an estimated arbitrary angle (Fig. 1). This
method does not consider radius of curvature as a measurable
aspect of canal geometry. Using only one parameter to describe
canal shape does not differentiate the canal shape by abruptness or
radius of curvature. Two canals measured at the same angle in
Journal of Endodontics
FIG 9. Stages of instrument fracture. A shows the fracture surface of
a size #30 instrument at 300 original magnification. The boxed area
is enlarged in B having a x1900 original magnification. The asterisk
indicates the area of crack initiation on the periphery. Crack prop-
agation is seen in B as striations marked by the arrows. Each
striation represents a "jump" in the fracture surface that occurred
under tension in that area during rotation. Ultimate ductile fracture is
seen in the central area of A, characterized by the presence of
microvoid formations and dimpling.
degrees by the Schneider method could have very different radii or
abruptness of curvatures, thus having a very different impact on the
difficulty of canal instrumentation and instrument fatigue.
The more exact method of determining canal curvature and
geometry described in this study considers the radius of curvature
(r) and the angle of curvature (a) separately (Fig. 2). These are
terms that mathematically specify the shape factors of a curved
root canal system. The radius of curvature (in millimeters) is the
radius of a circle that coincides with the path taken by the canal in
the area of the most abrupt curvature. A more abrupt curve cor-
responds to a smaller radius of curvature. The angle of curvature
is the degrees arc formed between the points of deviation on the
circle, or the angle formed between the perpendicular lines drawn
from the tangents intersecting at the center of the circle (Fig. 2).
The angle of curvature is independent of the radius. Thus, two
canals with the same degree of curvature can have radically dif-
ferent radii. Pilot studies were required to define systematically the
range of parameters for this study on cyclic fatigue. The radii of
curvature and angles of curvature chosen could be considered some
of the more significant that are encountered in clinical practice.
When the simulated canals in this study were measured using the
Schneider method, the 2-mm radius, 30-, 45-, and 60-degree angle
groups measured 26, 40, and 52 degrees, respectively. The 5-mm
radius, 30-, 45-, and 60-degree angle groups measured 24, 35, and
43 degrees, respectively. Authors have cited average canal curva-
Vol. 23, No. 2, February 1997
tures for mandibular molars measured using the Schneider method
between 20 to 30 degrees, with ranges between 6 to 48 degrees
(16). Our 30-degree angle groups are well within the averages of
canal measurement to be clinically relevant, whereas the angles
larger than 30 degrees would be expected to be encountered less
frequently.
Of the two canal-shape parameters, angle and radius of curva-
ture, radius of curvature was the most significant factor of canal
shape affecting the number of cycles to failure of Ni-Ti, engine-
driven rotary instruments. Consistently, a decrease in the radius of
curvature from 5 mm to 2 mm radius resulted in a significant
decrease in the number of cycles to failure (Fig. 6). Explanation of
the effect of radius is complex, but can be grossly simplified by
stating that stress on the instrument is inversely proportional to the
radius of curvature. Therefore, as the radius of curvature decreases,
instrument stress and strain increases, and the fatigue life de-
creases. To our knowledge, radius of curvature has not been
previously considered as a separate independent variable in any
instrumentation study.
Clinically, the sweeping curvature of the 5-mm radius groups,
although challenging, is a much less difficult canal curvature to
manage than the abrupt curvature represented by the 2-mm radius
groups. Abrupt curvatures predominate in the apical third of the
canal or in dilacerated roots. Both conditions are associated with an
increased incidence of instrument separation. Degree of root cur-
vature and instrument stiffness have been implicated in canal
preparation errors, such as instrument breakage, ledging, block-
ages, zipping, and perforation. However, radius of curvature with
its resultant increased stress on endodontic instruments may also be
a significant factor clinically contributing to instrument breakage
and canal transportation. These areas should be studied more
thoroughly, and the clinical effect of radius of curvature on instru-
ment breakage and root canal preparation shape should be more
clearly defined.
The 30-degree angle groups had significantly greater cycles to
failure than the 45- and 60-degree angle groups, regardless of size
(Fig. 6). This was an unexpected result when the engineering
literature was reviewed, wherein the effect of angle alone seems
negligible or uncertain. It was suspected that the 0.83 mm diameter
stainless-steel tubes used in this study, although allowing free
rotation of the instruments, did not sufficiently constrain the in-
strument shafts in the 30-degree angle groups. This lack of con-
straint, although not affecting the overall angle, did slightly in-
crease the effective radius of curvature, allowing the instrument
shaft to follow a larger radius path within the guide tube. Depend-
ing on the angle of the tube and the instrument shaft diameter, the
influence of angle of curvature was generally consistent in both the
2- and 5-ram groups. However, in the most highly stressed states
studied (size #40 instruments in the 2-ram radius), increasing angle
resulted in a significant decrease in cycles to failure between all
three angle groups. Future studies should address this potential
variable, more precisely controlling instrument constraint through-
out the defined curvature.
The Lightspeed instrument is one of several Ni-Ti systems
available to the practitioner. These instruments have a small cut-
ting head, with a noncutting pilot tip. The shaft of the instrument
is smooth, noncutting, and has a diameter that is smaller than the
head. These features make Lightspeed instruments good experi-
mental instruments in several respects. In particular, the design of
the apparatus used for cyclic fatigue testing could be simplified,
allowing the apparatus to create test stresses similar to typical
Cyclic Fatigue of Ni-Ti Rotary Instruments 83
fatigue-test equipment commonly used in other metallurgic appli-
cations. The slender shaft allows quite severe bends without per-
manent deformation, thus lending itself to a wider range of cur-
vature conditions. A predictable metal shaft diameter eliminated
having to account for additional variables, such as instrument
flutes and taper. These characteristics, however, do not prevent the
separation of Lightspeed instruments. All instruments tested in this
study separated within a 5-min time limit.
Another advantage of using the Lightspeed instrument in this
study was that operation has been advocated over a wide range of
speeds. To investigate the effect of rpm on cyclic fatigue, testing
was performed at 750, 1300, and 2000 rpm. The three rpm groups
were not statistically different from one another (Fig. 4). Upon
rotation, rising stress levels cause movement of dislocation defects
and breaks atomic bonds within the crystalline matrix of the alloy,
leading to crack initiation and propagation. The sharpness of the
crack tip causes extreme stress concentration exceeding the
strength of the metal at the crack tip in tension. The fracture
propagates a short distance under tension, then ductile deformation
blunts the crack tip, stopping the propagation. In the other half of
the cycle, under compression, the alloy buckles microscopically
and the crack resharpens (9). This minute propagation occurs on
the order of 10-6 s or approximately at the speed of sound in metal
(l 7), and the propagation event is completed much faster than the
instrument is rotating. Thus, cyclic fatigue and the ultimate number
of cycles to failure are unaffected by the rpm.
It is important to recognize that an instrument has a mean
number of cycles to failure that is determined by specific param-
eters of canal radius, canal angle, and instrument diameter. A
higher rpm will consume the useful life of the instrument much
faster than a lower rpm. Thus, a lower rpm would be beneficial and
provide a greater clinical life, more slowly using the finite number
of cycles to failure available. This is especially true when a Ni-Ti
rotary instrument is used in severe curvature conditions suspected
to induce stress fatigue. Although a wide range of operating speeds
has been advocated for Ni-Ti, engine-driven systems, those rec-
ommendations must take into account more than just cyclic fatigue
as a cause of instrument separation. Nonetheless, the effect of rpm
when studying the breakage of Ni-Ti instruments has not been
previously examined and, in the present test conditions, rpm had no
effect on cycles to failure.
The results of our investigation confirmed that instrument life
span is inversely proportional to instrument size 0 2 , 13) and that
metal fatigue is deeply implicated in file breakage (2, 8). Larger
diameter instruments had a lower fatigue life, resulting in signif-
icantly fewer cycles to failure than smaller diameter instruments
(Fig. 5). The difference in average shaft diameters between these
two instruments is only 0.046 ram. The larger diameter instrument
was under more stress within the confines of a defined curvature.
Therefore, considering cyclic fatigue as a contributor to instrument
failure, larger instruments should not be considered safer or stron-
ger in clinical practice. In fact, rotary Ni-Ti instruments with larger
diameters would be expected to separate at fewer cycles than
smaller diameter instruments.
The results of our study should not be interpreted as a fixed
mean number of cycles to failure for either size #30 or #40
Lightspeed instrument during clinical use. Two important points of
explanation are required. First, the point of maximal flexure in the
curvature and, therefore, the stress on the instrument during this
study was in a constant fixed location until separation occurred.
Clinically, axial motion (in and out movements) during instrumen-
84 Pruett et al.
tation with Ni-Ti, engine-driven rotary instruments would be ex-
pected, as concluded by Dederich et at. (12) examining stainless-
steel instruments, to significantly extend instrument life. Ni-Ti
instrument manufacturers suggest that these instruments be used
with continuous axial motion in the canal. Lingering at a single
depth in the canal would closely duplicate the test conditions of
this study, significantly reducing the fatigue life of an instrument
at a specific point along the instrument shaft. This mode of oper-
ation is discouraged and should be avoided.
Second, engineering applications of Ni-Ti alloys have been
extensively investigated (18-20), and the fatigue behavior of Ni-Ti
alloys has been shown to be related to the static yield stress of the
alloy. At low static stress, the alloy exhibits linear strain. Once the
stress rises above the yield stress, small increases in the stress will
give rise to large increases in strain that, unlike most metals, are
reversible. This is the so-called superelastic characteristic. Ni-Ti
fatigue tests conducted below the yield stress give results similar to
ferrous alloys, such as stainless steel. Fatigue tests conducted
above the yield stress in the superelastic range gives rise to distinct
low-cycle fatigue behavior (18), which results in very rapid reduc-
tions in fatigue life with increasing stress. This low-cycle fatigue
has been shown to be more closely related to the amount of strain
or flexure of the specimen than to the stress level and is largely a
crack propagation process. This study was conducted in the range
of superelastic rather than elastic state of deformation of the Ni-Ti
instruments. Clinically, the fatigue life of an instrument can be
related to the degree that it is flexed when placed in a curved canal,
with greater flexures having a shorter expected life. The pilot
studies used to determine the test parameters suggested that the
state of superelastic deformation, when stresses rose above the
yield stress, occurred between angles of 25 to 30 degrees when a
size #30 instrument passed through a 5-ram radius curvature. At 30
degrees, low-cycle fatigue behavior resulted. At 25 degrees and
below, the fatigue life was indefinitely long, suggesting elastic
deformation of the alloy. Being tested in the superelastic state also
helps explain the significant differences in the test groups when
stresses were increased by decreasing the radius of curvature or
increasing the angle of curvature; both resulted in increased strain.
Most clinical applications of Ni-Ti instruments will at least peri-
odically involve the superelastic flexure of these instruments, thus
the need to understand this behavior. It is difficult to estimate the
stress level in an instrument during use, but the degree to which it
is strained or flexed can be monitored through knowledge of the
canal curvature determine~t radiographically. Flexed conditions
resulting in characteristics of relatively low stain and elastic de-
formation would be expected to exhibit increased number of cycles
to failure several orders of magnitude higher than those determined
in this study (18).
All instruments tested separated at the point of maximum flex-
ure within the curved segment of the tube, wherein the stress on the
instrument was greatest (Fig. 8). The fractured surfaces seemed
similar to those previously observed for fatigue testing (1 i). Un-
flexed, partially fractured Ni-Ti instruments seemed normal with-
out permanent plastic deformation. Under flexure, opening of the
fractures was evident and generally seemed to be associated with
flaws on the instrument surface directly in the area of maximum
flexure. No instrument specimen separated at or just behind the
head of the instrument in a successful test to its cyclic fatigue limit.
This contradicts reports suggesting that the Canal Master instru-
ment design is prone to separation just behind the head or in the
apical third. Static torsional studies have shown that separation of
Journal of Endodontics
Ni-Ti Lightspeed instruments always occurred --2 mm behind the
instrument head (7). That failure mode is limited to static testing.
If instrument separation occurs behind the head of the instrument
clinically, two explanations are possible. First, separation occurred
as the result of locking or torsional overloading of the instrument
head during rotation. Second, stress in a curved canal can cause
fatigue failure directly behind the head. The head is inflexible and
must pass through any curvature that the shaft experiences. Ex-
cessive apically directed force on the instrument wilt cause the
shaft to flex just behind the head. Both circumstances lead to stress
concentration causing fatigue damage, accelerating separation
caused by binding and fatigue. Separation of unbound instruments
in the area of the most severe canal curvature should always be
considered a result of cyclic fatigue with any instrument system.
Further study is required to improve the understanding of cri-
teria that may be used to predict Ni-Ti instrument fatigue leading
to separation. The fatigue of an instrument can be broken down
into stages as evident on SEM examination (Fig. 9). Stage I, crack
initiation, is characterized by the smooth, almost featureless area at
the surface periphery. This area of fracture initiation maybe re-
versible through proper heat treatment (9). Sterilization has been
suggested to enhance the fatigue life of Ni-Ti files and reverse the
stress-induced martensite transformation to the parent austenite
phase (2). Furthermore, sterilization may reverse the crack initia-
tion stage of fracture in Ni-Ti alloys, but this is an area for future
investigation. Torsional loading during rotational use is another
variable to consider that may dramatically influence the cyclic
fatigue life of instruments. Engaged instruments that are actively
cutting dentin would be expected to have different fatigue charac-
teristics. The cyclic fatigue phenomenon may be further com-
pounded by the addition of flutes to the shaft and by instrument
taper. Flutes could act as stress concentrators on the instrument
shaft, potentially resulting in more rapid crack initiation. Instru-
ment taper enlarges the diameter of the instrument in the area of a
coronal curvature, compared with the apical area, thus resulting in
higher stress caused by a larger cross-sectional diameter. The
effect of instrument flutes and cross-sectional diameters is an area
of concern, particularly with the introduction of nonstandardized
tapered Ni-Ti instruments. These areas should be addressed in the
design of Ni-Ti, engine-driven rotary instruments and warrant
further study.
Specific recommendations for preventing breakage of Light-
speed instruments cannot be drawn from this study. However,
because partially fatigued instruments did not demonstrate visible
deformation, yet did exhibit crack formation, a general conclusion
can be made. To prevent the breakage of Ni-Ti, engine-driven
instruments secondary to cyclic fatigue, it seems that the best
recommendation is to discard them after a specified use period as
recommended for stainless-steel instruments. That use period
would be expected to vary widely depending on instrument design,
size, and stresses placed on it because of the manner of use, and the
canal curvature prepared. In some severe angles having a small
radius of curvature and a large angle of curvature, discarding an
instrument after a single use may be the safest advice.
Canal curvature and angle have been implicated in instrument
separation. Cyclic metal fatigue has been further implicated, as an
important factor in instrument breakage. This study clearly showed
that, in cyclic fatigue testing, cycles to failure is inversely propor-
tional to instrument stress. Smaller radius of curvature and in-
creased instrument diameter resulted in fewer cycles to failure
caused by higher instrument stress. Cycles to failure was not
affected by operating rpm, and the effect of angle alone on cycles
Vol. 23, No. 2, February 1997
to failure was unclear. New Ni-Ti instrument systems are currently
being recommended for use in a continuously rotary manner, and
a growing number of incidents of instrument separation are being
informally discussed. Given the increased number of Ni-Ti end-
odontic instrument systems on the market, these problems are
likely to become more common. To date, there is no test protocol
that sets minimum standards for cyclic fatigue of these instru-
ments, nor are the operating parameters of importance yet fully
understood. This study concludes with a call for a comprehensive
cyclic fatigue test specification for all rotary endodontic instru-
ments, including Ni-Ti instruments designed to be engine-driven
and fully prepare curved canals. Furthermore, the parameters of
angle of curvature and radius of curvature, and instrument cross-
sectional core diameter must be included in any such specification.
Without investigation of these parameters, recommendations for
the safe use of Ni-Ti, engine-driven rotary instruments will remain
speculative. The results also suggest that the effect of the radius of
curvature as an independent variable should be considered in
studies evaluating root canal instrumentation.
This study was supported in part by an Endodontic Student Award from
the Research and Education Foundation of the American Association of
Endodontists.
The opinions, assertions, materials, and methodologies herein are private
ones of the authors and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the
views of the American Association of Endodontists or the Foundation.
We gratefully acknowledge David S. Pittman of Sunset Resources, Inc.
(San Antonio, TX) for modifying and writing the data collection program for the
Magtrol Dynamometer. We express our gratitude to Drs. James A. Gilles,
William A. Walker Ill, and Carlos E. del Rio for their advice during article
preparation.
Drs. Pruett, Clement, and Carnes are affiliated with the Department of
Endodontics/Dental School, University of Texas Health Science Center at San
Antonio, San Antonio, TX. Address requests for reprints to Dr. David L.
Carnes, Jr., Department of Endodontics/Dental School, University of Texas
Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, i X
78284-7898.
You Might Be Interested
A case of fraud was recently uncovered in which an imposter had, over the past 25 years, managed to get
a number of essays and letters to the editor published in respected journals. The JAMA unmasked the rascal
because his "writing style had been recognized" (BMJ 311" 523, 1995).
Of course, there was another clue. The ficticious name signed to all those published letters over all those
years was--you'll love this--T. H. Fiddleman.
Cyclic Fatigue of Ni-Ti Rotary Instruments 85
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Zachariah Yeomans