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NUCLEAR ENERGY
I~ill(x1wit11 diff(:r(:~~t, I I I I I I I ~ )I (J: ~~~ IS~ ~ I I ~ , ~ ~O VI I~S I. ( :t,l~is I I sit,~~il,I,io~r :I,I.~S(SS I , ,I I ( - ( l i I l ' 1 ~ 1 n ~ 1 1 1
vc:rsior~sof tall(:c:lo~rlc:~~l. ; t r t r (.;1.11(-(1isol.ol)c:s. I1i)r (:x;LIIII)I(~, IIOI.III:I.I 11,y(lroj:1*11 II:I:. I I
I I I I ( . ~ I : I I S ( : o ~ ~ s i s I .oI'o111~ i ~ ~ g I)I.OI,OII wiI.11 ; I . ~ . ~ I I I ~I I(I.; I , S SI I I I I I I ~ I ( . I . I . I ~ I I I . l . 1 1 1 * 1 1 . i:; : I I : > I I
I.l1(5
. .I . N.r~cleclrfission
Fig. 8.1. Uranium fission [l] (reproduced by permission of AEA Technology plc).
N I I I . ~ I ~~.cb:ac-l,io~~s
III are not the same as chemical reactions. They involve fragmen-
I I U I 1 0 1 1 I)\' :;olil.l.i~~g
of the nuclei of atoms for the purpose of releasing some of the
I , B I I . ~ I ( I I . I I I I I I , . l ) i ~ ~ ( lenergy.
i ~ ~ g Mass is a form of energy and Einstein expressed the where 11 = neutron and y = gamma radiation. The atomic mass numbers of tllc,
1 . 1 I ~ ~ ~ \ , ~ ~ I 01' ~ ( . ( .7)). and energy W in the form
~ . ~1rlil.SS +
fission fragments sum to 92 141 = 233, which is smaller than the mass nuiill)c~r
235 of the uranium. Now the atomic mass units add to 236 on both sides of (8.:<).
But each fission is known to release energy equivalent to a loss of mass (c*i~ll(,(l
the mass defect) of 0.215 amu or (0.215) (1.66 x which is 3.57 x 10 kp,
\\'II,.I 1. III Itilogrammes, 1V is in joules and c is the velocity of electromagnetic
I:, i r I
\\ . I V I . ( I I J : ~ I I , ) oro~)agation,(very nearly) 3 x 10' m/s. For example, the energy By Einstein's equation (8.1) each uranium atom fission therefore has th(s ('llcsrl:v
1.1I I I I \ ~ ~ I I ( , I I I01', I i~.t,oinicmass unit is equivalent of
! ~ ; I I I01'I I (1.11(- . (:o~~s(:(]llcnt released energy appears in the form of heat. The best-
I, I IW I I ( 1 1 l c l 111os1,-11sc:d
10 example of nuclear fission, discovered in 1938 by two German
. t ~ , i:;l.:;, Ol,(.o11i~hnand Frit,z S t , r i ~ . s s ~ ~
~ ~ s ~ ~ l is~illustrated
i~ll, in Fig. 8.1 [I]. Whcn the
I I I I ~ , ~ I , I I :01'~ i \ . tJ2:<5 i~I,0111i ~ 1 ) ~ o r; \., Il\ ) ~ tnsI,r:1,I I ( ~ I I ~ , ~ Oit,I I divides , into two fragrrlcili,~
In comparison, thc thermal energy ~ : ~ I I I of I ~ ;of c.oi~1is ;I.I)oII~. :i j. 10"' .I
, ~ n: Iton
$ 1 1 I ~ I I I J : ~ I ('(11li1.1
~ , ~ III:LS g(:~~(:l.il.I.ill[:
~, I I l i l l J : ( ' I I I I I O I I I I ~ . of hoi~ta i d r(:l(!i~si~~g (,it,hcr t,wo
Oil(: kilogr;~l~llnc of fissioncd 1J235 is thc:rc:li)rc:roagl~ly( ~ ( l ~ ~ i ~ iil ~ l ~.. lI \ (( ' :~ .~l ~~
l i ll
(. -lI,I I,, I . J : V
I I I ' I I ~ . I . O I I S 1)111s : i 1 ) l l l c ' ~ : I I I I I I I I I I ~.~~.cli:~.l,io~l. 'I'll(> two 1issio11C ~ ; I , ~ I I I ( > I I ~ , S
111 1 . 1 1 1 c ~ 1 I~I I O I . ( '
l,o ( 8 x 101")/(:3 x 1 0 ' " )
t,c:r~~ls, 2700 1,011s01' ~ o i ~ , l11,. is i~dsoI . O I I J : \ I \ V ~ * I I I ~ I , J ~ , ~
: \ I , . ~ c * : ; l ~ . ( . l . i v c ~r l~, y ~ ~ c . l col' - i 1.111, ~ ' I I * I I I II I.III III II I!I III : I I I ( I Ic~.,yl)l,ol~. 'I'llis I ) I Y M Y ~ S s11ow11
S,
1.0 > I , I ) ~ ) I I ~ , 20[1[1I,OJIII~:S 01' oil.
~:(III~V;L!(:III,
111 l I:.( 1(.111lyi l l l n ' i ~ a , . 'i.I , 1.1111 11c. ( - Y I 111~11111'11 111 I 1 1 1 . I I I I ( . ~ ( * I I I .( . ( l l ~ j ~ , l , i o ~ ~
X = 0.131N curies
I I:III li\~c,:; V;II.,V l'l.0111fractions of a second to millions of years, depending on the
I :II~III:II./ ivo III;I,I,(~I~~~I,I.
wllcre N is the nlimher of at,oms of t,hc sourc:c.
A ~.;~.,lio;~(:l,iv(~
SOII~(.(: 01' s I . t . o l i l . i ~!I0 !):I..L!) ,~~.;I.I.s1.0 ( I ( ~ Y1'0I .0 1,1 ~
~ ~w~i~l l l,;1.1<1~ (' 1,1'111,11 (11
i0s o1.i~i11i1.1
six(,, WII;I.I, is I,II(: ( ~ ~ ~ I ~ ( ~ S ~II;I,II' ) ~ I lil'(-'!
I(~~IIJ~,
H:I. Nllc:loar Radiation
u . .I . of radiation
I~'OT*~IL.V
' I 'I 1 1 - I II:I.~II Sorr~~s
of radiation from radioactive sources are:
(:I) particles ( a )
il.ll~l~i~
Fig. 8.3. Types of radiation [2] (reproduced by permission of AEA ' ~ ~ ~ ( ~ I I I)I I I ~ O J : ~
11l'
( I I ) i ~ ( , l , particles
i~ (p)
(c.) X rirdiation (X)
ic I) g;llllnla radiation (y)
wavelength). They can also be thought of as beams of photon ( ( ~ I ~ ~ L I I ~ . I I I11111 I I ) ( 1 1 11.11,
(I,) c.osr~~ic
radiation classed as "ionising radiation" tach carrying a discrete package of energy but having negligible 111;l.s~. '1'111' IB1'1l1'
1 I I I I I I I . ~ II I ; I . I . ~ . 01' ;I. ~ . ( : I Il+)r I . 1;irgc radi:ition dosages it may be lliorc convenient t o use I lowever, scientific evidence does not indicate any cancer risk or inl~~~c.tli:l~l,c~ 1.1 1 1 . 1 1 : i
I 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 i l . S ~ I ~ V ( : I . ( (SV),
, wlli(:h is 100 rerns. ;r.t, closes below 100 nlSv per year. At low levels of exposure, the hotly's I I I I - I . ~ I I I I I : ~ I II , '
sc:c:m to be adequate t o repair radiation damage to cells soon aftcr il. O(.I.III :: 1.11
1 l I I ~ ~ . l . lI )I.( v ~oort,io~la.lto the dose, even a t low levels. According t o this ('linear" 11aturalradiation and man-made radiation.
I I I ( Y I I \ , 01' ~.i~.tli;~.t,ioii
effects, if the dose is halved the effect, or the risk of any effect,
I : . I I ; I I v ~ Y I (:I/. Sollie iriforination on nuclear radiation doses and their effects is given 3.4.4.1. Natural radiation sources
I l l ' l ' : l l l l l ~ s. I 1/11,
'I'here are several sources of natural radiation:
Table 8.1. Effects of nuclear ra.diation doses [4]
(a) Radiation from space.
8 I I , : : ~~ \ , . . I I Typical background radiation experienced by everyone (b) Terrestrial radiation outwards from rocks i ~ l l ( I SI )i I . I I I ! 1';
(av 1.5 mSv in Australia). England the terrestrial dose rate is about 40-50 m r e l n ~ / ~ c ' i ~W,~rI ,I . I I . : I : :I I I
, I I I I ; ; ~ V / ~ , Y IAverage
I dose t o US nuclear industry employees. Aberdeen, Scotland, about 500 miles north, it is 80-100 n u . c : l ~ ~ s / ~t l cl l~c :1.1\ ~ ~ I
!,I) l l ~ : ; \ - / y , . ; ~ ~ , Forirler limit for nuclear industry employees a.nd U miners. Lowest level sium (K40).
;\I. which any increa.se in cancer is evident. It is also the dose rate which (d) Small amounts of radium in the drinking water and foot1 c,l~;l.i~ls.
arises from natural background levels in several places. Above this, the
(e) Small amounts of radioactive carbon in the a.ir. 'rirt: ~ L V ( ~ I - ; I J I:~~I ,I ! ; I . I 1 1 1 1 1 1
[xobabilit,y of cancer occurrence (rather than the severity) increases with
tlosc. natural sources in the UK, including ingcsted or i ~ l l ~ i ~ 1.1
l (11: I~I I l) ( 1111 . I I I :, , 1 1
I ' 1 1 1 I li1Ii111 Cri1,erion for relocating people after the 1986 Chernobyl accident. about 200 mrems/year (2 mSv/year).
IIIIIII II,>:V ;IS a dose accumula.ted over some time, 1000 lnSv would probably cause
;L ft~I.alcallcer many years later in 5 of every 100 persons exposed t o it
4 . 4 2 Mun-made sources
(i.c, if (.he nornial incidence of fatal cancer were 25%, this dose would
i ~ ~ ( . r ( , iit~ st o
r 30%).
1111111 I I I : ; ~ ;LS ~1101.1. I(\I.III (II)sI>: I . ; I I I S I . ( I . I * I I I [ ) o I . ~ I ~ ~ ) ra,dii~t,ionsickness such xs nausea
;I.IIII ( I ( Y . I . ( ~ ; I ~ I Yw~ l l i l { . I I I O O I I 1 . 1 . 1 1 ( . I I I I ~ I ~ ,I1111
, 1101. (lc!a.l,l~.
Al>ovc t.llis, st!vcrit,y
of' i l l ~ l ~ ~~I Is( .s~ ( , ; I : . ( , : ; w11 11 t l o : , t '
',IIIIII I I I : ; ~ ;IS :,IIUI~. 11.1111 I ~ I I : . ~ . \ v a 1 1 1 1 ~ l I t 1 1 1 I . C ' ( . I ' ~ V ~ I Iil
. I I M B I I I i~:tlI'1.11ost~ ~:
wil I I I I I ;I IIIIIIIIII
(I) ( :IIIIIIIIII 1 r l ( 1 1 1 1 l 11111 : 8 1- I I ~: . I . I ~ I ~
II 1 1 1 1 ~. I : I . I I I~I I I . I I ~ . I~ r111y ~1.11.111 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 , ( 1 1 I.:IIII.(,I,
(1,) N I I I . ~ I . I I~ II O M ' I ' I( ' 1 I :;I);II'l' \ ' 1 ' ~ 1 1 1 ' ~ 1 ' : ~ :;;11.1'I111.1'!;
, ; I I I ( ~ SI';I ~)IIOY:;.
r l I : i l ~ ~ . c ~ I . o ~ .I s)111.irig
. 110l.111iil oj)(:l.i~I,iol~ of a ~i~lclcar power; plant the radiation I('i~tfrom the radioactive decay of pli~toni~lm-2% (Ti = 88 yc:;lrs) fbrl~lsthe I)iisis
c*llisc.l,011 ~ , I I ( : 1)ill)lic: is 11c:gligil)lc. In Ellrope and North Alnerica the ac- 11' long-lived nuclear batteries. Applications include heart pacemakers, navigatiolli~l
t.ivi(,ic*s of' (.II(: ~~~tc:l(:;lr power industry create an average radiation dose of IcvLcons and space satellites and vehicles. The US Apollo space missions us(:(]
0 .I I I I I(:ss than the radiation from a T V screen. ~l~ltonium-powered batteries for equipment on the moon's surface. Deep spa(;('
~.c~sults,
like the Voyager spacecraft pictures from Jupiter and Saturn, were also
N.. I.P:.
1511ergisedfrom on-board nuclear-powered batteries.
oj ru~~clear
I I.w:.u radiation
111.:111 I I I j : ; ~ , t ~ i ( . ~ ~ l a I . ( : r iup
i ~ lto
~ , a few thousand years. certain to follow within a few days. The highly destructive effects of ra(li;ll.i()ll1111(111
I 1 : ; I I o I I I ( I I)(:~lol,odthat the C14 dating method must not be regarded as infallible. (:ell structure are used in cancer radiotherapy to try and limit or destroy ( : ~ ~ . ~ ) ( . I ' I . o ~ I : J
( '?(I 111 111 1.1 is I I O ~ , ho~rlogeneouslydistributed among today's plants and animals. l,issue.
I*;11 ~ ~ * ; : l l l ~ l r lvol(:i~.l~ic (~, carbon dioxide is known to suppress the C14 level of nearby Exposure to repeated doses of low-level radiation can be insidious k)~!(';llls(~ 1.11e.
v ( . r V . ~ . r .( ;. Il( 111. 111 ;~.(ltlit,ioi~ to spatial variations there are temporal variations. The c:i~rlysickness symptoms of high-level exposure do not occur. If the c x ~ ) ~ s l l r :r.r(L (.s
1 1 1 11.1.1.1( 111 01' ( !I ,I-I'r(:(:carbon dioxide into the air through smoke stacks suppresses widespread in time, then the natural healing of any ill-effects nlay 1nitig;~l.c: :LllY ( . I I
I I I I . l ~ , \ ~ ( ' l , wllil(\ : ~ . I(~XCCSS I of II~;LII-~II~L(I(:
C1.4 is injected into the atmosphere by 111111ative effect, but some damage may still occur. It is established tlli1.t ~v(:rcxll~slll'('
l l l l ( l l ~ l l l w(*;lq1011s l,(5sl,s. Lo low-level radiation can cause cancer of various typcs in ~ I I ~ I I ; L alld J ~ S s\l()l.lIc:l1 l,ll(n
lik:-span of cxperimcntal animals. Delayed heredit,;~rydcfccts 11;lvc:\)(:(:II(lisc,~v~,l,(~
i l l ill~ilnalsh ~ l tnot yc:t ill hililia~is. N(:vcrt,~~(:l~:ss, wit11 t,hc: r;~(Ii;~l,i()l~ (!xl)()sllr(* 01'
11111(:11 Or t.[l(:worl(1 [ ) O ~ J I ~ ~ ; L ~ ill(.l.(:;~.sil~g, ,~O~I 1.]1(: oo~sil)i]it,~ of wi(](!~~)I'('il,([ l . I l ~ ) ~ l ~ S, II Il I I I . ~ ~
H.Tb. N I I I . I ~ ~l{t~:~(.l,o~.s
:~I.
1 1 : I l.c~:~lil.,y,
H.T,. I .
;I, tlil.llgcrolis reality or a scientific misconception?
N .I I I I I :I I I I I . : I . I ~ ~ contains
II~~~ only 0.7% of fissionable U235. The remainder of the
Fig. 8.4. Basic form of Boiling Water Reactor [5]
I I I ; I I 1 . 1 1 : 1 1 , !)!).:$% l)y weight, consists of the uranium isotope U238, which absorbs
I I I . . I ) I I 1,. I.y1 )os of nuclear reactor the natural uranium is industrially processed to
f ,OUTER CONCRETE
' I 'I r I )I.( )( Ill(:(: a corltinuous heat source the neutrons released by fission, illustrated f
1 1 1 I ~ ' I J ~ ,S . . I, llrlist strike other U235 nuclei, causing further fission in a so-called chain
*.
II.:II.(.IOII. A sllstainable chain reaction requires the presence of a certain minimum i
1 1 l.l.ll.i~.:~l
q 111;~~s of U235, configured in some particular design manner. In addition > *
1 1 1 :I : ; o I I ~ (of Y :neutrons, a sustainable chain reaction requires that the rates of 1
I I I . I I ~ . I O I I ~)t.o(il~(:tion and heat generation be controlled. Also, it is necessary to slow
I ~ ~ I W II I vclocitics of the neutron products of fission by containing them in an
I . I I ( . I O : , I I I I - wi(,Il ii lnoderator material, which is usually ordinary water, heavy water
( 1 1 ]:I ;~l)l~il,c:. I%c:calisethe purpose of the reactor is heat generation, it is often called
.I I II(.I'III:I,~ ~'(\il(:tor.
I s ' I ~ I . cnvc>ry 11nit of electrical output power MW, required from the generator it
I : . I I I ~ I . ( ~ S S ; t,o I . I . c:rc:ate
~ about three times this value in thermal power MWth in the
I I I I I , ~ ( * : I I l.(>;~,(.,l,or.
' I ' l l ( . ~)~.il~c,il)l(: oC :L boiling w:ltc:r ~lrlc.l(.i~.r ~.c:i~.('l,or core is illustrated in Fig. 8.4 [5].
' 1 ' 1 1 t . I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ; 1'11('1,
I.I. I I S I I : L ~ I~I ~~ ~ L ~ I ~ Iosi~ll. IIII ( I OX), is (:~iclosedin metal cans or fuel
I O , ~ : :; I . I I I ~ (.:I,II I ) ( , r(q)l;t,(~~l W I I ( - I I ( , I I I > : I , , I I W , I I I : I ~ . ( , I ~ : I . is ~ S I ) ( ~ I I ~ ,Control . rods (not the
: , : I I I I I * : I : . 1 1 1 t . l 11111s) ~ I ' ; I I~ij;l~ly I I I , I I I I I I I I : I I I : . ~ I I l 1 t . 1 1 1 I I I : I ~ . Is11c,11~ I ~ i1.s ~ : I)ororl
I . ~ or (.i~(lltlili~~i
I . ; I I I 1 1 1 . I : l i : , l . ~ I I P I 11 I W I ~ I ~ I V I wil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . I 8: I I I ~ I I III.:.I. I . ~ I I I . I . O I I.II(. ri1.1,c:01' lissioll rc~;l.c,l.iorl
)I 1 .
I { I I I ~ I I I / * W:I.I,~SI.
, l l t ~ ; 1 1 ~ 1 , 0 (IiWIl,),
1~ wIlt!r(! o r t l i ~ ~ i wi~l,t:r ~ r y ( 1 1 2 0 ) i,s IISCO l ~ o t as l ~ i~~otl- ::111,vivt:tl;LS (:fI'(x:I,ivt!op~)osil,io~~ 181.
1 . 1 : I I 1 1 1 ; I 111 I ; I S ~ . I I ( L (.oo1;1.11l~ :1.11(1 1 1 ~ : l . t ~t,ri~.~~sSt:r f l ~ ~ i (Fig. l , 8.4. ?'lit: Prc:ss~~rised Water 7 7
Ill(: 1;lt~st(possibly t,h: fi11;~i) A I I I ( ; ~ I ( ;1111clcar ; L I ~ power 1)IiLIIts is WiLltl*~l j ; ~ , ~1 .,
I ~ I . : I I ~ I J I( I 'W l l ) , IGR. 8.5, i~lsouses ortlirlary water as a rnodcr&tor but this is en- wl~ichopened at Spring City, T(:nr~cssccill 1996 [g, 101. Tht: 1;~tc:stI3ril.isl1I)I:IIII.
I I1 I:.I.II w i l . l ~ i r;\.~ ~ ( ~ ~ ) ; i .(:irc~~it
r i ~ t , ( :f r o n ~the steam circuit [6]. Both the BWR and the Sixc:well B, which is also a PWR design, rated a t 1110 MW,, went " O I I S ~ . ~ ~I % II ;I.
II~I:.~IIO~.~IIII. (:r;~.~)l~it,(: is used as a moderator within the core and heat is trans- operate two reactors 20 years beyond their initial 40-year licences. Ot,llt:r 11s ( . 1 1 1 1 1
11.1 1r.11 1.11 ~ . I I ( ' t:~I.(:rllillheat exchangers using high-pressure carbon dioxide ( C 0 2 ) 1);inieshave petitioned the NRC for nuclear plant life extension [12]. M;~ny( ' O I I I 11.1 I l a l l
I h ~ l t l ~ Ic. (,Y . ( * I I ( , 1111c1ear stations in the UK use the Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor are proceeding with large-scale nuclear programmes, including China, l"ri1.11(.1., 111
( A ( :I{ ) tl(,si~lr.'I'11i.s is similar, in principle, to the Magnox design but uses ura- tlia, Japan, Romania, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan and Ukraine. Th(: Ijil: I ' I I ~ . I I I I '
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ' I I ( ~ (111rit.l1(:(1
~ to 2.3% content of U235. The fuel enrichment permits higher market for nuclear-generated electricity is the fast-growing Asian coul~l.ric!s01' 1 1 1 1 .
t q 1 1 . 1 r 1 1 I O I I ; ~ . ~I.c.111l)oratlrre and heat output than a Magnox type, requiring a smaller I'acific Rim, notably China [12,13].
I 1,111 It11 1.1 I I X . , :1.11(1 rf:srilting in a more efficient steam cycle. In both Britain and the USA, the nuclear industry has failed to ~ : O I I V ~ I I ( . I 11-
\I 1 J:II l,il.cll:~~-l,y elegant and successful design is the Pressurised Heavy Water sceptical public of the safety and the economic and environmental advi~l~l,il.~l,c's 01
( ' :\ N I 1 I I I ( . : I I . ~ . ( )I. (I'IIWR) developed at Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. This uses ~~uclear-generated electricity. The F'rench have continued to build ~u(:[(:~I.I. sl.i~.l.it )II:;
r r r 1 1 I I I : ~ l111 J I I I ~ I I I I Ii ~ fucl s and high-pressure heavy water ( D 2 0 ) as a moderator and so that now (2002) most of the electricity generated in F'rance is fro111I I I I ( . ~ I . I I I
111.11 I 1 I i l II:;I;II I I l ~ i ~ lA. comparison of some of the design details of various types of sources. Some of it is now sold to Britain, using undersea cables under t<ll(:l4:l1~:li:;l~
I 114.1 I I I ~ I I I I . ; I I . ~ . O I . S is given in Table 8.2 [7]. Channel.
I I I : ~ I O I ~c.;l.llyI,II(:world's first reactor to be connected to an electricity supply It remains to be seen which country has chosen the wiser course. Fr;~nc:c,,wllil.11
111.1 W O I I( wi1.s ;I. Mi~.gnox reactor in England in 1953. Britain and F'rance attempted has no oil, will eventually become totally nuclear. The USA and thc UI< iLl.(:1)01.11
oil-rich while the oil lasts and coal-rich while the coal lasts. What thcll'!
l i l l e 8.2 Performance data of thermal reactors 171.
~ L I I CL11c
~ dt:~r~i~n(i is growitlc. It, is (!st,i~~i;~t,(:(l t , l i i ~ t , l,l~(!r(! w(,us4:%7I , ~ I ( : ~ II .I~I* ;~ ~\ ~.~~. ~ , O
111 oi)(:ril,t,io~~ ;~ro1111(1 t,k~(:worI(1 i l l 2000, ~ I I ( . ~ I I ( ~ ~:%:% I I { i~l l I , ~ I ( ~ il,ll(I 1 1 1 1,111'
I IS(\, 'I';~.l)lc: 8.:%1 I?,]. l i s l , i l ~01'~ t,11(:111;1.,iol. ~ . ( ~ ( . O V ( > I . : I . ~ L.(*SOIII.(.(-S 01' I I I . ~ I I I ~ I ~ II ,IXI I ( 11.
1'11111 I ( ill1 2 development of advanced forms of fast breeder reactor. This will, ill ~ , I I I . I I , I I I ( . ~ ~ ' ~ I : S ~ '
1il~lll;llll:l 1 the amount of nuclear waste an issue that is discusscd in S(:c:. X.(i I I ( > I I I W
-
11 1 1 ~ . ~ , 1 . 1 2!)
"1'~\~<11,1<1 ti
:111\ 1.111.1 I
',*!ill 11 41'11 , , ; 1 2
,11.1111 59
Figure 8.7 shows the continuation of the nuclear fission proccss ill~isl,~.;~l,c.cl . I
~ I ~I " I J ' .S
' <!,.<.<l<.ll 11 This results in the production of radioactive plutoililiii~239 (1'11'L:j!)), w l ~ i ~ . 1:;l l : ~ I I
,I\\ I1 il.1 l.111,I 5 artificial chemical element isotope that does not occur ill n : ~ t . ~ l rI (' l l~1 1. 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 l l l I : , ; I
'1 .11\\~.111 (i metal, hard and brittle like cast iron, t,hat ca.11 hc nlcltc~l,1110111c1(511 ;i.11,1 1 1 1 ; 1 . ( . l 1 1 1 1 ( ~ ( 1
1~I.I.\III<, 14 It can also he soft, :tlloyed with otllcr liictnls to ~)roti~lc,c, wiixr i r . r ~ t l1111-(,;11 1 , ) 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 . 1
Ill\ :{:$
ll,';:\ l(l.2
pl~it,oni~im isot,opc:s exist,, not,i~I)ly P112:jX,P11240 i1,11(l 1'1124 I , id1 01' W I I I ( . I ~ ; I , I I , I K I ( ~ ~ o : ~ ( .
t,ivc:. Plnt,olli~unis llighly racliot.oxic, ; ~ l i t l~rnlsi.1111 ~lsc,tlIIII(I(SI. sl.l.ic.i.ly c . c ~ ~ r l . ~ o I l ( ' f :i Il I ~ ( I
~~i;~.rclotl c.oi~tiil,iol~sl (i] .
1 1 1 ; I (,11('1.111;~1 t~(';~.(~I.ot' 1,11(: 1'11.):\!)( . o I I ( , ( - I I ~ is lis:iioll(-,l 11,)' 111.1111.1111 ( . : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . illlll
' 1 ~ ~ 1 . 1 111 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 ~ ~ :1 . I . l l # I 111' 1 ' : l l l i l l l l . l l l I ' l l 1.1 1111,. \ 1c .,. 1 , , 1 . .
( . I I I I I , I . ~ I I I I I ( % : ; ; I I ) O I I I O I I ( > I I ~ i l . ( l 01' 1 1 1 1 . I I , * : I I . ! : ( . I I I . I . ; I I ( Y I 11,. 1 1 1 1 . I I ~ , I . I ; I I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I
l i : l : l l l ~ I ~
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1 I , ! ; '1'11,. 1111 I I I ; I ( , ~ ( I I I OC pl11001iium[IG] (reproduced by permission of A E A Technology plc).
(:ON1 ) I hl' ,I I ,:
1 I I..II I , I I O ; I ( . ~ ivc, fissioi~prodlicts siinilar to those from uranium and these form
I ,I(
1 1 , . : ; I I : ~ I . : I . I I I ( ' ( I wiI,liol~tthe use of a moderator and the "fast reactor" core is much f metal fast breeder reactor is higher than that of a thcrrnal rc!:~c:(,oro f I . l r ( . S ; I I I I I . I ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ .
. I I I ; I I I I , I ~ . I I : I I I ;I, t,li(:ri~i;~l reactor core, being of the order of 1-4 cubic metres. As the ;. I jecause of the need for finer ellgineerillg tolcralic:c:s, adt~cll~i~i,c: syst.cSir1s 1.1) :;il II./:IIII I I I
I I I I I I I I ~ I II I I i l l i.Ii(:(.or(: is consumed for electricity generation, the neutrons released
l l
t.11~use of liquid metals such as radioactive sodillill i~iltl~ L I s O OII(! ('(IsLs 1 1 1 I I : ~ I I I J ~ , ,
I I 1 :, I ~:>sil H I iI.t.(' i1.11sort)ed into a surrounding blanket of U238, thereby creating more t~ransportingand processing tllc llaza,rdo~lsfilcl ir~;~t,c~riills, 11o1,i~l
)1y 1 ) I 1 I[.( I 1 1 1 I I I)I
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111t11u.l : I I ~ I I , .I., .I 1 ~ 1 . 1 01 ~ I N I \ ~ ' ~~ . 1I , 1 1 1 I~ ~ I I I I I I~1 1 1 8 1 1
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111111 ;I I I I I~ I I I I I Al:io, 1111,
11111 II.:II I I I ; I ~ ~ ~ I I : I 1~1 ::~ ;1 ,1 ; 1 1 1 \ , I I I ; I I I I I I I I I : I I I I ~ / O I I I ~ I I ~ , I I I I ~ I I; I II I I. ~ 11ol I)I.I.:<I*III. ill (.III* 1'111.111
111.11 \\'I111111 I l l lIllf.l.ll\, 1 1 : ; , 1 1 l l l ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ; 1 1\ V 1 ~ ; 1 . , ) 1 1 1 1 S . A S I ~ I . ~ O ;I~I. Sc . c . i c I c ~ r ~ Il I. I . I . I I I I . I . I I I , I I : I !):I(;I\.l\\',., I'WIt I I . ; I ( - I . I I I ;r.l. ' l ' l 1 1 1 . 1 , h1111.I : . I ; I I I I I , 11:11
'1'111, I I I I I . ~ I , ; I I - 1 1 : ; l i ~: I I ~ I I ~ I I ~ ~ ; Ii lI l I ~r -. c , ; r , c . l . ~ ~ o~ .l ) c > l . : r l , i c ~;\.I.(.:
l~ lrisl~l~r~g, l ' ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ s , y1llS,A v ; ~ i,t 1~ ~ I!)']!),
i ; ~ , IIIIIIIII.
, ; I , I I I I I J I I I . ;I,I'I,I*I. ; I I ~ I ~ : I , I ~ I , O W;I::
I~ :;IIII~. I~II\%'II
O I I ~ , o f s(:rvi(~:, :I, s(:rio~ls loss 01' (~OOI;I.III, I ) I Y , I I I . I . ( ~ I ( I I I ( ! Lo ; I , I I O J ) I ~ I I I Y I I.(-111-1' V ; I I \ ' I - 1 1 1 1 1
(.I) l ; \ i l 1 1 1 1 ~ 01' I . I I ( ~ sl.oc%l ~~rc~sslrrc:
vc~ssc:l or ovc:li nlolt(It>w~~
of t,llc corc clue t,o wi\.s not ~lot~,ic,otl. h i i x i l i ; ~ r~(YYIw;L~.(:I. ~ j)~l~lll)s U;1,il1\0 1.0~,ir(.~ll;~.I,(' \ , \ I ( ' II(Y.I%:;:;;I.I.~ W:I\.I,I
1 IIIC to valves that h ; ~ lt)(:cn (:los(:(l t,o l;~(.ilit,i~t,(t ~-o~~I,ili(: r1,1)i~i1.s ; I , I I ( ~ 111;1,i 111 I ~ I I ; I I ,
ll~:is/l:ll~l~ < ) I ' ~~ool;l,ll1,, 11
1181. There was no fatality or serious injury due to the ; ~ c c i c l ~;tI. ~ l 'I'III.IY*
t hlills I.,
I ' I I ~ . I . I I ! : ~ I I I ~ I ~ I . ~ I I(.0111,rol
~: syst(:lns for nuclear reactor operation are invariably dupli- land, either to the workers in the industry or to the public. Tllc T1lr.1~1~ Mill* I : ~ l i l ~ l l I
1.11 I .I I : I 1 1 1 I SI ~lll(~(~illl~:s t.ri[)licat,cdto sidetrack any equipment failures. Duplicated plant is no longer in use. It is noteworthy that this major accitl(:~itW:IS 111 11. ( 1 1 1 1 . 1 11
, , \ ' : , 1 1 ' 1 1 1 5 I I I ; I . , ~ I I ~ L V ( > 1,1i(' :~tlditionalsafety feature that they overlap each other and design errors or equipment failurcs but to human error - tlie si~f'(:I,,y 1 1 1i1.1 I ; I ~ : ~ - I I1 1 , 1 1 1
; I I I : I I I \ J ~~~~c.losc:tl
11 1)rc:ssllrcvcssel, can be sensed using its temperature and pressure clear industry has played a large part in the effective curtailnlc~it,ol' ;I.II,V 1'111 ~ . : , I . I . I I I ~ I I ,
Ill, ll~~ll~lllll~ll~,l,y.
future expansion of nuclear power generation in the USA.
A l l I (,;~c,t.ol. c:ont,rols are designed to operate on a "fail-safe" basis. If the elec-
t I I I , I I \ , ~Il.i\,il~g l.ii(: coolant pumps or heat transfer system is cut off, even from the
8.5.6.2. Chernobyl
I 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 : ; I :I.II(III,v s ~ ~ ~ ~ pthe l i e control
s, rods fall under gravity into the core, Fig. 8.4,
.111#1 ..IIII!. 1.111, r(:;~(:t,or down. The reactor core, contained in a steel pressure vessel, The world's worst nuclear accident occurred a t Cherl~obylin t,llc Il ltr:~.illc-1 1 1 I ,l!ic;
1 , . I ~ : . I . I I I I I ~ . ; I ~ . within ~!~~ a very thick biological shield of concrete, Fig. 8.5. At that time a major part of the electricity generated in the th(:n Sovic.1. I ~ I I ~ O wrl:. II
' I ' l l ( . I )l~.~.;~.t.ion of nuclear reactors is subjected to the most rigorous engineering (and still is) nuclear-based. The standard thermal reactor systen~s,k~rowlli1.s I t 1 I h l l i
1 I~.,.I!:I I 1.1 )!(.I ;I.II(:(:s i~lldto extremely stringent safety management systems. Standard 1000, rated a t 1000 MW,, are boiling-water, graphite-moticrat,c:tl s,~sl,c~llls II:;IIIJ~,
.. 11.1 \. I ~ . ; I 1.1 I 1.1,sirlclude the monitoring and measurement of all the physical and enriched uranium dioxide and ordinary (light) water cooli~lg,si~riil:~.~. ill I ) I . ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ I ~ 111
I I I ( , I I I I ~ . : II 1 ~l.ol)(\rt,ics of reactor materials. There is an emergency core-cooling system. Fig. 8.4. Each reactor system consists of two identical reactors Lack-1.0-11;1.1,1i,r i1.l I * I I
I \ I . \ . I ~ , ; I . I . I I I - I . S o f iL i~llclcarreactor system are kept in physical separation to minimise at 500 MW,. In 1986 ten RBMK 1000 units were in service : ~ (:l~erl~c~l~vl, t \ V I I I I 11
: I I I \ , I ~ ~ I I I I : I ~ ~ (; l( ~ : i ( :to firc or flood. further eight units under construction.
On 25 April 1986 preliminary actions were begun prior to a11 cxl)(:ri~l~c*l~(. I 1 1 I 11%
termine if a turbine-generator would still power some reactor coolillg I 1111111 ):; w 1 1 1 11.
i . N I L C ~ C ( L T TeactoT accidents it ran down after its steam supply was removed. The test 11:1(1 ;L l(:gil.i111;1~1~1- 11111
? pose but was unplanned, unapproved and not properly supcrvisc:tl. As !);II 1. 111' 1.1 1 1 .
: . ) ~ i l . t . 111' ;!.I1 1.11(1 precautions, reactor accidents happen. For example, the conse-
111 11.1 I(.(' 1 1 1 ' si~:llili(.itliI, loss of coolant is catastrophe. In the presence of inadequate ! test preliminary procedure the emergency core-cooling systcln wi~sclisc.01111c.1.1.1.1l
nine hours - in contravention of written safety rules. Tllcrc followc*~l ; I :;I-I it.:,
11 1 1
11 I
111.1:::; 1 1 1 ; 1 . 1 1 1 1 i ~ : l l l ~OVOII t)i~rnits way tllrol~ghthe steel container and concrete into
nearly boiling point,. A cornpllter print,ont, of t,llc: rc;rc:t,or I ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ) I . ~ I I I.11;l.t ; I ~ I I :I; \ vI ( I \ W . 1~
1 111, !#.I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I J I ~ ~ I I W1.1~: rc:ilc.t,or I ) ~ i i l ( l i l11. ~ ~wo11lO . t.licreby become a highly dangerous the need for iminccli;tt,c r~l;tl~ual shl~t,dowl~, I)(:(.:LI~S(> ~.l~(:r(l w(:I.(-1.i1.1. l o ( ) I;YV 1.1 1 1 1 1 . 1 ( 1 1
. , ~ I I I I I . ~(11. , I I I I ( , ~ I I ~ , ; I . ~ I Iri~,(Iio;i,(:t,iv~*
I~(~ l~:~(li;~~I,io~l. '1'111% IO(;:LI heat, g(:n(:r>~te(1 ~ racii-
1 ) the; rods insertc(1 ilit,o t,h(: r ( ~ ~ c : t oW;LS r , ig~~or(:(l. ' l ' l ~ , ;; L I ~ ~ , ~ I I I ; I s;~,l'(st,,y
, ~ , ~ ( ~ S , ~ S ~ , I 1~I II; III I, W I I I I I ! !
.)I1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a 1 1 I I I I I . I I I I I , :( . I o I~
. I - I IWIO ~
I I I(I I~ J l r , ~ I I ~ ~ I ~;1.11(1 I I S I lik(:ly ~ t,o i~ic:rc:i~.sc:
1.11(, sl)rontl
li:~v(:t,ri1)1)(:(1(i.(:. s l i ~ ~(IOWII) t, t,I1(1 r o ; ~ , ( ~II;I(I l , o ~I ~ ) I Y * I I ov(~1.1.ii I I I I ~ I I 11.y 1 / 1 1 , I ) ~ I I * I . 1; I1 11 :, 1 1 )
$ 1 1 I ; I I I I : I I 1 0 1 1 I)y W : I I , IS.~I, I,> ; I . I I I I ) I . J ~ , I I : : I , : S ~ . : I I I I , : ; . ' l ' 1 1 1 . 1 . t . II;I,S I I ( , v ( > ~\ I ( Y \ I I i ~s18rio11s
, r1~;1,1,1,or I'i~,cilit,il,t,(:
t , \ ~ ( : ~ ) ~ O ~ ) ( I S t,(>sl,.
I ~ I \ [ I I I!{I'(Y.I,, \ r i l , : ~ , l s;~.l'~~t,,y ~ I I . O I ~ I Y ~ I I I \~V I( ~ IS, I , I J I , I I I I I I ~ I I~ I I * I . , I I I : L I ,
1 ~~111.11!1 111 I . I ) I I ~ ; I I I I I I I I . I I ~1;lil111~. ; I I I \ , I I . : I # l o
11131 I I I I * I I I I I I \ L , I I i l l 1111' (lli 01. I~'I.;I,II(.I-.
11
i,111* ~ ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ iW~I *l I ~. I I~~I I I~( ~~I ~ ~II ,. ~ lI I ,I I *; 1~1 1 I~:;:.;III.I*
, l i s l [,, I,) 1.1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 ) l 1 , 1 , 1 * I 111-11. W I 11 1,
(111 '.'I1 \11111 I'lS11 111.,l 1'1 l10111:. .1111.1 (111. 11.:.1 ~ 1 1 0 1 ~ l ~ 1 1 1 1 1 11~1 1: ' !, ' , : 1 1 1 , 1~11111.1111 lo((:<
( ' I I I . I . I I I I I I \ , I \ r , ~ ::I ; 1 1 0 1 I ~ I I: . I l l 1 \ I ~ I I I I , , 10 111' I 1 I:. ;,I!,,III~I( ;III! I t ) IIOII. IIO\\'I.\I,I, III,II
$\,.I $. \ \ , 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 .1 I \ ~: I I ~I I I ~ I 1 1 1 , I 0 1 8 1 ; ~ ~ ~ 11 1 I I ~ I I I I I ~ ~I I~I I II I I ( . I ~ . : ~ . : ; I ,1.111. I . I , ~ I I . ~ . O I .I I I I W I ~ I .' .I ' \ I ( . I . ( ~ 11 \V;ls 1 1 0 1 1 , 1 1 ( . 1 1 1 i 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 ~ ~1:1;1 ; 1 1 , l : l l l v ~ I I 1 1 1 1 111, < ~ I ! I , I; I I I I I :, ; 1 1 1 ~ 1~11~:;l1',1l1~1:. \\.'I11 1 111.1 14.1
4 , 1 1 1 : I I I I ~ I I ; I . ~ . ~ II ~I( I~ (~. ~ I I I s ( ' t,li(: prc:vailing winds did not blow for several days [19].
1.11ltlireof safety encouraged by increased collaboration bctwc:c:11 14;;~.st. ; I I I I I \ \ ' I , , . I; I I 1 1 I
' I ' 1 1 1 . : ~ c . l . i tl ( ~ 1 1 1 ,~l(!st,l.oyotl tllc: Chernobyl-4 reactor and killed 31 people, including :;~~l)stantial investment in improving the reactors.
'':? 1 1 I I I I I I : I ( l i ; ~ , l . i (!x~)os~ire.o~~ A further 209 on site were treated for acute radiation Since 1989 over 1000 nuclear engineers from the former Sovic:(. I I 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 I I ; I \ . I . ! , I , . I I a I
I I I . , ~l l l i l l j : , ; I I I I 1 i1.111011g t,lics(:, 134 were collfirmed (all of whom recovered). No- \Vest,erl1 n1lclear power plants and there have been many rc:c:il)~.oc,:~l \.r:.~l.. ()!,< I
I I, I \, 1 1 1 1 : . i l , ~ , sl~lI'(.rc:tlfro111 acute radiation effects. However, large areas of Belarus,
1,
:I0 twinning arrangements between East and West nuclear 1)1;1111.:; II;I\~I. 1 1 11111 111.1
: \ II I I I I I ' I I I : I . ~ ~111i1.l
I At;oilii(: Energy Agency (IAEA) study involving more than
[.ion,processing, management, storage and disposal of riucl(:;~rW ; L S ( . 1.1 ~ ~1 1 ~ b ; I Ii I I I I - . I 1 1 1 .
, ' I11 I 1 . 11 1 1 , 1 1 1 : ; 1'1.i P I I I 22 c~o~~iit,rics and published in 1991 was more substantial. In the
~ u o s tchalle~lgingproblem of all. Nuclear waste is r;~tlio;lc:t,ivc:ii.11(1 is ~ I I I , ; I . I I I I . I ~I I \ r l
. I ( I V . V I I ( . I ~ 1 1 1 ' I ) I . I * I!)H(i ( 1 i ~ t . iit~ used a control population to compare those exposed
lll~mberof different activities:
I It l I : I 1 i l ~ I I . 'I'l~cs,y (;)1iii(1signiticant health disorders in both control and exposed
.I(
, * , I 1 1 1 1 I : . . 11111. ; I [ , 1,11:1!,
8 sl.;~g(:rlorle was radiation-related. (a) uranium milling and pl~rificat~ion
:;II 1 1 I I I . : ~ , i l l I . I I ( ~ I J k r i l i ~ ~Russia
c, and Belarus since have been based on national (b) fabrication of reactor fuel
I I . ~ : I . . ~ ( . I : : 1 1 1 ' I I \ ~ I ~ I 011(!
, il~illionpeople possibly affected by radiation. These have (c) nuclear reactor operatiori
1 1 11 I
I II I I 11 ,I I
I-isiI IJ: i~ic.icltrnc:c:of thyroid cancer arnong exposed children. Late in 1995,
:I (d) ~lliclearfuel reproccssilig
i 111. \\'I I ( 1 11 I I I((*( I I I I Y I . I . ~700 ~ c:1s(:s of tl~yroitlc:aiiccr among children and adolescents ( e ) nuclcar reac:t,or tl(:coln~~iissiol~ii~g
10 I ( ' I I ( > I . I I O I I , ~ I ; ~ ~ . ( ~ i ( l t:1,1i(1
111, ~ i i t ,~ ,I , I I I O I I ~t,li(>s(:soiiic~t e ~ i~lea,t,kisiire : ~ t , t r i l ~ ~ to ~ted (f) ri~~:l(:i~rw(~i~poiis f:~l)ri(:;~t,iol~
;1,1i(1t,(>st,i~~g
1.1t11.11 IOII 1 ' 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 i t . (211.
1 ; 1 1 1 1 I ( . : I ~ . I L I . ( ~ ; I I . ~ . O I 1'11(:1
. ro(Is a11d pellets also produces waste. Enrichment plant waste (,(:rials under containment until the radioactivity has dcc:rc:irsc:tl t,o il~sij:lrilit: I 1.
I I . , I I ; I I I ~ (.~~rlsist.s 01' licl~litlc:ffluent containing low levels of decay products. 1:or convenience, the waste materials are classified wit11 rcgartl 1.0 1.111. 11.v1.1 111111
I . I I I I I I 11.1 I 1. sysl.c.111 1 jut these remain inside the reactor until decommissioning, A small enclosed in steel drums. Such waste from the UK is tipped into t.11(~A { . ~ ; I I~ \tI(. ) ~ I , I I ~ I .
4 I I I : I I I ~I ( . \ , 01' ~.;l.tlioactive gaseous effluent is sometimes released but this forms only about 4 km (2 112 miles) deep, a t an internationally agreed lot:;~t,io~r ; I I , I I I I I i ~ l l l
. , I I I I ~ I ";, 11' 1.l1c:local natural background radiation.
)I
iniles off Lands End.
Intermediate-level wastes include reactor fuel cans, fiicl fragr11c.111 s, sl I l l ~ , ~ :~I I: 1. 1 1
I(
I I ~ I . ; I . I ) I I ' i l ~ ( . i ( I ( ~i ~~ ~~vl ,osl \ ~ Ii, I~I ( l> ~( , S: ( . : I O ( * 01 1 . ; 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ; ~ . ~ . lI,IiIv; 1I .~( . I ~ I . ~ ; I ~;L(.: CVIIIII:;(.;II(. ( I I O \ V
Sc~II:~lic~l~l), I';IIJ:I:IIIII, ~ I II!li".? ; I I I I I ; I . ( . I I : I , I I I I I I I I , L V : I : : I I I I I ~ ~ , I . I I I I ,S A , i l l I!)',':\ N o I O I I I S ,
h ' l l l l 1 1 1 l * I I ' l ' l ' t : ; : ; l ~ l ~ I1 .l1 1~ l l ; l \ ' l ' :l.l'l'I llc'l~ 11 lllll 1 . 1 1 l l l * l 1 1 1 1 l l l l ~ l l ~ '. 1 ' 1 1 1 . 1 , \ . 1 ' 1 : 1 1 1 :.:lll't \' 11'1'11111
1 ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 . 1 1 ( . c111;1lil,y 01' t , l l o assets sold but also an improved environment for nuclear high energies obtained via very high working temperatures. At, ;I. l ~ ~ l ~ l l ) ~1*1 1~1 . i$ 1~1 . l
I , ~ \ \ , I , I I I I I L I I I * IISA 1121. 40 million kelvins (4 x lo7 K) the electrons separate from their ;~.ssoc.ii~.l.~~l l IIII~ 14.1
The resultant ionised gas is known as a plasma, in which individ~r;~I I I I I ~ ~ ~ I ~I ' :I II I I 1 1 1 11.81
each have an average energy greater than 5 keV. High temperature: I ) ~ ; I S I I I ; I : 1.1; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
H. 7 . 2 . N11.(:1(:(~7* generation in the UK [24]
electricity and can be confined and controlled by electric and niagr~c~l~i(. I;II.I.~~:;
11, I ')!)II~
I,II(. l J l i govc:rnn~entannounced that it would privatise its more modern Deuterium (D) or heavy hydrogen occurs naturally in seawater i1.11t1 II:I.:; 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1
number 2, as discussed in Sec. 8.1. In a thermonuclear bomb two tlc:~~l.c~r~r~:; III:.~. 1
IIIII I I . : I I :;I:I.(.~oIIs wliilc: rct,aining the ownership of older stations. In 1996, more
I I I ( ,,I t . I I I ,-%l.:~.l.ic111s wcm: privatised and British Energy became the holding company forin helium 3 plus a neutron, Fig. 8.10(a). For the purpose of clcc.t.ric.il.,~ ~ : ( ' I I I , I 111 11 1 1 1
N I I I I ~ . ; I I I<:l(*c.l.l.ic: :~litlScottish Nuclear, which merged in 1998 to form British by nuclear fusion, the most promising reaction is the deuterilllrl t j r i t , iI ~I ~I 1.1111~ 111. 11
/''I .I 18 . l . i ttlie nation's largest private nuclear generator and the world's
( : ~ . ~ ~ l a ~ . ; ~111, illustrated in Fig. 8.10(b) [6].
III ,.I \v 1 1 1 ,lly ~)l.ivir.t.isc~tl nuclear utility. British Energy operates eight power stations Tritium (T) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, with the rili~<sI I I I I I I I ~ I ' I :{ : I I I I I
1 1 1 r 11,. I 1 li (:l.s wc:ll :is sc:vera,l in the USA through its AmerGen subsidiary, which half-life Ti = 12.6 years. It does not occur in nature and has t,o IN: I I I : I I I I I ~ - I I ~ I ~ I I I I I ~
I,. 11 ~ ~ I ly I I ~ w ~ l c - wit.11 tl PECO). Each station consists of two advanced gas-cooled from the natural chemical lithium (Li), which is a plentiful i~iki~li IIII*I.;L~ ILlli~l I,,
I , . . I , I ) I : , , ~hsc~-l)(,
1 Siec:wc:il B, which is a modern pressurised water reactor. Nuclear x~idelyavailable commercially. The deuterium-tritium (D-T) rc:;tc.t,io~~, IYj:. s . I ( I ( 1 1 )
I w1.1 : ; I , ; I , ~ , I O I I S wclrc: not privatised simultaneously with non-nuclear stations. No and equation (8.12), produces the inert gas helium plus energy il11t1 I'III.I.II('I 1 1 ( ' 1 I I I I ~ I I . .
I I I , \ V I 1l;111l.s Il;~.vc:I)(:(:ii built since 1995. But because of limited domestic coal and to sustain the reaction.
l f . : l : . I I ~ : ; I ~ I V I ~ 11c:wS, c:olist,ruction is under discussion, a t least to maintain nuclear's
I I I : I I Ii1.1. :;II;II.(, its o1(1(:r nl~clearplants are retired. Of the UK's 33 reactors, 26 are 2~ + 3T 4 4 ~+e'11 + 17.6 MeV
111 I 1 1 1 . 1 l l t l Mil.g110~ t1c:sign. Six of the Magnox reactors are being decommissioned,
: I : . tv1.11 ;I.. 1 \ I ( : I)o~lrlrc:ayprototype fast reactor. The remaining Magnox plants are
\ ~ 1 1 ~ 1 . 1 1 : 114'
1 Ill.1..
I , i l . ] l i ~is
r ~; I~~ ~
~ I I I I ( I ; I I I I , I ;, ~I \ J ; I I ~ ; I ~ , I~I I~ , .I , I : ; ( . I . I I I I . 1;1.1111 II:I,SIYI : ; ( I I I I I . I - > ; . s1111.1. 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 11
IlOs, (:11il1: 11;lsI I I Y . I ) I I I ~ : 1.111. 1;1.1.~;1::;1. l i l . l l i 1 1 1 1 1 ~ . I I I - I I ~ ~ I . ; IOI.IIIIII(Y,I .~ I I I 1,111' w l l ~ l c l ;1\11:;1 I;III;I
( ' I I I I I ~ I . , Ii,llssii~; ~ i ( l1,111; IISA W I ~ I X :l;lrg~u~ ~ I ~ I I I [ ~ ~ (; I: , II ~~I ~I . . s AIISI,I.;I.I~;I,, ( ':III:II~ ; I I:I II I
Xi I ~II)~LJ>w(: W V ~ ( 111;~jor ? ~)roO11(.(:1~s oS Iit,llillll~or(: ( : O I I ( . ( : I I ~ , ~ ; L ~ , ( \ S'1'111' . I IS A 1.1.1 I I ; I I I I I . I I
I Ilc: leading consurncr of lithiunl ~lliileri~ls and conlpolllltls i ~ ~ I,II(: i d II';I.( I ~ I I J S . I ) I 1 11 1 1 11 1 . 1
1 ,I' value-added lithium materials. Because only one c:oiiil);~,l~y 1)ro(1I I ~ ' ( *1( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
c.ol~lpoundsfrom domestic resources, reported productioil slit1 V;LIII(~ ( 1 1 ' I ) I - I ,I 1 1 1 1 . 1 11 1 1 1
111 I IIIY r I 111. I I 11 IIIIII I ) I I M I I ~ ( Y Y ill
~ (8.13) is recycled ill (8.12) t o produce a resultant I i;lt,a cannot be published. An estimation of value for the litlli~ull ; l Il I I I I , I I I I I ~ 1I, .
~ ~ l i ~ l ( l l . 1.1
I I I I I O I I ~'roducedin the USA is extremely difficult because of the miuly ( . ~ t l l l ~ ~ ~ l I~I ,l. ~) , :I I
i r ~a wide variety of end uses and the great variability of t,he pric,c!s f ~ l .I I I I , 1 1 1 l l 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 1
'I) + %i -3 +
2 4 ~ e 22.4 MeV (8.14) { c:ompounds [26]. Some details of the production and reservcs ol' l i l , l ~ l ~ l l: I~ I l1 ' ) : I \ , ~ , I 1
1 . 1 11 I:I I II 11 I ( s .I . I ) sl~oivsI . l ~ i(l(:~lt(:ri~im
~t and lithium are the basic fuels for nuclear fu- ill Table 8.6 [26].
I I ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ ;~I Iy. I * 1)111.I1 11;~t,llri~11,~ occurring, abundant and stable (i.e. non-radioactive). Identified world reserves of 13 million tonnes exist against t l ~\)r('s~'l : 1 1 11~ : ~ I I I I ~ I
('1
( I . I I I I ~ ~ . . I I( 1 1 1 1 . : ; 1~vc.11 I~igliert,llan that of the D-T reaction, which is the most viable. -
- -.
1 1 1 . 1 1 1 I T I I I I I I 1.1 ~~~st.it.l~t,(>s 1/7000 of the hydrogen in seawater. Complete fusion of Mine production ReservesZ Itc:sc.l.vt. I I I I : ~ ~ . "
I 1 1 , . ( 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 . 1 i l l 1 1 1 i l l 1 (.l~l)ic metre of seawater would yield 12 x 1012 joules of energy, 1999
.
- 2000
- -
1, 1 1 1 1 1 1 I : . I Y ~ I I ~ V ; I ~ It,o ~ I i~1)out
~ ( . 2000 barrels of oil. Rather more startlirig is the fact United St,ates W W :~X,000 I Io,llllIl
N :\
Argentinao 200 200 NA
I 1 1 . 1 I I . ; I I . \ I 1 . 1 I l ) i l . liilolllc:t,rc:of ocean contains enough deuterium that, if fully converted Il,II,IlIllI
Australiao 2,200 2,000 150,000
I I ~ t , . l l I P Y I I I I I . ~ ( ' ~ I S~lsioll.
T would be roughly energy equivalent t o the earth's know11 - -
0
Bolivia 18, IOIl,llIlIJ
N .\
Brazil 32 30 9l 0
:\l,ll,llllll
Canada 710 710 180,1100
:\,II!III,IlIIII
Chile 5,300 5,500 3,000,000
N .?
China 2,300 2,000 NA
I .I
Portugal 140 I40 NA /\
Power outpt N ;\
nussia0 2,000 1,800 NA
Zimbabwe 700 700 2:3,000 :!';,!)Ij l J
-- --- -. .
~'!l,.lllll,~lllll
World tot.al ()nay be ro~lnded) "4,000 "13,000 4:3,40~),00~)
-.- -
-
World Resources:
- 'I%(, id(!nI,il'(xj l i I , l ~ i , l r~~(~: ~ ( J ~ I ~ C{,ot,;~l
C S 7(;0,000 1011s i l l 1 1 1 ~I ~! l l l l ~ ~ ~ ~ :~I,I(~"#
// / Slearn boiler Turbine Generator ;LII(! rriorc ( , ~ I ; I , I I 12 ~ ~ i i l l i t.otls
o ~ i ill 1)(11(~1.( ~ I ) ~ ~ I I ~ . ~ I ( ~ s .