TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE (Level I and ID) Prepared by Reviewed by | Approved by _| Date Revision number Print_P. Carter J.M.Pitcher_ T.J.Anmitt 15/8/97 06 Sign’ 06/08/1999 ISSUE 1 FEB 2000DEFINITIONS Figure 1 Co-ordinate System The following symbols are used in the text, © velocity of sound 2. wavelength of sound depth of reflector below scanning surface D thickness of sample being scanned parallel scan in which direction of beam parallel to direction of scan non-parallel _ scan in which direction of beam normal to direction of scan PCS _ probe centre separation s half of probe centre separation 2s t time of flight of signal from a reflector 21) time taken for sound to pass through two probe shoes, i.e. probe delay ti time of flight of lateral wave i» time of flight of back wall signal © angle of beam centre with respect to normal to metal surface y beam cone half-angle St timing error Sd depth error &c error in velocity 3s errorin probe separation SH error in change in couplant thickness h error in variation of surface height ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 iiCONTENTS TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE. (Level I and 11. DEFINITIONS CONTENTS, 1, INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Scope of the Course... 1.2 Requirement 1.3 Examination : 2, BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC TESTING 2.1 Background to Non Destructive Testin, 2.2 Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing. 2.3 Pulse-echo detection of flaws.... 2.4 Flaw Sizing with the Pulse-echo Technique 2.5 Comparison of Flaw Sizing Accuracy for different Techniques 3. THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE. 3.1 Background to the Importance of the TOFD Techniqui 3.2. History of TOFD Development... a 3.3 Principle of TOFD. 3.3.1 Diffraction proc 3.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Signals. 3.3.3 Basic TOFD Set-up .. 3.3.3.1 Probe type and wave typ 3.3.3.2 Signals observed. 3.3.3.3 Phase Relationships. 3.3.3.4 Depth Calculation... 3.3.3.5 Measurement of Time and initial Probe-Centre-Separation . 3.3.3.6 Patterns for Surface breaking Defect 3.4 Types of TOFD Scan. 3.5 Main Uses Of TOFD. 3.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD 3.7 Basic Steps in the Sizing or Detection of Flaws 4, DATA COLLECTION SYSTEM... 4.1 Basic Hardware ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 iii4.2 Advantage of Digital Recording... 4.3 Digitisation of the Analogue Ultrasonic Signals 4.3.1 Amplitude. 4.3.2 Sampling Rate 4.4 Selection of frequencies for filterin; 4.5 Amount of data collected during an inspection. 4.6 Grey scale imaging and B-scans. 4.7 Signal Averaging. 4.8 Pulse Width Control... 4.9 Pulse Repetition Frequency... 4.10 Software . é 410.1 Omeline..en 4.10.2 Analysis and Of-line facilities. . DESIGN OF TOFD INSPECTION. 5.2 Beam Spread Considerations 5.2.1 Basies for calculation of beam spread. 5.2.2 Example of selection of number of seans for an inspection. 5.3 Examination of Material to be Inspected. 5.4 Choice of Probe Angle. 5.5 Choice of Probe Frequency. 5.6 Choice of Probe-Centre-Separation 5.7 Calibration and Setting of Gain. 5.7.1 Gain is not dependent on reflector siz... 5.7.2 Use of diffraction signal from slots to set gain.... 5.7.3 Use of grain noise or “grass” to set the gain... 5.7.4 Effect of attenuation or coarse grain noise on gain setting. 5.1.5 Calibration or checking of the inspection set up. 5.8 Digitisation Rate and Pulse Repet 5.9 Region of A-scan to be Digitised 5.10 Signal Averaging and Pulse-width. 5.11 No signals - Common faults 5s z f E < Z z 5 £ 2 é : @ 5.12.1 General... 5.12.2 Manual Scanning. 5.12.3 Mechanical Scanning 5.12.4 Sampling Interval 5.13 Temperature. 5.14 Couplant. 5.15 Special Techniques... 5.15.1 Double Skip 5.15.2 Use of Mode Converted Echoes . 5.15.3 Use of Off-Axis Scans... 5.16 Summary of Choice of Parameters for a TOFD Scan 6. ERRORS... 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Timing Errors.. ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 iv6.3 Near surface Problems 6.4 Dead Zones... 6.4.1 Lateral wave dead zone 6.4.2 Backwall Dead Zone 6.5 Off-Axis Error and Back Wall Blind Zone .. 6.5.1 Off-axis depth error. 6.5.2 Back wall blind zone.. 6.6 Spatial Resolution of embedded defects 6.7 Effect of change in Probe ee and Importance of Calibration with Lateral and Back wall signals... 6.7.1 Change in Probe Separation.. 6.7.2 Importance of Calibratior 6.8 Errors in couplant depth, surface height variations and velocity 6.8.1 Error due to variations in couplant depth 6.8.2 Error due to variations in cae profile 6.8.3 Velocity error 6.9 Index Point Migration Errors... 6.10 Other Errors 6.11 Multiple Ares.. 6.12 Large Grained Materials. 6.12.1 General 6.12.2 Cladding. 6.13 Overall Errors and Monitoring Growth.. 6.13.1 Overall Errors 6.13.2 Monitoring Defect Growt poe 6.14 Estimate of Flaw Length from a TOFD D-Scan .. 78 6.14.1 Introduction 6.14.2 Estimation of length for flaws with profiles parallel to the metal surface .. 78 6.14.2.1 Use of shaped cursor representing a point source... 6.14.2.2 Measurement of beam spread... 6.14.2.3 Use of the SAFT technique to measure lengt i 6.14.3 Estimation of length for flaws with curved profiles (rear surface breaking)80 6.14.4 Conelusio 7 DATA ASSESSMENT - FLAW CHARACTERISATION 7.1 Basic analysis.. 7.2 Introduction to Characterisation 7.3 Shear Waves... 7.4 Pores and Slag in TOFD Records 7.5 Internal Cracks 7.6 Upper Surface Breaking Cracks. 7.7 Lower Surface Breaking Cracks. 7.8 Effect of changing Defect Profile. 7.9 Weld Root Flaws and Backwall Features 7.10 Crack Transparency. 7.11 Transverse Flaws 7.12 Uncategorized Flaws 7.13 Additional Scans for Detailed Characterisation ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 v8 ANALYSIS SOFTWARE. 9. 10 REPORTING... 11 PROCEDURE WRITING 12 EQUIPMENT AND PROBE CHECKS. 13. TOFD TRIALS AND VALIDATIONS... APPENDIX 1 OFF-AXIS DEPTH ERROR... 7.14 Acceptance Criteria 8.1 Linearisation. 8.2 Lateral/Back wall Straighten and Removal 8.3 Parabolic Cursor. 8.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique - SAF 8.5 Split Spectrum Processing. 99 8.6 Locus plots. 99 CURVED SURF. 101 9.1 Curved Surfaces 101 9.2 Complex Geometry 12.1 Equipment Checks. 12.1.1 Screen Height Linearity 12.1.2 Amplitude Lineari 12.1.3 Time Base Linearity 12.14 Probe Index Emission Point. 12.1.5 Beam Angle 12.1.6 Beam Spread 12.1.7 TOFD Combined Probe Delay. 12.1.8 Sensitivity . 12.1.9 Resolution. 12.2 Probe checks 12.2.1 Material Velocity Measurement. 12.2.2 Probe Frequency... 12.2.3 Probe Pulse Length. 12.3 Check of Attenuation in Material. 13.1 Introduction... 13.2 UK Defect Detection Trials. 13.3 PISC II Trails... : 13.4 PISC II Trials. 13.5 Other Validation Exercises 13.5.1 Welding Institute Collaborative Programme. 13.5.2 Offshore Structures 13.5.3 Validation Work at the EPRI NDE Centre USA... 13.54 NIL Project- Non-Destructive Testing of Thin Plate . 13.5.5 Evaluation of TOFD in a 350 mm test block, 1998 A1.1 Theoretical Derivation of Off-Axis Depth Error A1.2 Example of Variation of Depth Error with Off-Axis Distance .. 1.3 Depth Error at Edge of Ultrasonic Beam AL3.1 General Situation.. A1.3.2 When Beam Centres aimed at 2/3 Depth of Samp 1.3.3 When Beam Centres aimed at Backwall.. ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 viAL4 Depth Error at Edge of Weld. A1.4.1 Single ‘V’ Weld... 1.4.2 Double ‘V’ Weld ALS Conclusion: APPENDIX 2. DETERMINATION OF DEPTH FOR OFF-AXIS FLAWS IN A NON- PARALLEL SCAN USING MODE CONVERTED WAVES. 133, APPENDIX 3 STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO A TOFD INSPECTION.. 3.1 Data Collection. A3.2 Analysi A3.3 Processing the Data. 43.3.1 Lateral/backwall Straighten/Removal 43.3.2 Linearisation.. A33.3 SAFT A3.3.4 Examine A-scan display. A3.3.5 Select Part of an Image. A3.3.6 Profiling. A3.3.7 Echodynamic: A3.3.8 Fourier Transform APPENDIX 4 PRINTING DAT; A4.1 REPGEN ... A4.2 BMP File APPENDIX 5 TOFDAIDS SOFTWARE PACKAGE. INDEX FIGURES...... ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 viiFIGURES Figure 1 Co-ordinate System. Figure 2.1 Flaw size in relation to beam spread. Figure 2.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 64B Drop Sizing. Figure 3.1 Illustration of importance of accurate sizing measurements. Figure 3.2 Representation of the Diffraction Process from Crack Tips... Figure 3.3 Illustration of Diffraction.. Figure 3.4 Calculated Variation of Amplitude of Diftracted Waves with Angle . Figure 3.5 Cross Section of Typical Probe. Figure 3.6 Wave Paths for the TOFD Arrangement Figure 3.7 A-scan with no Defect Present. Figure 3.8 A-scan with Defect Present Figure 3.9 Basic TOFD parameters. Figure 3.10 Consistent measurement of time of various cae f Figure 3.11 Surface opening crack in a non-parallel scan... Figure 3.12 Surface opening cracks on the back wall for a non-parallel sean Figure 3.13 Non-Parallel or Longitudinal Scan Figure 3.14 Parallel or Transverse Scan. Figure 3.15 Difference between a non-parallel and a parallel scan. Figure 3.16 Uncertainty in lateral position in a non-parallel scan Figure 4.1 Typical Digital System for collecting TOFD Data Figure 4.2 Digitisation of an A-scan _ Figure 4.3 Digitisation with 5 samples per period Figure 4.4 Sampling a 10 MHZz sin wave with a 20 MHz digitiser.. Figure 4.5 Sampling a 10 MHz sin wave with a 15 MHz digitiser. Figure 4.6 Grey scale representation of the amplitude. Figure 4.7 Appearance of a signal in a B-scan which occurs in a. succession of A-scans. 37 Figure 4.8 Principle of Signal Averaging. Figure 4.9 Effect of Drive Pulse on Transmitter Crystal Element. Figure 4.10 Illustration of Effect of altering Driver Pulse Width . Figure 5.1 Illustration of meaning of Precision and Resolution. Figure 5.2 Definition of Beam Spread... Figure 5.3 Effective volume of coverage for two 60 degree probes aimed at 2/37. Figure 5.4 Effective volume of coverage for two 45 and two 60 degree probes (5 MHz) aimed at 2/3T. 49 Figure 5.5 Effective volume of coverage for two 60 and two 70 degree probes (5 MHz) aimed near surface region. 50 Figure 5.6 Complete coverage of + and - 40 mm about weld centre with 3 scans (30 mm apart) using two pairs of TOFD probes. 30 Figure 5.7 Arrangement for determining gait 54 Figure 5.8 Arrangement for double skip .. 59 Figure 6.1 Example of depth error asa function of depth due to timing uncertainty... 64 Figure 6.2 Example of depth error as a function of angle for a given timing uncertainty 65 Figure 6.3 General TOFD Layout 68 Figure 6.4 Illustration of Back Wall Blind Zon 69 ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 ViliFigure 6.5 Illustration of where to measure lateral and back wall positions due to change in PC Figure 6.6 Ultrasonic path through couplant layer. Figure 6.7 Illustration of variation in index point on surface of metal with defect positionS 7 Figure 6.8 Example of Overall Error as a function of Depth... Figure 6.9 Shape of TOFD D-scan record due to flaw with profile parallel to surface Figure 6.10 Measurement of beam spread ee oo) Figure 6.11 Shape of TOFD D-scan record due to flaws with curved profiles 81 Figure 7.1 B-scan from Parallel scan showing characteristic pattern of mode converted signals. Figure 7.2 Appearance of Pores and Slag in D-sean.. Figure 7.3 Appearance of long Slag Lines. Figure 7.4 Appearance of internal crack and thick slag line Figure 7.5 Appearance of Top Surface Breaking Flaw Figure 7.6 Profile of Rear Surface Breaking Defect .. Figure 7.7 Appearance of signal from Defects near to or breaking lower surface Figure 7.8 Change in Signal Strength due to change in Profile Figure 7.9 Use of Parabolic Shaped Cursor to detect if Defect Profile is Curved Figure 7.10 Definition of acceptance criteria for TOFD Figure 8.1 Use of Parabolic Cursor for Determining Length. Figure 8.2 Effective Beam Spread with SAFT Figure 8.3 The SAFT Process .. Figure 9.1 TOFD Probes on Convex Surface Figure 9.2 TOFD Probes on Concave surface. Figure 9.3 Complex Geometry access to one Surface only. Figure 9.4 Complex Geometry access to two faces . Figure A1.1 Ellipse - curve with constant time -of-flight.. Figure Al.2 Variation of factor f with off-axis distance X at Figure A1.3 Variation of depth error with off-axis distance X at d= s=2/3DTand. Figure 1.4 Definition of X at lower beam angle. Figure A1.5 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for Figure A1.6 Depth error at edge of beam for s = 2/3DTan6.. Figure A1.7 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for Figure A1.8 Depth error at edge of beam for s = DTan Figure A1.9 Variation of factor. rf at edge of a single ‘V’ weld (included angle 609 for 2/3DTan(60) Figure A1.10 Depth error at edge of a single ‘V’ weld (included angle 609 for 2/3DTan(60) 130 Figure Al. Variation of factor ‘fat edge of a double ‘V" weld (included angle 609 for s 130 = 2/3DTan(60) x Figure A1.12 Depth error at edge of a double ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°9 for 2/3DTan(60)... Figure A2.1 Two possible positions for flaw tip when tip offet from centre line 133 Figure AS.1 Example of the output from the calculation of the beam spread for a flat plate in the TOFDAIDS package 145 ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 ixFigure AS.2 Example of the calculation of the depth errors in a typical TOFD set up from the TOFDAIDS package 146 ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 xblank page ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 xi1, INTRODUCTION 1.1 Scope of the Course ‘The purpose of this course is to make the reader and student aware of the Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) technique and its ability to perform flaw detection, location and sizing, Although the course will be based around the digital ultrasonic data collection system currently available a number of similar systems are available and have essentially the same major features and facilities. ‘The course notes are intended to be used as background and reference material for both Level | and Level II qualification standard. Where there is a clear distinction in the notes this will be indicated by typing the specific Level I material in italics. Normal duration of the Level 1 and Level II courses are 40 hours Level | technicians should be capable of i) setting up the TOFD equipment ii) collecting TOFD inspection data iii)recording and classifying the results according to written instructions iv) reporting the results Level II technicians should be capable of i) setting up and calibrating the equipment ii) performing and supervising the inspection iii) interpreting and evaluating the results according to the applicable standards iv) define limitations of TOFD ¥) write practical testing instructions and procedures vi) supervise and train Level 1 technicians vii) organise and report the results of a TOFD inspection, Considerable time is spent during the course on the practical collection and analysis of TOFD data since experience in the viewing and analysis of TOFD data is very important. Itis also very important to have in mind the different nature of TOFD as compared to the ‘more traditional Pulse-echo technique. The course will hopefully extend the participants knowledge to be able to recognise the limitations of both techniques and to be able to choose the appropriate technique or both for the intended inspection. In addition to the current course notes the British TOFD Standard, BS 7706 and the European (Pre) Standard, CEN/TC 138 WG 2 N 143, should be studied. The book by Charlesworth, J. P. and Temple, J. A. G., “Engineering Applications of Ultrasonic Time- of-Flight Diffraction”, published by Research Studies Press LTD, is also well worth reading especially for Nuclear inspections and the inspection in particular of austenitic components. 1.2 Requirements It is assumed that a reasonable level of ultrasonic understanding has already been achieved equivalent to at least an EN473 Ultrasonic Level 1 for the current Level | course and an Chapter 1 Introduction. Page-- 1 -EN473 Level II for the current Level II course. All candidates should have proof of a satisfactory vision test. 1.3 Examination ‘An examination will be set at the end of the course which will consist of, Level 1 written examination, 30 questions - 90 minutes Level II written examination, 30 questions - 90 minutes The object of the examination is to demonstrate that ultrasonic practitioners are capable of understanding the TOFD technique and its limitations. Chapter I Introduction, Page- -2-2. BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC TESTING 2.1 Background to Non Destru e Testing Defects in welded structures may give rise to premature failure or unserviceability in pressure vessels or piping systems. Thus welds need to be inspected and harmful defects removed by grinding and or welding. The detection of cracks, particularly in welds, before failure is thus very important since the consequences may be very serious. Flaws which are crack-like may be actively growing, such as fatigue and stress corrosion cracks. Other flaws may grow but often remain unchanged, e.g. welding and fabrication defects such as lack-of-fusion, and the volumetric defects such as porosity and slag. The latter type of flaws are more easily detected but are not so efficient as cracks in raising local stresses and then growing to failure, There are various non-destructive techniques available for testing metal components and they are generally divided into two classes of detection, ie. surface opening cracks by magnetic particle dye penetrant eddy current magnetic techniques ultrasonics and internal cracks by radiography ultrasonics. ‘Surface opening cracks are usually considered the most important since they are most likely to grow and cause failure. However, they have the advantage that they can usually be repaired more easily than internal cracks. Dye Penetrant and Magnetic Particle inspections have no depth sizing capability and the magnetic techniques are also generally used for detection only. ‘The Eddy Current technique has a sizing capability but, depending on the material, only within a few millimetres of the surface. Ultrasonics has both a detection and sizing capability. Plant operators must satisfy the certifying authority that the plant is fit for service. This process will include NDE, usually during the plant shutdown. Defects that are found from the NDE may need to be repaired or the component replaced. Thus it is very important to detect and size intemal cracks because repairs may prove very difficult and expensive and if it can be proved that the crack size is below some critical level the plant may be safely left running, For most internal cracks there are only two inspection techniques available, radiography and ultrasonics. Radiography is best suited to detecting volumetric type defects and planar cracks may only be efficiently detected if the beam of X-rays is directed down the crack. Also radiography needs access to both sides of the sample and has safety implications. However, radiography is very widely used and is a very reliable technique for detecting many types of weld errors and will detect changes in density equivalent to 1% of the wall thickness. Radiography generates images which are widely accepted and understood, it so gives a permanent record of the inspection which can be stored away for future reference. Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 3However, the most reliable technique for detecting and sizing planar cracks is ultrasonics, but its sensitivity may only be equivalent to 2% or 3% of wall thickness. Ultrasonics also has the advantage that it only needs access to one side of the sample and there are no safety implications. 2.2 Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing Ifan electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is of the right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound of the frequencies most useful for inspecting metal components. This material is the basis of ultrasonic probes which produce longitudinal waves, generally called compression waves. Ifthe longitudinal waves enter metal at an angle then they refract in the metal and produce both longitudinal and shear waves, the angles of the two types of waves depending on the velocity of shear and longitudinal waves in the metal and the velocity of the longitudinal waves in the probe shoe material. Shear waves are transmitted by a periodic shear force and can only exist in materials like metals which possess shear elasticity. Liquids cannot sustain a shear force. For normal ultrasonic inspection of metals ultrasonic frequencies of between 2 and 5 MHz are used. The corresponding wavelength of the waves are found from the formula, velocity (c) = wavelength (2) « frequency (f) Velocity is usually defined in units of m/s and typical values in steel are 5950 m/s for longitudinal waves and 3230 m/s for shear waves. Since the probe frequency is in units of MHz (and we shall see that time is defined in microseconds in the TOFD technique) it is more convenient to define the velocity units as mnvs (i.e. 5.95 mm/ts and 3.23 mm/s respectively). In these units the wavelength in the above equation is given in millimetres. ‘Thus for the above frequencies the wavelength of longitudinal waves is in the range 1 to 3 mm and for shear waves from 0.6 tol.6 mm, For reflectors of size less than half a wavelength interference can take place in the reflected waves and hence the minimum size of cracks that can reliably be detected is equivalent to one half the wavelength, To detect small cracks in thin materials higher frequencies are used but in thick material the increasing attenuation with increase in frequency generally prevents the use of much higher frequencies. For conventional pulse-echo ultrasonic inspections angled shear waves are very important since at a given frequency they have a wavelength half that of longitudinal waves, allowing for the resolution of smaller defects. Also, as will be seen in a later chapter, for a given size of crystal diameter and frequency shear waves produce a smaller beam spread and a consequently higher beam intensity and more accurate sizing ability than longitudinal waves. 2.3 Pulse-echo detection of flaws An ultrasonic inspection of a sample is carried out by scanning the metal with a beam of ultrasound. Any reflectors in the metal are only detected if the sound is reflected back from the discontinuity and returns to the crystal element of the probe, where it vibrates the crystal and is converted into electrical signals. In order to reflect the waves back the beam must ideally be at right angles to the reflector surface. This is the so called “specular” Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 4reflection. If the surface is tilted with respect to the direction of the beam of ultrasound then the reflected waves may miss the probe crystal altogether and the discontinuity will remain undetected. The proportion of the sound beam getting back to the crystal falls off rapidly with increasing angles of tilt and skew from this ideal position. A tilt of only 5 degrees can cause the amplitude to fall by a factor of about 2 (6 dB) and 10 degrees or ‘more may result in loss of detection. Thus for normal pulse-echo inspections with angled shear waves it is important 0 + scan the metal with a range of probe angles chosen to give the best chance of detecting the expected orientations of the cracks of main interest. In general a practical compromise has to be made. Vertical cracks are difficult to detect because of the difficulty of getting an ultrasonic beam at right angles to the crack surface and a pair of probes may be needed to detect the cracks (tandem technique). The decision to report the presence of a reflector in pulse-echo inspections is based initially on the amplitude of the signal compared to some threshold level. This is a relatively simple concept which works well practically. The threshold level is usually determined from the amplitude of the signal reflected back from a standard reflector in a calibration block. However, since the roughness of the reflector surface, as well as its orientation, directly effect the amplitude of the retumed signal an awareness of the likely probability of detection is very important. Ultrasonic inspection is not perfect and the skill and experience of the operator is very important, hence the need for training. 2.4 Flaw Sizing with the Pulse-echo Technique The method of flaw sizing used in the pulse-echo technique depends on the size of the flaw with respect to the beam spread of the probe (see figure 2.1). Probe Flaw ‘beam spread \ Figure 2.1 Flaw size in relation to beam spread, The basic assumption in determining the size of flaws that are smaller than the beam spread is that the amplitude of the reflected signal will be proportional to the area of the flaw in the beam of ultrasound. In this situation the estimate of size is based on the relative size of the amplitude with respect to that obtained from a standard reflector at a similar range. Standard reflectors are provided in various calibration blocks and consist Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 5of flat bottomed holes, side drilled holes or notches. Thus the accuracy very much depends on the degree of roughness of the flaw surface and its exact orientation with respect to the ultrasonic beam. For flaw sizes larger than the beam spread increasing the size of the flaw will have no effect on the amplitude of the signal since the area outside the beam will not contribute to the reflected signal. The flaw size has to be obtained therefore by scanning the probe over the flaw and noting the position where a certain change in amplitude takes place. This is illustrated in figure 2.2 for an angled shear wave probe sizing a lack of fusion successive probe positions \ a acnplitade Jo . 64B t x half peak height probe movement x « position of probe. —> ») Plot of maximum observed amplitude as function of position Figure 2.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 6dB Drop Sizing flaw. When the probe is moved towards the weld the flaw starts to appear in the ultrasonic beam and the amplitude of the flaw signal rises. Once the flaw area fills the beam the amplitude stays constant until the beam starts to pass the other end of the flaw , when the amplitude starts to fall. It is assumed for this explanation that a Distance Amplitude Correction has been applied so that there is no variation of amplitude with range. The maximum amplitude trace across the flaw is called an echodynamic trace and is shown in the bottom half of figure 2.2. At the level where the signal amplitude is half that of the maximum signal it is assumed that only half the flaw area is in the beam of ultrasound and that the centre of the probe is opposite the edge of the flaw. Thus if the positions of the probe are noted where the amplitude has dropped by 6 dB the size of the flaw can be measured and hence the term 6 4B drop sizing. If the distance between the probe positions is x mm then the width, w, of the flaw is given by w = xcos(6), where Bis the angle of the beam centre with respect to Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 6the normal to the surface of the metal on which the probe sits. The through wall height of the flaw (the critical measurement), h, is then h = xcos(@sin(Q). To determine the length of the flaw along the weld the probe must be positioned so as to obtain the maximum amplitude signal and then moved parallel to the weld to determine the 6 dB drop positions. The length is the distance between these positions. Again the main problem with the 6 dB drop technique is the variation in amplitude due to the possible roughness of scattering surface and the fact that the flaw surface is unlikely to be normal to the ultrasonic beam. Some typical smallest sizes of flaws which can be detected and typical sizing errors are listed below from document IIS/IIW - 580 - 86 from Commission V of the International Institute of Welding for pulse-echo ultrasonics. Defect positions | Through-thickness Length ‘Smallest | Accuracy, | Smallest | Accuracy, size, mm__| + or-mm | length, mm | + or - mm Near surface, e EB 4 5 0-5 mm depth ‘Mid-wall, mm 5-25 3 3 4 4 25-75 2 3 7 75-125 5 5 10 10 Back surface wall thickness, mm 10-25 4 4 4 4 25-75 4 4 7 7 75-125 5 * 10 10 2.5 Comparison of Flaw Sizing Accuracy for different Techniques Other techniques are available for sizing flaws. For surface opening flaws, if'access is available to the surface the alternating current potential drop (ACPD) is an accurate technique. The technique essentially measures the drop in voltage between two surface contacts when placed on either side of the flaw, the additional voltage drop being due to current having to flow around the flaw surface. Specialised eddy current type techniques (ACFM) can also measure the size of near surface flaws. One of the most accurate and usefill techniques for measuring flaw height is the TOFD technique which is the subject of this course. The importance of the TOFD technique is seen from the comparison of the accuracy of different crack sizing techniques summarised below, Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 7Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 8Blank page Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 93. THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE 3.1 Background to the Importance of the TOFD Technique The most serious types of defects in welds and metal components are planar cracks since they are the most likely to grow and cause failure of the component and hence the importance of ultrasonic inspection since ultrasonics is the most suitable technique for determining the position and sizing such defects. The importance of developing more accurate sizing techniques than afforded by conventional pulse-echo inspections became apparent in the 1960's, especially in the nuclear and chemical plant industries. When defects where found in these plants repair of the damaged components was often very difficult or impossible, one of the problems being the difficulty of carrying out the necessary heat treatment after welding. In the nuclear industry there was also the problem of access and often high radiation levels. To shut down and replace such plant is a very expensive exercise. ‘Thus the science of Fracture Mechanics developed to enable the growth rate of defects to be predicted and to calculate the critical size of defect below which it was possible to carry on safely running the plant Often, because of the difficulties in determining all the properties necessary for the calculations (e.g. fracture toughness) very conservative estimates had to be made and the consequent lifetime predictions for the safe operation of the plant became very short. If it could be proved by successive ultrasonic examinations of the defects that they are not growing or they are growing at a much slower rate than predicted then this would be very important to the plant operator. If the defects are stable and below the critical size then the plant can stay in operation. If they are growing at a slower rate then the lifetime of the plant can be extended. Also if the growth rate can be accurately measured then suitable plans can be drawn for a programmed repair or replacement of the plant, again saving the plant operator a lot of expense. Unexpected shutdowns with the consequent loss of output and the need for unplanned repairs are the plant operators nightmare. The need, in order to measure the growth rate of cracks, is accurate through wall sizing, The inadequacy of conventional pulse-echo techniques is illustrated in figure 3.1. The two plots show the predicted lifetime curve for a particular defect and it is predicted to reach the critical size after about 1.5 years. In the top illustration is shown the results of pulse-echo measurements of the crack height at the yearly plant shutdowns. Because of the large error on the measurements indicated by the error bar the measurements can not influence the conservative predicted lifetime, The bottom plot illustrates the results of measurements with TOFD. Since the errors are now much smaller it is apparent that the actual growth is less than the predicted growth and the actual plant lifetime can be extended. The ability to size flaws more accurately should also help to limit the number of false calls. If the requirement is that a very high probability of detection is required for flaws above a certain size then the threshold for pulse-echo detection has to be set considerably lower than this size because of the large error with the pulse-echo technique. This means that a considerable number of flaws, which are actually below this size, are reported as being above this size because they appear with the pulse-echo technique to be larger. Thus while a very high probability of detection may be obtained for flaws above the size Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 9 —of interest there will be a large false call rate. This is made worse by the fact that the distribution curve of flaw size against number of flaws usually rises towards the smaller sizes. Thus in principle the detection threshold for the more accurate TOFD technique can be set much closer to the size of interest and thus greatly reduce the false call rate, 3.2 History of TOFD Development i ee critical predicted size lifetime height of | growth crack | “uve Ap TR putee-eche 1 pore. 5 2 VA eritcal sue predicted lifetime growth curve height of av crack k ake TOFD time, years 1 1 2 3 time, years ——» re 3.1 Illustration of importance of accurate sizing measurements In the last section the importance of accurate sizing of cracks was described, especially in the Nuclear Industry. For this reason the National NDT Centre at Harwell (then part of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority - UKAEA) asked Dr Maurice Silk to try and develop an ultrasonic sizing technique more accurate than the conventional pulse-echo method. In the early 1970’s Dr Silk developed the technique known as Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD). Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 10—For a number of years TOFD remained largely a laboratory tool, but the realisation of its importance and the proposed Public enquiry for a PWR Reactor in the UK lead to a number of major trials in the early 1980s to evaluate the best possible ultrasonic inspection technique for the reactor pressure vessel and other major components. These trials were known as the Defect Detection Trials (DDT). The trials were very important in view of the international PISC exercise in the late 1970"s, which was aimed at establishing the capability of the ASME Code ultrasonic procedures, and which obtained poor results for the reliability and accuracy of conventional pulse-echo inspection. As will be mentioned later (see Chapter 13), TOFD proved to be a very capable and accurate technique. Many other trials and validations have been carried out comparing different techniques and in all these tests TOFD has always proved to be virtually the most reliable and accurate technique. Because the digital systems available up to 1982 were relatively large it was difficult to carry out inspections in the field. Thus the National NDT Centre developed a more portable system for collecting and analysing the data. The system was known as. ZIPSCAN and was licensed by SGS Sonomatic in 1983 and sold throughout the world. Sonomatic is now part of AEA Technology. Nowadays there are a number of commercial digital ultrasonic systems available for carrying out TOFD inspections. Initially TOFD was only developed and used as a sizing tool. It was expected that flaws would be detected by the conventional techniques and then TOFD used for more accurate sizing. A particular application was in the monitoring the crack growth of cracks detected in major plant components, e.g. pressure vessels. However, has TOFD became more accepted and used during the later half of the 1980°s, especially by the oil and gas industry both offshore and onshore, its economic advantages for detection as well sizing became apparent and these days TOFD is used in many applications for both detection and sizing. Very often one scan with a pair of TOFD probes along a weld will reveal all the defects in the weld volume. The ability to collect an image of the inspection data (B- or D-scans) also affords advantages in difficult ‘geometrical situations or for weld roots since it is often easier to recognise new patterns in an image than to characterise signals in a single A-scan. A good example of this is major use of TOFD in the offshore oil industry for detecting weld root erosion. The TOFD technique has continued to be developed by the major research establishments (e.g. modelling applications for helping with the analysis of the data and optimising the collection of the data in complex geometry) and by the inspection companies for different applications. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 11 —3.3.1 Diffraction process When an ultrasonic wave interacts with a long crack-like flaw it results in the production of diffracted waves from the crack tips, in addition to any ultrasonic waves reflected from the surface of the crack. The diffracted waves are much weaker than specularly reflected waves used for conventional ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the tips in all a directions along the same plane as the incident ultrasonic waves as indicated in figure 3.2. The phenomena of diffraction is nothing new and occurs with all types of waves, e.g. light and water waves. It is very well known in light especially when light is passed through a slit or past an edge and contributes to the resolving power of telescopes and other optical instruments. To explain diffraction when waves pass through a slot Probe Incident bearn Reflected waves Crack, Diffracted waves Figure 3.2 Representation of the Diffraction Process from Crack Tips Huygens’ proposed, three centuries ago, that “each point on a wave front may be regarded as a new source of waves". Hence, for illustration purposes, we can think of reflection of a wave from a surface occurring as outlined in figure 3.3. Each point on the Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 12 —Incident plane wave Figure 3.3 Illustration of Diffraction surface (on a scale smaller than the wavelength) acts as a reflection point and produces waves. Then as the separate waves cross each other interference takes place and as explained by Young in 1802 for light “the resultant displacement is the sum of the displacements due to each separate wave” and in this case the result is a reflected plane wave. However, at the edge of the surface the waves from the tip are left and produce so called diffraction waves. Nowadays diffraction is more accurately described by Kirchhoff’s theory. The phenomena of tip diffraction is just another technique in the repertoire of general ultrasonics. The use of tip diffraction signals as long been used in pulse-echo sizing estimations since it often enhances the signal when the probe is opposite the end of the defect and used in this way it is sometimes called the maximum amplitude technique or backward scatter tip diffraction. 4.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Signals The angulat variation of the amplitude of the diffracted waves with is illustrated in Figure 3.4, The figure is not an exact Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 13 —transmnitter receiver % angle ee Crack i 0 {- signal from bottom nell of crack Relative Panel 6 signal fom top B of crack alk ° =14) 33 Boro L L 1 710 lboe 2040 60 80 theta degrees SS° Rear pute Figure 3.4 Calculated Variation of Amplitude of Diffracted Waves with Angle reproduction and the reader should refer to Charlesworth and Temple (1989) for an exact variation. The variation of the top and bottom signals from a vertical crack located mid- way benween two TOFD transducers is shown as a function of of the beam angle with respect to the normal. The amplitude has a maximum at around 65 degrees in steel, and has a slightly greater amplitude from the bottom of the crack than the top, but the amplitudes on the whole are very similar. Between about 45 and 80 degrees the variation in amplitude is less than 6 dB. For the bottom of the crack there is a large reduction in amplitude at about 38 degrees with the amplitude rising again around 20 degrees, Typical angles in an inspection are 45, 60 and 70 degrees. For shear waves the optimum angles in steel are about 45 degrees for the top and 57 degrees for the bottom of a vertical crack. For defects which do not lie in a plane perpendicular to the line joining the two transducers the calculation is more complex and is described by Charlesworth and Temple (1989), but relatively large angles of skew have litle effect on the amplitude. 3.3.3 Basic TOFD Set-up 3.3.3.1 Probe type and wave type Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 14 —‘The TOFD technique is a crack sizing technique based on locating the crack tips from the ultrasonic energy re-emitted by diffraction. The basic arrangement of the TOFD technique consists of two probes in the pitch-and-catch configuration, with one probe acting as the transmitter and the second probe the receiver, Such an arrangement provides a large volume for inspection and provides for unambiguous location of the position and depth of the reflectors. Cable connector Compression probe ‘Couplant squeezed between probe and shoe Shoe (perspex or similar) shoe holder ‘Angle chosen to give desired beam angle in metal Figure 3.5 Cross Section of Typical Probe A single probe could be used for the inspection but is not recommended, since it reduces the location accuracy of the flaw tips. We shall see that a transverse (parallel) scan with a pair of probes gives the accurate location of the flaw tip. A typical probe is shown in Figure 3.5 and consists of a compression transducer mounted on a wedge of perspex or similar material. The compression probe should be chosen to have a short pulse length in order to give good depth resolution. The wedge angle is cut to give compression waves in the metal at typical angles of 45, 60 or 70 degrees. The transducers often have screw threads so that they are easily interchangeable with the wedges. Couplant must be present between the transducer and wedge in order for ultrasound to be transmitted. This design has the drawback that the couplant eventually dries out and must be replaced. ‘The reason for using compression waves in the metal is that they travel at about twice the velocity of shear waves and hence arrive first at the receiver. In order to work out depth a knowledge of the velocity is required and it is much easier to unambiguously to work out depth if one can assume that the signals have a compression velocity. When either type of wave is reflected or refracted it can partially mode convert into the other type of wave. ‘Thus if shear waves were used and they diffracted from a defect tip compression waves might also be produced and these would then arrive at the receiver first, If in this case it ‘was assumed that the shear velocity was the correct velocity the depth would be calculated incorrectly. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 15~‘fier the compression or longitudinal wave has travelled through the shoe, however, it splits up into the desired compression wave at the required angle and into a shear wave in the metal at approximately half the angle of the compression wave. Thus shear waves are present in the metal but the resultant signals generally occur after the compression signals. Thus the resultant TOFD inspection data can contain waves that have travelled, all the way as compression all the way as shear i part of the path as compression and part shear 3.3.3.2 Signals observed 28 Transmitter Receiver D Reflection from backwall Figure 3.6 Wave Paths for the TOFD Arrangement ‘The TOFD arrangement is shown in Figure 3.6. The A-scan appearance with no defect present is shown in Figure 3.7 and with a defect present in Figure 3.8. The main types of waves seen are as follows. ateral wave In general a weak lateral wave running between the two probes with the compression velocity just below the surface of the metal is observed first. It obeys Fermat's principle in that a wave travelling between two points takes the minimum time. As we shall see later, for a curved surface it will travel straight across the metal between the two probes. On material with a surface cladding layer the velocity of sound in the cladding may be such that the lateral wave travels most of the way in the material beneath the cladding. The lateral wave is not a true surface wave but a bulk wave generated at the edge of the beam. The frequency content of the lateral wave tends to be lower than the waves from the centre of the beam (the beam spread is frequency related and the lower frequency component has therefor a wider beam spread). For a true surface wave the amplitude would decay exponentially with distance from the inspection surface. The lateral wave can be very weak for large probe separations and may not even be recognisable. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 16 —Because of the basic pitch-catch probe arrangement the signals from the near surface region are very compressed in time and these signals may be hidden beneath the lateral wave. Back wall signal A much larger signal reflected/diffracted from the back wall is observed after the lateral wave because of the greater distance travelled. If the probe beams are only directed at the upper part of the metal or there is no suitable back wall there may be no back wall signal. Defect signals Ifa planar type crack is present in the metal in the overlapping beam of the two probes diffraction signals from the top and bottom tips are seen between the lateral wave and the back wall. These signals are generally much weaker than the backwall signal but stronger than the lateral wave. If the defect has little height then the signals from the top and bottom may run into each other. Thus the importance of a minimum number of cycles in the signals in order to improve the resolution of the signals from the top and bottom of small defects. Because the diffraction signals are so weak they cannot always be easily seen on a single ‘A-scan and it is only by displaying the successive A-scans from a scan in B-scan form that the pattern of the diffraction signals becomes clear. Signal averaging is very important in these situations because it improves the signal-to-noise ratio. Again this is why TOFD is very difficult with an analogue flaw detector where only a single A-scan display is available. Shear or mode converted shear signals After the compression back wall signal a much large signal generally appears and is a back wall shear reflected signal and it is often mistaken for the compression back wall signal. Between these signals other signals are generally observed due to mode conversion at a defect into shear waves which then takes a longer time for the signal to arrive at the receiver. Itis often very useful to collect signals in this region since genuine defect signals are repeated at longer times and near surface defect signals may be clearer since they are spread out in time more for the shear waves. Ray Paths The ray paths depicted in Figure 3.6 are simply those that happen to connect the probes and crack tips. They do not represent special angles at which diffraction only occurs. Diffraction can occur at all angles and those rays in the beam spread which happen to hit the tips will be diffracted and hit the receiver. 3.3.3.3 Phase Relationships ‘An A-scan is reproduced in Figure 3.7 and contains the lateral wave and back wall signals. When a wave in a medium with a higher acoustic impedance is reflected at the interface to a lower acoustic impedance there is a phase change of 180 degrees (c. g, steel to water or steel to air) This means that if the waveform starts with a positive cycle before it hits the wall it will start with a negative cycle after reflection from the wall. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 17—‘Transmitter Receiver Lateral wave Backwall Lateral wave echo Acscan representation Figure 3.7 A-scan with no Defect Present When a defect is present the situation shown in figure 3.8 occurs. The signal from the top of the defect acts as if it had undergone a reflection from a backwall and has a phase change of 180 degrees, i.e. the phase is like a backwall and starts with a negative cycle. The bottom of a defect, however, acts as if the wave runs round the bottom without a phase change and the phase of the signal is like the lateral wave, i.e. it starts with a positive cycle. Theory shows that if two diffraction signals have opposite phase they must have a continuous crack between them. Theory also shows that in a few cases the top and bottom diffraction signals may not have a phase change of 180 degrees, but in general they will. Thus the recognition of phase change is very important for characterising signals and for making the most accurate defect sizing. For example two signals may be present which are from two slag lines rather than a single crack. In this case there will not be a phase change. Slag lines and pores are generally to thin to produce separate top and bottom signals. Because the number of observed cycles in a signal very much depends on the amplitude of the signals it is often difficult to recognise the phase. This is especially true for the backwall which is generally saturated. In these situations it is important to sit the probes. on the sample being examined or a calibration block and tum the gain down so that the backwall or any other difficult signal has the same screen height as the defect signals and then increase the gain making a note of how the signal grows with respect to the order of the phases. It is sometimes easiest to concentrate on the two or three most predominant cycles, Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 18 —It is because the phase information is important that it is necessary to collect the TOFD unrectified signals digitally. Transmitter Receiver Diffracted waves metal Crack Backwall echo tip diffraction Backwall Lateral wave from top of Pee ee echo bottom of erack De ‘Acscan representation ay Pllase, Figure 3.8 A-scan with Defect Present 3.3.3.4 Depth Calculation The depth of a reflector is calculated from the arrival time of the pulse by simple trigonometry. There is no recourse to measurement of amplitude. The positioning of the tip signals then provides information on the actual flaw sizes and height estimates below the scanned surface and through wall size. For a reflector situated symmetrically beneath the probes, as shown in Figure 3.9 the distance travelled in millimetres between the probes is, distance = 2(s? + d?)'? where s = half the probe centre separation (PCS) 2s, mm d= depth of reflector, mm ()!? means square root of the number in the brackets. Hence the time, t, taken in microseconds is t=268? + d*)4/e where ¢= velocity of sound in units of mm/s. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 19surface a backwall Figure 3.9 Basic TOFD parameters ‘Thus by rearrangement of the above equation the depth can be expressed as a function of the measured time, d= [(ct/2)? - s?]!? Assumption - the above is the formula used to calculate depth for an observed signal and it always assumes that the flaw tip is symmetrically located between the two probes. Very often the reflector will not be symmetrically positioned beneath the probes and there will be an error in the calculation of depth (for non-parallel scans along the weld). This is cussed in more detail in the Chapter on Errors and Appendix 1, and a method is described in Appendix 2 for improving the determination of depth for a non-parallel scan utilising the additional information in the mode converted diffraction signal. In most situations, however, with a single “V” weld the additional depth error due to the off-axis location is small. Also when determining flaw height from top and bottom tip diffraction’ the off-axis error will tend to cancel. The off-axis error does not apply in the case of parallel scans across the weld. The typical size of the error for depth measurements is + or - 1 mm (see Chapter on Errors), but when used in repeat inspections for crack growth monitoring using the same probe array and equipment the error is reduced to typically + or - 0.3 mm. Because of the pitch-catch probe arrangement the relationship between depth and time is not linear and has can be seen from the above equation it has a quadratic form. Software should be available to convert the collected B- or D-scan into a linear depth scale by a process known as linearisation. This then provides a B- or D-scan linear with depth and this may be more usefill to plot for a report. Very often when analysing the data it is preferable to work from the raw collected data with the data plotted on the time axis, Because the paths to reflectors near to the surface are almost horizontal a small change in time represents a large change in depth. Thus, conversion to a linear depth scale tends to spread out the near surface signals and the lateral wave appears out of proportion. An alternative method for depth measurements is to use a cursor on the raw data and read out depth at the position of the cursor. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 20—The other effect of this non-linear depth scale, has will be shown in the Chapter on Errors, is that the error on the depth measurement increases rapidly near the top surface. Thus because of the presence of the lateral wave and the increasing depth error TOFD is not so useful for inspecting the near surface region for internal flaws, typically the first 10 mm when only one scan is used. However, by reducing the PCS and maybe using a higher frequency then more of the near surface region can be directly inspected, but with some reduction in the volume of coverage. For example, by using higher frequency probes ( ~ 15 MHz) and a small PCS, thin samples can be inspected to within a millimetre or so of the surface. 3.3.3.5 Measurement of Time and initial Probe-Centre-Separation Depth Calibration In practise the depth calculation needs to take into account the extra delay in the measured time due to the passage of the sound through the probe shoes. This delay is known as the probe delay2t, microseconds. Thus the total transit time measured, t, is in practise given by t=2(s? + d’)'7/e + 2t, and the depth is given by = [(c/2)°(t-2t,)* - s?]'7 Thus it would appear that to pol the depth for a reflector with a transit time of t us that a knowledge of the ultrasonic velocity, probe delay and probe centre separ: required. However, it will be shown in the Chapter on Errors that a more accurate calculation of the depth can be made if the velocity and probe delay are found from the measurement of the positions of the lateral wave and back wall signals. This procedure helps to reduce any systematic errors such as errors in the PCS. The lateral wave signal occurs at a time, t; 1s, and is given by t)=2s/e + 2t, and the back wall at a time, t, ts, and is given by t, = 2(s? + D?)!/e + 2t, where D thickness of the sample. By rearranging the two equation the probe delay and velocity can be found if the PCS = 2s, and the thickness D is known, i.e. = 2(s? + D?)'” - 2s (ty - t) ty - (8? + D?)'7/e and 2 Thus the recommended method of measuring depth is to measure the PCS and the thickness of the sample and enter the values into the file header before starting a scan, Then to measure a depth in a B- or D-scan, if the relevant software is available, first measure the position of the lateral and back wall signals and let the computer automatically calculate the probe delay and velocity. Then at each cursor position in the image the depth can be calculated. Obviously if there is no lateral or back wall signal then Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 21 —only one signal can be used for calibration and either the velocity or probe delay must also be input to the program. ‘The PCS is measured between the index points of the two probes. Measurement of time of arrival of various signal Because of the phase changes in the various signals care must be taken in when choosing the position for measuring the time of arrival of the various signals in order to obtain the be ‘most accurate depth estimates. The prime requirement is to be consistent in the various ‘measurements. One could choose to measure to the peak signal, but since the back wall signal is often saturated this is more difficult. One suggestion is to measure the time at a crossover point when the cycle changes from positive to negative. This is quite easy if there is a readout of time and amplitude as a cursor is moved about the B- or D-scan, since the reading should change at the cross over point from negative to positive or vice versa. The sample nearest point nearest to an amplitude of zero should be chosen. A possible set of positions are shown in Figure 3.10. If the lateral wave starts with say a positive cycle take the reading at the start of the cycle. The equivalent time at the back wall signal will then be, because of the phase change, the start of the first negative cycle. However, in the example shown the start of the second negative cycle has been chosen because the amplitude is much greater and there are more eycles. The second negative cycle is deemed in this case to be the equivalent cycle to that used for the lateral wave. For the tip diffraction signals the start of the first negative signal is chosen for the top of the crack and the first positive signal for the bottom of the crack. hh he Lateral wave Buceet top of crack bottom of crack, Figure 3.10 Consistent measurement of time of various signals Initial choice of PCS for an Inspection Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 22 —For a new inspection the best choice of PCS for a single non-parallel scan is such that the ultrasonic beam centres are aimed at two thirds of the depth of the sample. This will then in general give coverage of the majority of the weld. If the beam centre angle in the metal is 0, then in general tan@ =s/depth and at two thirds the depth the PCS, 2s = (4/3)Dtan0 where D is the thickness of the sample. It will be shown will be seen in a later Chapter that when aiming at a specific depth, d, e.g, for a parallel scan that the PCS is given by, 2s = 2dtanO Check collecting correct part of A-scan ‘Since the lateral wave is often very weak and there is a very strong shear wave back wall signal beyond the compression back wall signal it is easy to take the later for the lateral wave and the shear wave signal for the back wall signal. Always check that the observed signals correspond to the calculated times of arrival of the lateral wave and back wall signal, i.e. lateral wave t; = 2s/e + 2t, and back wall ty = 2(s? + D*)!7/e + 2t, 3.3.3.6 Pattems for Surface breaking Defects For surface breaking cracks the expected TOFD B- or D-scan will be modified. Thus if the defect breaks the upper surface the lateral wave will normally be eliminated ( as shown in Figure 3.11) or very much reduced in amplitude. If the defect is not very long then the lateral wave may partially get round the side of the defect. lateral wave surface Spening crack es backwall echo non-parallel scan Figure 3.11 Surface opening crack in a non-parallel scan For cracks open to the back wall the resultant D-scan is shown in Figure 3.12. The effect on the back wall depends on the height of the crack and the volume of coverage of the probe set up. For cracks with small penetration into the metal the diffraction signal should be seen just. above the back wall with normally no change in the appearance of the back wall signal This is because the majority of the ultrasonic beam still gets past the crack. If the crack penetrates in somewhat further the back wall signal may lose some amplitude and have a dip due to the longer path for sound at the edge of the beam still being reflected from the Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 23 —back wall and getting to the receiver. Finally, if the crack penetrates sufficiently far the back wall signal will be cut off. During scanning it very easy to lose good contact with the surface and hence lose the ignal ss of the lateral wave but with the backwall still present indicates a surface opening crack and similarly loss of back wall but with lateral wave still present indicates a rear surface opening crack back wall lateral wave Stall defect defect open toback wall backwall echo lateral wave Medium height defect seg SS ES backwal echo lateral wave High defect a = Figure 12 Surface opening cracks on the back wall for a non-parallel scan 3.4 Types of TOFD Scan Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 24 —There are two types of scan. The initial scan generally used for detection is shown in Figure 3.13 and is called the non-parallel or longitudinal scan because the direction of scan is at right angles to the direction of the ultrasonic beam. ‘The resultant scan is known as a D-scan since it produces a cross section along the weld, This type of scan is usually set up with as wide a beam spread as possible to inspect as large a volume as possible with ‘one scan. Since the probes straddle the weld the weld cap does not interfere with the scan. It is a very economical inspection and is the scan most frequently carried out and often the only one. ‘The second type of scan is shown in Figure 3.14 and is called the transverse or parallel scan. The direction of scan is parallel to the ultrasonic beam direction. The scan produced is called a B-scan since it produces a cross section across the weld. In this case if there is a wide weld cap it is difficult to carry out the scan and only a limited movement may be possible. This type of scan gives the most accurate measurement of depth and should be optimised for this purpose. Scan direction Figure 3.13 Non-Parallel or Longitudinal Scan ‘Scan direction —. ‘Transmitter Receiver beam direction Pranic re stente: Semee Beran Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 25 —The importance of the parallel scan is illustrated in Figure 3.15. In the figure a lack-of- fusion defect with constant height and length in the plane of the weld is assumed. The non-parallel scan will give a parallel set of diffraction signal extending over the length of the defect with characteristic shaped ares at the ends where the path length is longer as the probes approach and leave the defect. However, there is no knowledge to be gained from the D-scan of the location of the reflectors in the cross sectional plane across the weld. The defects could be from any position in the beam coverage of the probes. This is illustrated in Figure 3.16. lack-of fusion defect ‘with length along weld cross section across weld ete Cutan Bue TO APPeemely Aue oo DeKer ater wave Figure 3.14 Parallel or Transverse Scan backwall echo | D-scan from non-parallel scan B-scan from parallel scan ‘igure 3.15 Difference between a non-parallel and a parallel scan ii ed eS. |e Tl me NX beam speéad region over which signal observed t ellipse with constant time-of-flight T1 +12 Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 26 —Figure 3.16 Uncertainty in lateral position in a non-parallel scan In Figure 3.16 a signal with a certain transit time could be anywhere on the locus of an ellipse with the two probe positions as the focal points This means that the reflectors may not be symmetrically situated beneath the probes and hence the depth calculation will not be the most accurate. The error is in general very small because due to the limitations of beam spread the variation in depth is over the almost horizontal part of the ellipse. With the parallel scan, provided a complete scan is obtained, the probes traverse over the defect and at some point the reflectors are symmetrically positioned beneath the probes, thus giving the most accurate depth. This is shown in the figure by the characteristic ares produced by this type of scan. As the probes approach the reflectors the signal starts and rises as the path length shortens until the minimum is reached when the reflector is symmetrically beneath the two probes. The peak position corresponds to this minimum time. This peak position also gives the location of the reflector in the weld cross section and the relative position of a crack top and bottom signal gives an indication of the crack orientation. If the scan is carried out with an encoder and the start position is known with respect to the weld centre line, then it should be possible to locate the position in the weld cross section to within one or two millimetres. This is very important since the location of the defect will help to provide a clue for the characterisation of the defect. To obtain good results, however it may be necessary to use a smaller PCS and narrower beam width in order to obtain a sharp peak. In many instances, because of the need to complete the inspection quickly or because of financial constraints, inspections are only carried with the non-parallel scan. However, in order to make a reasonable guess as to the type of defect and to get the best sizing accuracy parallel scans should be carried out over all the signals of interest found in the non-parallel scans. If the defect is long then parallel scans should be carried out at different positions along its length. 3.5 Main Uses Of TOFD The main uses of the TOFD technique are, a) for accurate flaw sizing, TOFD is one of the most accurate techniques especially for internal defects. b) For screening and sizing. Since TOFD can detect all the flaws in the beam coverage irrespective of orientation it has a high probability of detection . The fact that inspection data is collected in B- or D-scan form also improves the detection of cracks in the presence of signals from geometric features such as mismatch and weld defects such as excess penetration or undercut. Most welds can be rapidly screened by TOFD and demonstrated that they are free of significant flaws. ©) Change monitoring. TOFD is one of the most accurate methods available for measuring the growth of flaws. ‘The development of acceptance codes for TOFD has been slow. However, with the development of Inspection Standards (British and European) acceptance codes have been proposed. An example of an acceptance code is given in Chapter 7, Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 27 -3.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD ‘TOFD is a most powerful technique, not only for accurate depth sizing of defects but also for detection in routine inspections. However, its lack of adequate acceptance criteria still prohibits its use in some inspections. Various evaluation projects have demonstrated that the technique combines a high probability of detection (POD) with a low false call rate Be (ECR). In addition the simplicity of its scanning concept enables application on many different components, including complex geometry. Procedures and criteria for the acceptance/ rejection of weld defects are essential for NDT and hence the importance of codes and standards for industry. Any new technique presents problems of initial acceptance since acceptance criteria often tend to be based on “known practise” (c.g. radiography). ‘Thus it is very important to develop criteria for TOFD which are compatible with its unique ability, i.e. mapping the the position of the edges of defects. Like any other technique TOFD has its limitations (see below for advantages and disadvantages). In general the technique is less suited to coarse grained materials and inspection reliability close the scanning surface is hampered by the presence of the lateral wave. Advantages The two most important differences of TOFD from conventional pulse-echo are, i) the almost independence of angle of the defect for detection of the diffraction signals ii) the depth sizing is not dependent on the amplitude of the signals and the corresponding errors ‘Thus the main advantages of TOFD are, a) TOFD has a through wall sizing accuracy of + or - 1 mm and a crack growth monitoring capability of + or- 0.3 mm b) efficient detection of defects of all orientations ©) permanent digital record of the inspection data with cross-section type views through the metal. Disadvantages The amplitude of the diffraction signals does not depend on the size of the defects and a simple amplitude threshold cannot be applied for selecting the important reportable defects, unlike pulse-echo inspections. TOFD easily detects pores, slag lines, inclusions ete. The main disadvantages of TOFD are, 2) no simple amplitude threshold for selecting reportable defects b) all the TOFD inspection data has to be visually analysed in order to select the reportable defects ©) not so suitable for defects near to the inspection surface since they may be hidden by the lateral wave and the sizing accuracy deteriorates rapidly near to the inspection surface, Other Points Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 28 —‘TOFD is no more accurate in estimating flaw length than standard pulse-echo techniques, although by using various software algorithms (e.g. SAFT) the accuracy can be improved Since a considerable operator effort is involved in the analysis of the TOFD data experience and training are essential. TOFD should be regarded as just another tool in the field of ultrasonic inspection and sometimes it is more appropriate than pulse-echo and sometimes not. Very often a ‘combination of the two techniques is the best solution since the additional information is often vital for defect characterisation. As a consequence of the efficiency of detecting flaws, irrespective of their orientation, TOED scans see all the flaws within the beam coverage. This can be initially rather worrying, but it must be remembered that most of the flaws have been present since the weld was fabricated and many of the smaller (volumetric) indications are generally not important. Thus when it is known that a plant will have to be regularly inspected and especially when flaw growth monitoring will be important it is strongly recommended that the plant operators are persuaded to carry out a ‘base line’ or “fingerprinting” * sspection. Such an inspection should be carried out as early as possible in the life of the plant. This will enable the cracks which develop in service to be more reliably recognised and monitored, 3.7 Basic Steps in the Sizing or Detection of Flaws ‘The basic steps to be used in an inspection for the collection and analysis of TOFD data are, a) Write/develop a procedure, a layout is suggested in Chapter 11. b) Choose probe parameters, probe separation and basic A-scan parameters, described in Chapter 5. ) Set-up data collection system and collect B- or D-scan data files, described in Chapter 4, while equipment and probe calibration techniques are described in Chapter 12. 4d) Analyse data for flaw size. The basic method of depth sizing is by using a shaped cursor, which represents the response from a point source (Chapter 8). The cursor is calibrated from the position of the lateral and backwall signals (Chapter 6) and the sizing errors are derived in Chapter 6. The determination of the lateral extent of the flaws is also described in Chapter 6. The problems in complex geometry are briefly described in Chapter 9 ©) Analyse data for flaw characterisation - Chapter 7. Various software algorithms for aiding the interpretation are described in Chapter 8. 1) Write inspection report, a layout is suggested in Chapter 10. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 29 —