Wave Motion and Vibration in Continuous Media M. H. Sadd Mechanical Engineering & Applied Mechanics Department University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI Rhode IslandWave Motion and Vibration in Continuous Media By M. H. Sadd Mechanical Engineering & Applied Mechanics Department University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI ITY OF Rhode Island Published for non-commercial educational use by the University of Rhode Island, Department of Mechanical Engineering & Applied Mechanics, Kingston, RI Copyright © 2009TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 THE WAVE EQUATION AND MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES Ll 12 13 L4 15 1.6 L7 18 19 1.10 Li IntTRoDUCT ION THe CLassicaL WAve Equation D'ALEMBERT TRAVELING WAVE SOLUTION SEPARATION OF VARIABLES SOLUTION Fourier SERIES REPRESENTATION Fourter INTEGRAL FORMULA ComPLeX VARIABLES LAPLACE TRANSFORMS FourteR TRANSFORMS HANKEL TRANSFORMS StmpLe HARMONIC WAVES CHAPTER 2 VIBRATION OF STRINGS 21 2.2 23 2.4 2.5 2.6 27 2.8 THe Equation oF Motion TRAVELING WAVE SOLUTION SEPARATION OF VARIABLES SOLUTION FourTer INTEGRAL SOLUTION CoRRESPONDENCE BETWEEN SOLUTION TYPES VIBRATION OF STRINGS WITH DAMPING VIBRATION OF A COMPOSITE STRING Enercy TRANSPORTCHAPTER 3 LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN RODS 3.1 3.2 3.3 34 3.5 3.6 3.7 Equation oF MoTION TRAVELING Wave SoLUTION RESULTS SEPARATION OF VARIABLES SOLUTION Waves IN A Composite Rop Waves IN A TAPERED Rop VIBRATION OF Rops WITH Ricip END Masses LATERAL INERTIA EFFECTS CHAPTER 4 TORSIONAL WAVES IN RODS 41 4,2 GENERAL Equation oF MoTION EquaTion oF MoTION FOR CIRCULAR CASE CHAPTER 5 TRANSVERSE WAVES IN RODS AND BEAMS Daly 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 57 548 InTRoDUCT ION EuLer-BerNouLtt Beam THEORY SEPARATION OF VARIABLES SOLUTION INTEGRAL TRANSFORM SOLUTION: INFINITE BEAM Wave Errects - GeomeTRIc DISPERSION RaYLeicH Beam THEORY TimosHENKo BEAM THEORY ComPARISON OF EULER-BERNOULLI, RAYLEIGH, AND TIMOSHENKO THEORIES WITH ExacT ELASTICITY SOLUTION CHAPTER 6 VIBRATION OF MEMBRANES 6.1 6.2 Equation oF MoTION VIBRATIONS OF A RECTANGULAR MEMBRANE6.3 AXISYMMETRIC VIBRATION OF AN INFINITE MEMBRANE CHAPTER 7 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF PLATES 7.1 Equation oF Motion 7.2 Wave Errects - Dispersion 7,3 Free VIBRATIONS OF A CLAMPED CIRCULAR PLATE 7,4 FREE VIBRATIONS OF AN INFINITE PLATE CHAPTER 8 ACOUSTIC SOUND WAVES 8.1 Equation oF MoTIoNn 8.2 EquaTion oF STATE 8.3 SHock Waves CHAPTER 9 SURFACE WAVES IN INCOMPRESSIBLE LIQUIDS 9,1 IntRopucTIon anp Basic Equations 9.2 Lone TipaL Waves 9,3 SurFace Waves CHAPTER 10 FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF DYNAMIC ELASTICITY 10.1 IntRopuctioNn 10,2 STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS 10.3. Forces anp STRESS 10.4 Equations oF MoTION 10.5 Linear Evastic Constitutive RELATION: Hooke’s Law 10.6 Equations oF MoTION IN TERMS oF DISPLACEMENTS 10.7 DILATATIONAL AND EQUIVOLUMINAL Wave Mot1oN 10.8 AmpLitupe BeHAvIor FOR PLANE DILATATIONAL AND SHEAR WAVES10.9 Basic BounparY VALUE PROBLEMS AND UNIQUENESS 10,10 HeLmHoLTz Decomposition THEOREM 10,11 Two-DimeNns10NAL FoRMULATION CHAPTER 11 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT A PLANE INTERFACE 11.1 IntRopuction 11,2 REFLECTION oF A PLANE DILATATIONAL WAVE FROM A PLANE Free BounDARY 11,3 REFLECTION OF A PLANE SHEAR WAVE FROM A PLANE FREE BOUNDARY 11,4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF A PLANE DILATATIONAL WAVE FROM A PLANE INTERFACE BETWEEN Two MEDIA 11.5 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF A PLANE SHEAR WAVE FROM A PLawe INTERFACE BETWEEN Two MeDIA 11,6 Critical ANGLE oF INCIDENCE CHAPTER 12 RAYLEIGH SURFACE WAVES 12,1 Intropuction 12,2 PROPAGATION OF A WAVE ALONG A FREE SURFACE 12,3. NuMeRICAL ExaMPLe FoR v = 1/4 Case 12.4 Love Waves IN A LAYERED HALF-SPACE CHAPTER 13 HALF-SPACE PROBLEMS 13.1 — IntRopuction 13.2 Lamps ProgLem: Line LoaD SUDDENLY APPLIED ON AN ELASTIC HALF-SPACE 13.3 Steapy State Movine Line LoaD PROBLEMCHAPTER 14 — ELASTICITY THEORY OF WAVES IN RODS 14.1 Intropuction anp Basic Equations 14.2 Loneitupinat Waves 14,3 Tors1owat Waves 14,4 FlexuraL Waves CHAPTER 15 WAVE MOTION DESCRIBED IN SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 15,1 Basic Equations In SPHERICAL COORDINATES 15,2 SpHERICALLY SymMETRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELDS 15.3 SuppenLy AppLiep DISPLACEMENT ON A SPHERICAL CAVITY CHAPTER 16 ONE DIMENSIONAL WAVE MOTION IN VISCOELASTIC MEDIA 16.1 IntRopuction To ViscoELAsTic MATERIALS 16,2 MecHantcat MopeLs 16.3. Lonc1TuDINAL Waves IN ViscoELasTic RopsCHAPTER 1 THE WAVE EQUATION AND MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES The formalation and solution of problens involving wave motion in continuous media requires a certain level of mathematics. It is the object of this chapter to review some of this mathematics with the idea of providing a minimum background for the development of the subject. The reader who is not somewhat familiar with the topics presented here is encouraged to use the references quoted in the various sections for a more complete coverage. Wave motion or vibration” in continuous media involves a change of some dopendent field quantity with respect to time and spatial position. This field quantity may represent the stress, strain, displacement, pressure, velocity, density, electrical or magnetic field, ete. within a continuous body. For the problems to be studied in this book, we will always assume a continuous media through which the wave motion is taking place. By the term continuous media we mean a media where the mass density is at Least piccowise continuous*™. * We will quite often use the terms wave motion and vibration synonymously. we A piecewise on Seetionably continuous function is one which is continuous everywhere except at a finite number of discontinuous points.Wave motion problems are fundamentally quite similar in that most are formulated in terms of one or more partial differential equations governing the behavior of the motion. The various field quantities become the dependent variables in these partial differential equations, and the independent variables are normally space and time. We will restrict our attention to problems which are formulated as Linear partial differentiat equations, (and in most cases having constant coefficients). The linearity aspect allows the powerful method of superposition of solutions to be used. Linear partial differential equations are normally classified into three types: eliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic. The class of solutions to each type is fundamentally quite different. It turns out that wave motion problens are formulated in terms of hyperbolic partial diggerentiak equations. For a more complete discussion on the classification of par- tial differential equations see Sneddon [1.1] or Chester [1.2]. 1.2 THe CLassic A large variety of dynamic physical phenomena associated with wave motion at constant velocity is formulated by the equation > an where V7 4s the Lapéacian operator, ¢ is a constant and $ is the dependent field variable vhich is a function of space and time t, In rectangular Cartesian coordinates, = $(x,y,z,t) and 2) Equation (1.1) is generally known as the classical wave equation of mathe- matical physics. It is a linear hyperbolic partial differential equation with constant coefficients.‘The superposition principle for (1.1) may then be stated that if 4, and $5 are any two solutions to (1.1), then ky, + ky, will also be a solu- tion, with k, and k, being arbitrary constants. 1.3 D'ALEMBeRT TRAVELING WAVE SOLUTION One can obtain a very simple but yet informative solution to the wave equation (1.1) by a straightforward change in the independent variable. Consider first the one-dimensional wave equation 2, 2 ease (3) ear cae where > = $(x,t). Introducing new variables € and n such that E=x-ct (1.4) nex+et, we find using the chain rule from differential calculus that 2,92 292 aga, eye Ox’ 2e agan an? (1.5) 2, 2, 2 we, 20%, Pe, 2°, ae? ag? BEIM gy? Combining equations (1.5) with (1.3) produces Pe ‘6am ” o. (1.6) Equation (1.6) is easily integrated giving the result eee neers (7) where £ and g are arbitrary functions of the indicated variable.1-4 Returning to the original variables x and t, we have $= f(x - ct) + g@e + ct). (2.8) ‘The solution £(x - ct) represents a wave form moving in the positive x-direction with velocity ¢, while g(x + ct) represents a wave form moving in the negative x-direction with velocity c. To demonstrate this fact more clearly consider Figure 1.1. At t = t, the wave form £, shown as a solid profile, is f(x -ct,). Then at some later time t = t, + At the wave form is f(x - et, - cht) = £(x - cht - ct,) which is a shift of the original form an amount cAt along the positive x-axis to the dotted powition as shown, A similar situation is then true for the wave form a(x + ct). £(x - et) £(x - At - et) Figure 1.1 Since the two wave form solutions move with constant velocity c, the terminology, velocity of propagation, is then used for this quantity. It is important to point out here that this velocity is the speed of the5 wave foun and is not the speed of any material particles through which the wave motion may be passing. Another interesting fact to notice is that the wave forms £(x ~ ct) and g(x + ct) travel without changing their shape, and hence are said to be free of dispersion. Solution form (1.8) is called the D'Atombert, traveling wave or progressive wave solution to the wave equation. one can generalize the previous discussion to two and three dimensions for the case of plane wave fronts. In two dimensions the wave equation becomes > a9) and yields the traveling wave solution $= E(ix + my - ct) + e(ix+my tet) , (1.10) where 2 and m are the direction cosines of the Line wave front. Tt is to be emphasized here that the wave front, where ¢ = constant, is a straight line in the x-y plane. For the three dimensional case, the wave equation reads ee 2 Me Pere rate | quan Ox’ ay? Ox’ Ce at? with the traveling plane wave solution = £(x + my + nz - ct) + g(x tmy tnztect) , (1.12) where £, m and n are the direction cosines of the plane wave front.1.4 SEPARATION OF VARIABLES SOLUTION A standard ad hoe technique to solve linear partial differential equations is by the method of Separation of variab£es. The powerful method attempts to separate the independent variables by looking for a solution form of products of functions which depend singly on each of the independent variables, Application of the method to the wave equa- tion is best discussed by example; hence consider the following special cases. One-Dimensional Cartesian Going back to the one-dimensional Cartesian coordinate case in equation (1.3), we try 2 product solution form (x,t) = Xx) Tt) (1.13) where X is a function of x alone and T is a function of t alone. Substituting form (1.13) into (1.3) gives xT = . 14) 4 ee of (1.14) 4s a function of x alone while right-hand side is a function of t alone, the only way for the equality to be true for all x and t te for both sides to be equal to some constant, say ~A”, The reagon for choosing @ negative constant will be explained later. With both sides equal to this constant we then get the two Separated equations (1.45)‘The solutions to (1-15) are in terms of the trigonometric functions sine and cosine, i-e., X= A sinkx + B coskx (1.16) T= Csincht +D coset , where A, B, C and D are arbitrary constants to be determined from the boundary conditions. As a shorthand scheme, we will write the solutions (2.16) as x {Sond {etnere} coscat Nobice that the choice of our separation constant of -r°, produced harmonic (.17) time dependence; whereas if we chose +A” exponential time dependence would occur. Since wave motion and vibratory phenomena are oscillatory, we expect and want harnonic tine dependence. Hence there is no ambiguity im the choice of the proper separation constant, for the proper solution form will dictate the choice. Our one-dimensional solution form is then given by tooo = {ae} {eeestel (1.18) ‘Three~Dimens. For the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate case we use a solu~ tion form $Grysz5t) = KEY (y)Z(2)T(t) 19) in equation (1.11). This results in four separated equations which are similar to (1.15) ‘The final solution is then expressible asdcearese) = {0} {stmn) {etnge} fetnere} | 2) 2, a gt where 4, a, @ and Y are all separation constants related by \” +a” +B” = 2 Y. ‘Three-Dimensional Cylindrical Because of geometry it will be very advantageous to use certain non- cartesian coordinate systens in various problens, With this in mind we now consider again the three-dimensional case but this time using cylindrical coordinates to describe spatial position. The cylindrical coordinate systen r, 0 and 2 is shown in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 ‘The cylindrical coordinates are related to the Cartesian by rept yy? i.) Ly 8 = tan” . x ‘The wave equation (1.1) in a three-dimensional cylindrical coordi- nate system reads410,31 9%, 0% 1 oe (1.22) me Ee yet at Pat ‘To apply the separation of variables procedure for this case we try a solution form (2,0, 2,t) = R(r)O()Z(z) T(t) (1.23) in equation (1.22), The result is after dividing through by ROZT RY R +a : (1.24) pis i where again primes and dots mean derivative with respect to argument. To separate (1.24) we apply the previous reasoning to conclude that both sides of (1.24) mist be equal to some constant, say ~y*. This implies Ru, let, 1 ow gtrre* do 772 r (1.25) ne arr (1.26) RY Ry 22, ot Beery rte-F , where 67 = y°- 67. Again we can now separate (1.26), to get ont ao =0 (1.27) rept tart + (p72? - aR=0 Equations (1.25)9, (1.26) and (1.27) are then the separated equations to be solved for R, ®, 2 and T. These equations contain the various separation constants a, 8, 5 and y.1-10 The three equations (1.25) 95 qa. 6) and (1.27), are easily solved as before; however (1.27) 9 is of a different form. The ordinary differ- ential equation (1-27), 18 a well-known type called Bessee's equation of order a. Since this differential equation will occur in many places in our study on wave motion, we will spend a Little tine in looking at its solutions. For the sake of discussion let us introduce Bessel's differential equation of order V in terms of the variable y(x) 2, 2ay, dy y G2 - ys Set ae Gaye O © (1.28) One should note that (1.27), is not exactly the same as (1.28) but can be put into this form by a simple change of variable (i.e., let r* = 13). ‘The solution to (1,28) 1s found by power series methods, see for example Churchill [1.3], Kreyszig [1.4] or Wylie [1.5]. The solutions are ¥) = C,5,(x) + 655,00) (1.29) for v # integer, and yx) = 6)5,(0) + CY, 60) (1.30) for Vv unrestricted. The quantities C, and C, are arbitrary constants, Jy) is called the Bessel function of the s Ate) Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 In addition to Bessel's equation (1.28), another equation of similar form (except for a sign) will also come up in our study. The equation under discussion reads 2, Pere ede Kravdyno, 33) ote ge1-12 which is called the modified Bessel dif ferentiak equation of onder v. ‘This equation can be written as 2 Hagin Oda A Opt get x! voy 0 where iv “1, and hence it can be seen that this is simply Bessel's equation of order v with imaginary argument solutions, i.e., solutions of the form J,,(ix) and ¥, (ix). Instead of retaining solutions with imaginary argument, the problem is normally handled by introducing two new solution forms. Consequently the solution to (1,33) is customarily written as yGe) = G1 yG0) + pL, Go (1.34) for v # integer, and yO) = GTO) + 6K, (0) (2.35) for v unrestricted, Again the quantities C, and C, are constants, 1, (x) 1 is the modigiod Bessee function of the first kind of order v given by T,@) =i ™s,Gx) , (1.36) while K,(2) is the modigéed Bessel function of the second kind of onder v expressed by qq by® - @) O°? sm 37) The modified Bessel functions are plotted in Figures 1,5 and 1.6 for orders zero and one. Getting back then to our separation of variables problem, the solu- tion to (1.27), is then fiat . Re ¥,(6r) . (1.38)1-13 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6Putting this solution with those of equations (1.25), (1-26, and (1.27),, gives the complete form for cylindrical coordinate systems {20>} {ee fees faery #2820 = Ly (Gry Leos! leosse! leoseye! * co) ‘Three-Dimensional Spherical. Attention is now directed to the three-dimensional formulation in Spherical coordinates which are defined in Figure 1.7. Figure 1.7 ‘The transformation equations with Cartesian coordinates are x " r sind cosy x sind sinp (2.40) « 1 zercost . For this coordinate system the wave equation (1.1) becomes 2 2, 2 24,224, 1 3 (ony 26) 4-2 3H .1 28 Gig ae? FY L? ging 30° 2? win’s ay?” ar? ‘The separation of variables technique starts with a solution form O(r,8,y,t) = R(TIOC)YM)T(E) (1.42)1-15 which is then substituted into (1.41). Following a similar process as in the previous cases, one finds that four separated equations emerge. The results are tear = 0 wa py=o (a.4a) 27a" + arr! + Me? ~ y cyt) IR = 0 (eine £8) + pret) - 1 =0 ane 95 % sin’ where a, @, and Y are separation constants. The first two equations of this set (1.43) are easily solved as * before, Equation ats may be solved by letting R= t/a’ oe The resulting equation for R* is Just Bessel's equation of order ¥ + $s hence er) Tye mtd (1.44) Yy 42 Or) The final equation of set (1.43) is again a well-known type called the generalized Legendre equation. Tes solution, 1ike Bessel's equation, may be found by power series methods (see references [1-3], [1.4] or [1.5]). For integer values of ® and ¥, the bounded solution to (1.43), is normally written as 8 a= P," (cos0) (2.45) where P,P (cose) is the associated Legendre function of degree & and onder y. By definition for B < ¥ 8 di —i3e a(cos8)® Y 2 (cost) = sin®e (cos8) (2.46)1-16 with P, (cost) being the Legendre polynomial of degree y given by v 2, P (cos) = ——8 sist)”, (1.47) 2"yt a(cos6)” Typical solutions would then read Po (cos) = 1 P (cos) = cos6 1 2, Py (cos8) = 3 (3 cos“@ ~ 1) P,)(cos8) = sind (1.48) P,' (cos) = 3 sin® cost + (e098) 3 5 coe! P J sin8(5 cos - 1) Combining our results, the general solution form to the wave equation in spherical coordinates is raf ee |g nb wus yd singy) {einen $0800) = 2 ae ey tenes) (eaney |e peceeec ee) 1 4@) Y+5 1.5 FOURIER SERIES REPRESENTATION In the previous section we discussed the separation of variables technique, and found several general solution forms. Additional analysis would be needed to solve a given problem with apecified boundary condi- tions. In most cases this additional analysis involves the superposition of those solution forms and leads one into the area of representing a function in terms of its Fourier sonées. ‘This particular solution method of separation of variables, superposition and Fourier series is then sometimes called Fowxéen's method.1-17 Because of this need we briefly review some of the concepts of Fourier series representation. In general an arbitrary given function f(x) may be represented over some interval of the x-axis by a linear combination of orthonormal functions. For most applications the orthonormal set is coin nmx/ 2 cos nnx/2) > With integer n and £ = constant. the trigonometric set If a function f(x) is periodic with period 22, sectionally continuous on the interval (-2,2), and defined as its mean value from the right and left at its points of discontinuity, then £(x) has the Fowrien series hopresentation £ (x) (1.50) where a, = ZL" £) cos Bax, n= 0,14, 2. (1.52) Lm nx beds eG) oin™ax , net, B30. Lé £(x) is an even function; i.e., £(x) = £(-x) then the representation (1,50) reduces to the Fourier cosine serces s@) «da,+J aco , (1.52) nel where 2 ph nx 5 a, = 2 fh £0) coo ME dx, ne %1 2%. 53) on internal (0,2). If £(x) is an odd function; i.e., £(x) = -f(-x) then (1.50) reduces to the Fourier sine series £(@) =] db, sin n , (1.54)1-18 where 2 in BME b= 7 fo £@) sin ax , n=1,2,3,--. 4.55) on interval (0,2). In addition to using the trigonometric Fourier series, it is possible to express a function in a series of Bessel functions. If a function £(x), along with its derivative, is sectionally continuous on the interval (0,a), and is defined as its mean value at any points of discontinuity, then £(x) has the Fowrier-Bessel series nepresentation Any» (2.56) where 2 A MG AI, OymEGO de (1.57) (44159) * ay with 1, being the positive roots of the equation JQa) 20, ie O} 2) Oye (1.58) For more details on this and other topics in Fourier series see Churchill (1.3). 1.6 FOURIER INTEGRAL FORMULA The solution of our partial differential wave equation by Fourier's method in infinite and semi-infinite regions will require the use of the Fourier integral representation. This concept is quite similar to the Fourier series idea, but now we want to represent a function which is not periodic. Let f(x) be a sectionally continuous function on every finite interval of the x-axis, defined as its mean value at any points1-19 of discontinuity, and let f |f(x)|dx exit, then at every point (-» < x < =) where the right and left-hand derivatives exist, the function has the Fourier integral representation £(@) = fg [A@) cosax + B(a) sinax}da , (1.59) where J £06) cosog a& (2.60) { £@) sinag de. Note also the equivalent form £00) Fhle© cosla(E-x) ]dbda . (6D) As before with the Fourier series theory, there exists a reduction of the preceeding formulas for the case of even and odd functions. If £(%) is an odd function, then we have the Fourier sine integral fonmuta 22 © f@) =F fo sino Jo £(E) sing deda, (1.62) If £(x) is an even function, then the result is Fourder cosine integral formuta 2 © £(@) = 7 [5 cosux fy £(E) cosak déda (1.63) Additional theory on Fourier integrals may be found in Churchill [1.3]. 1.7 CoMPLEX VARIABLES At various places in our analysis of problems, the use of complex variables will be helpful. We present here a brief review of some of the general concepts needed later in our work, Details on complex variables may be found in Churchill [1.6].A complex number 2 can be defined as an otdered pait (x,y) of real numbers x and y. These complex numbers can be written as the sum of a yeal number and a pure imaginary number, f.e., x + ty : (1.64) where i = YT is the purely imaginary unit. Addition, subtraction, mubtipeication and division of two complex numbers z, = x, + iy, and 1 z + ty, are defined by 27 *2 zy t zy = Oe +H) +40, + yp) 7 Fy 7 Ory =) + Gy ~ ¥p) (2.65) 2ytg Rm, — Hyg) HOQY + HY) RX ty YL HY. EE) 4 Ah The complex conjugate Z , of the complex nunber 2 is written Z= x ~ ty. The ordered pair (x,y), which represents the complex number z, can be associated with the rectangular Cartesian coordinates of a point tn the x-y plane; see Figure 1.8. y = Im(z) Re(z) Complex Plane Figure 1.81-21 From the figure, by plotting x which equals the real part of 2, Re(z), and y which equals the imaginary part of 2, Im(z), we generate what is called the complex plane. Any complex number % can then be thought of as a vector or point in this complex plane. This allows one to represent z in the polar form z= r(cos6 + i sind) » (1,66) where the angle 6 is called the atgument of z, written @ = arg(x), and defined by tand -2 3 and r is the absolute value or modulus of z given 2, 21 male by r= |e] = i + . Note that with the relation of = cose +i sind, (1.67) equation (1.66) may be written as z=rel® , (1.68) At certain times we will want to consider a function of a complex variable z. We denote this as f(z), and can write £(z) = uGay) + ivGay) 5 (1.69) where u and v are real-valued functions of x and y. For example let £(2) = 2? = (x + dy)? = x? - y” + d2xys and hence u = x” ~ y* and v= 2xy. 1.8 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS In addition to the Fourier method for solving the governing partial differential equations, the powerful method of integral transforms will also be used. In particular three specific types, Laplace, Fourier and Hankel transorms, will be applied to problem solution. Each has specific1-22 problem types which the particular transform is most successful with. With regard to applications, these linear integral transforms have a basic operational property that transforms a given Linear differential form into an algebraic expression. Comprehensive coverage of Linear integral transforms, sometimes called operational mathematios, may be found in Churchill [1.7] or Sneddon [1.8] and [1.9]. Because of the com- plexities involved, we present here only a very brief account of these integral transforns. ‘The Laplace transform f(s) of the function f(t) is defined by Flo) = Lte(e)} = fy E(eye ae, (1.70) where £(t), specified for all values of t > 0, must be of exponential order (i.e., [£(t)| < Me™" for some constants M and a), and s, the transform variable, may be real or complex. The basic operational property of the Laplace transform is L{E" (e)} = sE(s) ~ £(0) L(e"(t)} = 87 (@) = 8£(0) - £*(0) am L{E""(t)} = 8° F(a) ~ 87£(0) ~ 8£"(0) ~ £"¢0) where primes denote derivatives with respect to argument. Further common properties are listed below Lfaf(t) + bg(t)} = af(s) + be(s) Le**E(e)} = F(s-a) ~ (1.72) L{£(tea)H(t~a)} = e*°F(s) Lf f@ar) = 2 Fey,1-23 vhere a and b are constants, and H is the heaviside or unit step function defined by H(t) = (1.73) Another very useful property associated with the Laplace transform is the convolution relationship UTE Ce)g(s)) = [5 Eae-v)ar (1.74) = f§ ele-ns@ar where L”) means the inverse Laplace trans form, In ueing the Laplace or any of the other transforms, a key step in the anelysis lies in the inversion of the result. That is, in applying the transform method one normally solves the problem in terms of transformed variables, and then must take the inverse transform to get back to the original problem, In many cases this Inversion process is the most aifficult part of the problem, Inversion tables found in most textbooks on the subject (see references [1.7], [1.8] or [1.9]) act as an aid in preforming this process. However, many complicated forms cannot be inverted by tables; and hence more general methods involving complex variables and contour integration must be used. The general inverse thans form integral for the Laplace transform is given by a tte eat, + F(s)e"as (75) BE sg f(t) = OMFG} = where the path of integration is in the complex plane along the line Re(s) = y, with Y chosen such that all the singularities of the integrand lie to the left of this Line.1-24 1.9 FOURIER TRANSFORMS ‘The Fourier transform (a) of the function F(x) is given by F@) = Fle@} =f e@e tax , (2.76) where £(x) must be absolutely integrable over the range (-=,%). The basic operational property for the Fourier transform case is F{E"(x)) = tai (@) FE" («))} = -a7#(a) FLO" Ge} = -t07F(@) (1.77) FE = UNE@) with £40) = e140) = 1. = EOD (Hy 2 0, Some additional fundamental properties are given by Flaf(x) + bg(x)} = aF(@) + bg(@) FleGra)} = oF (a) (a.78) Flee") = Fa-a) Fé()}=l , where avand b are constants, and 6 is the Dirac delta function with the property that J SGerE)hG)dx = h(E) (1.79) for any piecewise continuous h(x). ‘The convolution property for the Fourier transform reads25 FTE CEO) = J EE)EGrEDee (1.80) f(r E)g(E)dE , ieee) ee where F' again means inverse transform, ‘fo invert a given Fourier transform one may use tables or the follow ing general inversion integral s@ = FF@I=Lf Face . 2.81) 1.10 HANKEL TRANSFORMS The final transform we will have use for is the Hankel transform. ‘This particular transform ia especially helpful when the wave equation is formilated in cylindrical coordinates, We define the Hankel transform of order n, f(A), of the function f(r) by BO) =H e@)} = fy r€@)IOrar (2.82) out spplications wiil involve the weO er meh casos; however, the results ara valid for alta >- 2. ee eters cylindrical coordinates that the differential operator 1a My 2 ew (2.83) will repeatedly appear. The Hankel transform is so designed as to eliminate this differential form, because its fundamental operational property 1s #(D,[ecey]} = - FQ) ; (1.84) and it can also be shown that 4,00,218()1) = H,0,0,(@))) = MPA). (1.85)1-26 There is no simple convolution property for Hankel transform theory. However one result which does exist is fg rE@e( ar = J, BABA . (1.86) ‘The inversion integral for the Hankel transform is given by ee) = HS MEQ) = fy MOOnA (1.87) 1.11 SIMPLE HARMONIC WAVES We showed in section 1.3 that any function of the variable x + ct was a solution to the one-dimensional wave equation. With this in mind and also realizing that meny types of wave motion are oscillatory in nature, we consider a particular harmonic solution form of the variable x ct. This form will prove to be useful in studying propagation characteristics of various problens. Consider then the Simple hatmonic wave solution form defined by x,t) A cos{k(x # ct) + €] A costkx + wt + €] (1.88) A cos[2m( ame (1.89) Note that the cholce of using the sine or cosine form 4s arbitrary. In the previous definition A is the amplitude, k 1s the wave number, © is the phase or wave velocity, © is the phase angle, w is the citeutar frequency with £ being simply the (requency, A is the wave Length and T is the1-27 period. In order to gain more insight on the simple harmonic wave, consider the plots in Figures 1.9 and 1.10, Figure 1.9 is a graph of equation (1.88) for fixed x. JM Figure 1.9 A similar plot but for fixed t is shown in Figure 1.10. Figure 1.101-28 It should be evident that the wave shape in Figure 1,10 moves along the xcaxis as time progresses, ‘The velocity of this movement is the phase velocity, c. A similar situation exists for the wave profile in Figure 1.9. In addition to the form presented in equation (1.88), simple harmonic waves can also be written in complex form. Recalling the result (1.67) from section 1.7, we can write (1.88) as a Lox £ wt) $(x,t) = Ref{Ae > (1.90) where A” is a complex amplitude given by AD = he . (1.91) Quite often the harmonic solution form is simply written in complex form oGx,e) = aet Ce # wt) (1.92) The introduction of form (1.92) normally simplifies computational steps, and at the end of the solution only the real part of the result is retained. It should be pointed out however that this procedure (based upon the independence of real and imaginary parts) is only valid when the problem is linear in $. The simple harmonic wave solution (1.88) lends itself quite well to the superposition principle. As mentioned because of Linearity we are free to add together, in a linear combination, various solution forms. As an example consider superposition of the two harmonic waves A cosfix + wt +] and A cos[kx + ut + €,]. With a little help from some trigonometric identities we find thatA cos(ke + wt + €)) +A cos(kx + ut + €5) = = (1.93), coo (kx + wt + €) where 12 A(2[1 + cose, ~ €4)1) — _ sine, + sine, (2.94) tan € = : cose, # cose, This result can be generalized for waves of different amplitudes; hence any linear combination of simple harmonic waves, all having the same frequency but with different amplitudes and phase angles, can be reduced to a single simple harmonic wave of the same frequency. As another example consider this time the superposition of two harmonic waves propagating in opposite directions. One can show that A cos(kx + we + €,) + A cos(kx - we + €5) (1.95) = 2A cos(kx + @) cos(wte +&) , where 1 @=5 (, + 6,) (1.96) We see from (1.95) that the resulting wave profile vanishes at the points for which cos(kx + €) = 0, These vanishing points, called the nodes, remain fixed in space, and hence the wave profile does not move. Such waves are known as Stationary or Standing waves, and will come up in the dynamic behavior of Finite-sized continuous bodies, As a final example let us superimpose two simple harmonic wavetrains moving in the same direction with slightly different frequencies. Such an addition yields that1-30 A sin[(c + Ak)x = (w+ Aw)t] +A sin[(k - Ak)x = (w - dwt] (1.97) = 2A cos(xAk ~ thw) sin(lax = wt). Tt can be seen from (1.97) that 00 motions exist. One motion, sin(kx - ut), is oscillating with frequency w and moves with the phase velocity c = w/k. A second motion, cos(xbk - tAw), defines a slowly oscillating envelope which moves with velocity Aw/Ak, The combined effect gives what is known as amplitude modulation, and is plotted in Figure 1.11. modulation envelope / a 2m kan Ak Figure 1.11 Since the modulation envelope encloses a group of waves, its velocity is called the group velocity, cy, 1c, : (1.98) ‘The group velocity is very important because in many physical situations it is what one actually observes experimentally. Furthermore,1-31 the transport of energy associated with a wave disturbance takes place at the group velocity rather than at the phase velocity. Our superposition of just two harmonic waves is rather elementary, since in most physical situations a whole frequency spectrum of waves exist. Nevertheless it can be shown that our result (1.98) is valid in general. We will have much more to say about the group velocity in later chapters. Yor a further account of simple harmonic waves along with the general nature of wave motion, the interested reader is encouraged to see Pearson [1.10] and French [1.11].[1.2] nia (1.31 [1.4] [1.5] [1.6] (1.71 [1.8] [1.9] [1.10] (1.11) 1-32 REFERENCES: Cyapter 1 Sneddon, T. N., ELements of Partial Differential Equations, MeGraw-Hi11, New York, 1957. Chester, C. R., Techniques in Partiat Differential Equations, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1971. Churchill, R. V., Founder Series and Boundary Value Problems, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963. Kreyszig, E., Advanced Engineering Wathematics, Third Réition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1972. Wylie, c. R., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Fourth Edition, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1975. Churchill, R. V., Complex Variables and Applications, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960. Churchill, R. V., Operational Mathematics, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972. Sneddon, T. N., The Use of Integral Transforms, MoGrav-Hill, New York, 1972. Sneddon, I. N., Fourer Transforms, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951. Pearson, J. M., A Theory of Waves, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1966. French, A. P., Vébsations and Waves, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971.