8991 June, 1972 SM6 Journal of the SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS DIVISION Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers SS a THE SEVENTH TERZAGHI LECTURE, Presented at the American Society of Civil Engineers Annual and Environ- mental Engineering Meeting, New York City, New York October 19, 1970 . WILLIAM LAMBEINTRODUPTION OF TERZAGHI LECTURER By James K. Mitchell In honor of the “Father of Soil Mechanics,” Dr. Karl Terzaghi, the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division established the Terzaghi Lectureship in 1960. At about yearly. intervals the Executive Director, upon recommendation of the Executive Committee of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, invites a distinguished geotechnical en- gincer to deliver the Terzaghi Lecture. This invitation is considered one of the highest honors that can be bestowed ona member of the soil mechanics fraternity by his col leagues and, at the same time, it serves as a living memorial to the late Dr. Terzagh' ‘The six previous Terzaghi Lectureres are: 1963, Ralph B. Peck 1967, H. Bolton Seed 1964, Arthur Casagrande 1968, Philip C. Rutledge 1966, Laurits Bjerrum 1969, Stanley D. Wilson ‘When outstanding individuals are introduced we very oftenhear the cliché, *He really needs no introduction.” However, to properly appreciate the magnitude and scope of the contributions of this year’s Lecturer, the facts are as follows: He received the Bachelor of Civil Engineering degree in 1942 from North Carolina State University. After a period in engineering practice he joined the faculty of the Department of Civil Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1944 he was awarded the S.M. degree, and in 1948 the Doctor of Science degree from that institution, He advanced rapidly’ through the academic ranks and served from 1956 until 1969s Headof the Soil Engineering Division. In 1969 he was appointed the Edmund. K, Turner Professor of Civil Engineering, the first person to hold this new chair. In the early 1950’she directed his research activities at problems in soil technology, soil stabilization, and frost action in soils. He has been generally recognized as one of the pioneers in the application of physico-chemical principles and compositional con siderations to the study of soil behavior. Just as Karl Terzaghi recognized in the carly stages of his career in soil mechanics that the solution of important problems required improved knowledge of the physical properties of soils, our speaker tonight recognized that many facets of soil behavior can only be understood by probing intothe compositional and structural characteristics of soil as an engineering material. ‘Throughout these years he engaged in an active consulting practice and became rec~ ognized as an outstanding engineer who could identify problems and who wasn’t afraid to try innovations in their solution. Starting in the last half of the 1950's he began to direct his research and consulting efforts more and more towards the use and evaluation of soil mechanics methods for the prediction and assessment of the field performance of engineering structures. This research has resulted in major advances in techniques for settlement and stability analysis, improvements in construction practice, and extensive developments in field measurement techniques. One of his best known and most significant contributions from this work is the Stress Path Method for analysis of deformation and stability problems. Also evolving from these studies has been the ICEP, or Integrated Civil Engineering Project, concept, which is the subject of tonight's lecture. His many important consulting projects all over the world have served as excellent case studies for the development, of this approach. Our Lecturer has authored or coauthored some 70 papers on a variety of topics in the field; he is the author of the book Soil Testing for Engineers, which is known around the world; and he is a coauthor with Whlttean of the Fecenly published book Soil Mechanics, He isa registered Professional Engineer in Massachusetts and in Vermont, and a member of several professional societies. His service to ASCE has included the chairmanship of the Soll Properties and Session Programs Committees of the SMFD, and service on the Executive Committee, where he was chairman in 1967. His awards are many, including from ASCE, the Collingwood Prize (1951), the Wellington Prize (1961), and the Norman Medal (1964). He has twice received theDesmond Fitzgerald Medal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers,and has been twic cited by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for contributions to th Apollo program. These are the facts about Thomas William Lambe. ‘To those who know him there 1 considerably more. Almost 20 yr ago, in the summer of 1951, I begun as an eager nev graduate student and fumbling research assistant under the supervision of Bil Lambe ‘Our association has been close since. His inspiration and guidance over the years have been of inestimable value to me, I am sure these feelings are echoed by all those wht have been his students, His enthusiasm, energy, and zest forlife serve as an outstanding example. He bringt an intensity and effictency to his work that are matched by few others. I present to you Professor Lambe, the Terzaghi Lecturer for 1970.THE INTEGRATED CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT By T, William Lambe, F, ASCE NATURE OF THE INTEGRATED CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT The Integrated Civil Engineering Project-IGBP—is an app¥Oa@hitojcivil that my MIT colleagues and I have evolved during the last decade and a half. Fig. 1 summarizes the essentials of the Integrated Civil Engi- neering Project. The objective of ICEP is toNemeatetandetowtilizewamcon> structed facility to meet specified criteria oftfunetiOn, e€Otiomy, life, safety, All of these criteria except compatibility are well under- stood by the civil engineer. The term compatibility means that the constructed facility must harmonize with and complement its environment. It must not offend nature and life near the facility; it must obtain The underlying principle of ICEP is: in order to obtain a constructed fa- cility that meets the specified criteria, i t. These components range from project conception to project completion and include: (1) EStablishment"6f"themeed of a facility; (2) 3 (3) 5 (4) i sites; (5) de= ‘Sign; (6) ; (7) SuBveManee; (8) n; (9) nidifitenarice; and (10) alteration ‘The whole point of the ICEP concept is to o¥éRcomerthelisoTation of project . ICEP was devised to help ensure that the components were in- tegrated, to ensure that the boundary conditions employed in the various components were consistent, and to ensure that the engineers’ efforts were used most effectively. Of course, I am not the first engineer to worry about - Derzaghi himself worried a great deal about the lack of cooperation between designer and builder. In his paper “Consultants, Clients, and Contractors” (1958) he deploredmthe is jent and conamencttngmorantanetineintasampany. Rutledge in his Terzaghi Lecture r and the designer. lamented the lack of close cooperation e . Surely other engineers have worried about the lack of integration of the components of a project. ‘The key feature, in fact, the heart, of ICEP is the The execution of ICEPis: each important prediction 0 ity and future ‘facilities. Thus the essential actions of ICEP are to id cheek the Note.—Discussion open until November i, 1972. To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the Executive Director, ASCE, This paper is part of the copyrighted Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Pro- ceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 98, No. SM6, June, 1972. Manuscript was submitted for review for possible publication on September 28, 1971. 1 Edmund K. Turner Prof. of Civ. Engrg., MIT, Cambridge, Mass.ENGINEERING PROJECT ade during the course of the project and then tollemployy vanious"predictions:m: themRESUIES of these checks. In the typical project, many of the predictions critical to the planning and designing can only be checked by encountered . For example, when designing a dam, the engineer uses the results of subsoil exploration to predict the dimensions and properties of the various soil strata. During con- struction he may find the thickness or permeability of one of the layers quite different from that predicted. He should then use this information obtained during construction tovalterthe design and method of construction as re- quired. ti ICEP DEFINITION An Approach to Civil Engineering. OBJECTIVE To Create and Utilize a Constructed Facility thot meets Specified Criteria of: Function , Economy, Life,Sofety & Compatibility . PRINCIPLE A close Integration of Project Components is required to obtain Objective. EXECUTION Evaluate Critical Predictions and use evaluation on present facility - 1CEP PRACTICE - and on future facilities -ICEP RESEARCH. FIG. 1.-ICEP ESSENTIALS . Among the reasons these predictions are incorrect are: LL conditions are generally vényscomplex and diffi@ule\tovehar- on the basis of a reasonable exploration and testing program. 2. FaeitityYoadings arising from nature’s action—earthquakes, wave forces, storms, etc.—defyipreciselpredictions. 3. Cofistruction procedures, especially’ those involving soil are Highilyide- pendentwon» conditions,encountered at 'thelsite, weather conditions, human be- havior, ete. 4. Alte¥ationsiit'thé "environment caused by the presence of the constructed facility are very:difficult to predict. Unfortunately, few engineers realize how unreliable their prediction tech- niques are and how generally poor are the data used in their predictions. On civil sagineerine projects the enginee?’S!predictions are almost never:TERZAGHI LECTURES Even worse, few engineers know the extent that their work is based onipre- iutequnndili@hs. Further, because the engineer seldomnaahaiaahigensesic in actual practice, he generally builds up an unjustified confidence in his procedures, There are, of course, predictions that cannot be readily checked. For ex- ample, the effects of a design earthquake or design flood on a structure can rarely be fully checked because the earthquake or flood is not likely to occur, Even so, a ce ined by measuring and interpreting the ICEP is based on evaluating the critical predictions made during the proj- ect and using the results of the predictions, In ICEP Practice, the prediction evaluation is used on the project at hand or on a similar project in the same area, typically for the same owner. In ICEP Research, the prediction evalua- tion is used to check and, hopefully, improve prediction techniques, i.e., improve the state of knowledge for use on facilities to be constructed later, A ICEP Practice and ICEP Research, In carrying out IGBPypractiéérone frequently also does IGBRIREsearch. To execute ICEP Practice requires both that the predi ms be evaluated and that the evaluations be used. In executing ICEP Research, the main effort is devoted to evaluating the predictions. To use effectively the results of pre- diction evaluation on a current project, i.e., to carry out ICEP Practice requires: 1. ObtaiRtEEyEpFOCEESI ata sinterpreting”appropriate information, usually field data, venysexpeditiously. 2. Cl6Secommunications"anione the Various organizations and engineers within the organizations involved with the project. B.A that is responsive enough to utilize the results from checking predictions. The difficulties associated with obtaining accurate field data and using it expeditiously are much greater than many engineers realize. One cannot help but suspect that filing cabinets are bulging with incorrect field data and field data that have never been utilized. ‘This presentation describes several illustrations of ICEP. After the ICEP examples, some general findings are presented and discussed. AMUAY RESERVOIRS Project Description.—An excellent example of ICEP Practice consists of the oil storage reservoirs built by the Creole Petroleum Corporation at ‘Amuary, Venezuela. In 1955, Creole built its first fuel oil storage reservoir— FORS-1 and in 1956 built its second—FORS-2. (FORS comes from Fuel Oil Reservoir Storage.) In 1962, FORS-1 was expanded from its original volume of 4,000,000 barrels to 11,000,000 barrels by raising the dam from 13 m high to 24 m high. [Measured volumes of the reservoirs in 1970 were: FORS- 1 volume = 11,363,010 barrels; FORS-2 volume = 9,490,400 barrels; and FORS-3 volume = 7,874,000 barrels. (One barrel = 42 gal = 5.610 ft? 0.610 m*)] The third Amuay Fuel Oil Storage Reservoir—FORS-3—was built during the summer of 1969. FORS-3 was formed by constructing a damENGINEERING PROJECT 290 m long and 22.3 m high (at its maximum height) to enclose a natural quebrada, i.e., a small ravine. ‘The fuel oil storage reservoirs have proved to be spectacular successes. In comparison with conventional storage in steel tanks, open reservoir stor- ge has certain inherent advantages, i.e.; 1, Much greater storage capacity per unit area of real estate. 2, Simpler pumping facilities needed. 3. Shorter time required for design and construction. 4. Much cheaper per unit storage capacity for both initial cost and main- tenanee cost. ‘These technical and economic advantages for a reservoir far outweigh the techni¢al advantages of tank storage, i.c., steel tanks permit more flexible meration of the refinery and result in lower of] loss from evaporation and leakage. ‘The oil retention capacity of the reservoirs is based on the phenomenon interfacial tension. A fine grain soil properly compacted at a high water tmtent will retain ofl with zero leakage. Using the setup shown in Fig. 2, qe can demonstrate that until the pressure of oil exceeds the oil entry essure, no oil will invade the water-wet soil sample. Critical Predictions.—Among the many predictions required inthe creation ud utilization of the ofl storage reservoirs were two critical ones, namely: (l) The soil lining the reservoir would retain the oil; and (2) the soil slopes ould remain stable. Field exploration and extensive laboratory tests indicated tat a local plastic clay would satisfactorily retain oil with no leakage under ahead of 30 m. Laboratory tests were run to measure the strength charac- teristics’ of both undisturbed and compacted soil. Stability analyses were wwsed on the laboratory determined soil parameters and predicted values of pore pressure. Fvaltiation of Predictions.—Creole’s sudden need for a large amount of Htorage for fuel oil placed a severe restriction on the time available for jlaming, investigation, testing, and designing. The time available, a few months, was much too short for conventional steel tankage to be built. This fact significantly influenced Creole’s decision to employ the untried scheme dan earth reservoir to store fuel oil. ‘The severe time restriction precluded an adequate field exploration pro- fram, Because of this fact and because the scheme of storing oil in an earth ined reservoir was untried, Creole agreed to a field surveillance program. To execute surveillance and maintenance programs for an oil storage reser- wir was logical for Creole, an organization that normally carries out inspec- lon and maintenance programs on its steel storage tanks. Fifteen years of fperience at Amuay have shown that surveillance and maintenance of oil storage reservoirs costs much less (per barrel of oil stored) than does the inspection and maintenance of steel tanks. The surveillance program consists if installing and reading field measuring devices (oil detection wells, water wells, piezometers, inclinometers, bench marks from which vertical and lat- ‘al movement could be detected, stress cells, and temperature measuring ‘evices), sampling periodically the embankment and natural slopes, and wriodic inspections by an engineer. The field measuring system was installed fadually,over a long period of time.TERZAGHI LECTURES The evaluation of field performance has shown that the compacted clay core in the earth embankments has retained oil with zero leakage. On the other hand, measurements made in the oil detection wells and examinations ft waren,|, 01 aR ° 00% % VOID VOLUME IN SOUL FIG. 2. DEMONSTRATION OF OIL ENT! Fat FIG, eee ° RY PRESSURE Prreotie Surfece in Soil above Fot choy 120 é cLay “prveatic Surtace 9 Sei) eto Far Clay 3 .—WEST-EAST SECTION, REFINERY AREA made in test pits have revealed that oil has penetrated cracks in the natural soil slopes of FORS-1 at least as far as 30 m. In the abutment areas oil penetration into cracks of natural soil caused concern both from the view ofENGINEERING PROJECT oil loss and from the view of slope stability near the abutments. The natural slopes that formed three sides of both FORS-2 and FORS-3 were lined with compacted clay based on the experience at FORS-1. The most troublesome aspect of the stability studies made in connection with the design of the oil storage reservoirs was the prediction of pore water pressure that would exist in and under the embankments, and in the natural hillsides. We predicted that pore water pressures in the embankments would be negative and in the foundations of the embankments the total head would average less than 13.5 m, corresponding toanexcess pressure of 12 tons/m’. (See Lambe, 1963, for a discussion of stability studies on FORS-1,) Field measurements have indicated that negative pore water pressures do exist in the embankments and the excess water pressures in the foundations are far below 12 tons/m*, In studying the stability of the natural hillside, the engineer predicted that the phreatic surface would remain at El. + 1.5 m, as determined from borings made during the exploration for the projects. This prediction turned out to be incorrect—in fact, horrendous! Fig. 3 shows measured total heads. There exists a perched water table trapped above El. + 10 by the layer of fat clay. There appear to be two sources of the perched ground water, First, the extensive construction of refinery structures, roads, and asphalt sheets to retard erosion have significantly reduced the evaporation of ground water; second, leaks in the refinery drainage system and especially in the pipes carrying water for fire protection have introduced large quantities of water into the ground. Use of Prediction Evaluations.—Prediction evaluations have been used in nearly every component of the FORS projects. In planning FORS-3, con- sideration was given to selecting a site with a minimum of cracks in the natural hillside. In designing FORS-3, the entire reservoir was sealed with a clay core in the embankment and a clay liner over the floor and along the natural hillside. Further, a drain and water collection system was installed at FORS-3 to facilitate the lowering of pore water pressures in the natural hillside. On several occasions the field measuring system has been used to guide the safe operation of the oil storage reservoirs. For example, during 1969 the permissible minimum level of oil in FORS-3 was based on readings from the piezometers in the east wall of the reservoir. Rising piezometer levels in the north abutment of FORS-2 during 1967 and 1968 led to the decision to execute a surface drainage maintenance program behind FORS-2. This sur- face drainage program resulted in a lowering of Subsurface pore pressures. Other examples could be cited to show that the results of field measure- ments and performance evaluation have been and are now extensively used in the planning, design, construction, maintenance, operation, and alteration of the oil storage reservoirs at Amuay. MIT FOUNDATIONS Project Deseviption.—In 1960, MIT began a major expansion of its physical plant, Because of the high cost of foundations and construction delays attrib- Uutal to foundations of campus buildings, MIT initiated in November, 1962 the program, “Foundation Evaluation and Research—MIT” called, FERMIT, TheTERZAGHI LECTURES purposes of FERMIT are: (1) To ensure that building foundations constructed on the MIT campus perform satisfactorily; (2) to redyce the chances of founda~ tion construction damaging existing structures; and (3) to reduce the cost and construction delays associated with foundations. The heart of FERMIT is the evaluation of field performance, i.e., evaluation of the important predictions made in the planning, design, and construction of the MIT foundations. ] 5 2 oath aes = ie fg ae s/s hate So. pile i = = |, NGeERESORe) - lessee 3\, . 7 Sls ..J —}__| 2 Z z ry ¢ oeent NTE ta) = gee P ro DISTANCE” FROM EXCAVATION in tet FIG, 4.-DRAWDOWN FROM DEWATERING : i ] ] z | \ s 7 1h g 1 2 | \ 3 cur t fsa 6 |pvezomeren ' 7 PRE AUGERED ‘ 1 Ba | We — » 1 1 z Lah eS g. pie 1 oye co! Mme on 1 1 ELAPSED TIME IN Days FIG. 5.-PORE PRESSURES GENERATED BY prLE DRIVING Critical Predictions.~The design and construction of foundations built be- fore the mid-1960's were based on the following three critical predictions: 1, Dewatering for the construction of a given foundation would lower the water table only in the vicinity of that excavation.ENGINEERING PROJECT 2. Foundations of long end-bearing piles would perform better than shal- low floating foundations, i.e., undergo less total settlement and less differ- ential settlement. 3. The construction of foundations on long piles would cause less dis- turbance to adjacent saructures than would the construction of floating foundations. There were a number of other predictions made, some of them being used TABLE 1,—MIT BUILDINGS Foundation Number of Number of ‘Settlement, in type buildings stories inches Floating 7 6 to 29 1t02 Piles 5 6 to 30 42 TABLE 2.—DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT. Piles Floating Building (/)mnax Building (6/2 hnax Materials: 1/2,250 Life Sciences 1/1,500 Space 1/2,250, ‘Student 1/1,400 Refrigeration 1/1,550 CAES 1/1,400 Eastgate 1/570 Chemistry 1/1,100 MacGregor 1/900 MOVEMENT OF BUILOING.in feet Max. DISTANCE FROM NEAREST PILE. feet FIG. 6.—EFFECT OF PILE DRIVING ON NEARBY BUILDINGSTERZAGHI LECTURES to arrive at the three critical predictions. For example, predictions of the rate of bottom heave of an excavation and settlement following foundation con- struction were employed in the prediction of behavior of floating foundations. Evaluations of Predictions.—Observations at many wells around the MIT campus have proved that the first prediction was very bad. The data in Fig. 4 indicate that dewatering for an excavation can depress the ground-water piezometric level for a very large distance from the excavation—greater than 1,000 ft Extensive field measurements have shown that foundations on end-bearing piles do perform better than buildings on floating foundations—however this superiority in performance is very slight, The data in Table 1 indicate that foundations on bearing piles settled about 0.5 in, whereas floating foundations settled up to 2 in. Data on differential settlement presented in Table 2 indi- cate that the floating foundations have behaved about as well as the pile foundations. Extensive field measurements have shown that Prediction 3is not correct. Pile driving causes greater disturbance to adjacent structures than does a properly made excavation for a floating foundation. As indicated in Fig. 5, pile driving, even in preaugered holes, develops large excess pore pressures in the foundation clay. During pile driving adjacent structures heave and, as the excess pore pressures dissipate, the structures settle, The field data in Fig. 6 illustrate this point. On the other hand, settlements resulting from nearby excavations have been minor—less than 0.04 ft. Use of Prediction Evaluations.—Extensive use has been made of the re- sults from FERMIT. The evaluations of the three critical predictions have resulted in several actions by MIT. Unrestricted ground-water pumping on the MIT campus is no longer permitted. Engineers and contractors must submit dewatering schemes to MIT for review and approval. The evaluations of Predictions 2 and 3 have led to the conclusion that floating foundations on the MIT campus are superior to foundations on bearing piles. In addition to this technical superiority, floating foundations have a distinct economic advantage over deep pile foundations. Thus, MIT is going more and more to floating foundations. Only for unusual situations will MIT approve a proposal involving a deep pile foundation. Both engineers and contractors have requested that FERMIT participate on their projects—a true measure of the value of FERMIT. LAGUNILLAS PRELOADS Project Description.—In early 1960 the Creole Petroleum Corporation was faced with the necessity of constructing three very heavily loaded tanks on weak subsoils at Lagunillas, on the east coast of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. The three tanks were part of a dehydration process and would operate at capacity. A foundation analysis based on in situ undrained shear strengths showed a factor of safety for each tank less than unity, in fact, about 2/3. Close to the area where the three tanks were to be built, another ofl company had constructed a tank on subsoil conditions presumably similar to those at the Creole site. During the test loading of the tank, the foundation suffered a complete shear failure. At the time of the foundation failure, the applied surface load was about 1/2 of the design load for the tanks Creole proposedENGINEERING PROJECT to build. This other company founded their rebuilt tank on piles. An engineering study revealed that Creole could save considerable money by employing a preload technique for their tanks rather than installing a pile foundation. Fig. 7 shows the size of preload used at two of the tank sites. The preloading was successfully carried out. Lambe (1962) describes certain aspects of the Lagunillas preload project. & pres te Fa ELEVATION. W FEET FIG. 7,—LAGUNILLAS PRELOAD FIG. 8.-LAGUNILLAS PRELOAD S-II Critical Predictions.—On the Lagunillas preloads there were two critical predictions, namely: 1, The preload could be fully built in a reaSonable time. 2, The weak and compressible foundation could be adequately improved in a reasonable time. Since the preload was to be built at such a rapid pace that essentially no dissipation of pore pressure was expected at the center of the clay layer, the Lagunillas project offered an excellent opportunity to examine availableTERZAGHI LECTUI RES: techniques for predicting pore pressures developed under undrained conditions. Evaluations of Predictions.—The results of the field measurements shown in Fig. 8 proved that both of the critical predictions were correct. The full REMOLDED _stTRENGT unorsruaee srnensro ie SHEAR STRENGTH - noes? FIG. 9.-SHEAR STRENGTH OF LAGUNILLAS PRELOAD FOUNDATION EKCESS PORE PRESSURE IN FEET OF WATER >: DISTANCE WW “FEET "FROM “PRELOKD ¢ FIG. 10,COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED PORE PRESSURES preload was placed in a little over a 3-month period without a foundation failure occurring. Settlements were very large, almost a meter, during loading. The data in Fig. 8 also indicate that a large portion of the excess poreENGINEERING PROJECT TABLE 3,—SHEAR STRESS AT PIEZOMETERS: Piezometer (So. ~ Sc )/2 by elastic theory, munbet in pounds per square foot P2i 1,220 P15 1,290 P23 1,360 P27 1,390 PlT 1,460 P25, 330 P19 280 Shear strength of clay = 400 psf to 900 psf. soon , Sirona Ste \ sal 8 % ¥ 4) a oe : 5 CLAY t eg 8 -2i9| -210 itl aay i “we = ca a cunt 810 OS ay “ FIG, 11,—GENERALIZED SOIL PROFILETERZAGHI LECTURES pressure in the foundation was dissipated during the preloading period. Orig~ inally it was thought that only 6 months were available for improving the foundation by preloading. The process engineers had difficulty in debugging the dehydration process and the preloads were thus permitted to remain in place almost 3 yr. Thus the second prediction—that the foundation could be improved during the available time for preloading—was correct, but in fact the actual time was far greater than initially thought. Fig. 9 presents the results of field vane shear tests run in the foundation soils during the preloading period. These data indicate a considerable strengthening of the soil, especially in the upper boundary. On the basis of subsoil exploration and laboratory tests, the engineer predicted that the clay layer was freely drained both atthe topand the bottom. Piezometers installed in the silt layer above the clay confirmed that the silt served as a free drainage layer for the clay. The prediction of free drainage at the bottom of the clay was checked by the insertion of Piezometer P-31, As can be seen in Fig. 8 the clay was not freely drained at the bottom. Fig. 10 presents a comparison of predicted and measured pore pressures at the center of the clay for an undrained loading. The details of these pre- dictions are described elsewhere (Lambe, 1962). The comparison shows a very close agreement between predicted and measured pore pressures. The closeness of this agreement is remarkable in view of the fact that the com- puted shear stress at most of the piezometers far exceeds the shear strength of the clay (see Table 3). Note that techniques 4 and 5 gave precisely correct predictions of the pore pressure at P-21 even though both techniques are based on elastic theory. Elastic theory predicts a shear stress of 1,220 pst for the clay which has a shear strength of 400 psf to 800 psf, as indicated in Fig. 9. Use of Prediction Evaluations.—The Lagunillas preloads actually served two purposes. First, by using a preload which subjected the foundation to a more severe loading than did the fully loaded tank, the preloads served as test loads, If the preloads could be satisfactory built to full height, it was then almost certain that the tanks could be built without causing a foundation failure. The preloads were built at a rate determined by stability analyses for par- tially drained foundation conditions, tempered by judgment from the field measurements. Thus the performance evaluations proved that the stability techniques used worked for the Lagunillas conditions. The stability tech- niques were then applied with confidence to the three tanks for which the pre- loading was done and for later construction at Lagunillas. The evaluations of predictions were also used to design and construct the tank foundations and to guide the tank test loading. KAWASAKI RECLAIMED LAND Project Descriplion.—The desperate shortage of land available in Japan for industrial development has necessitated extensive site construction by reclamation of underwater areas. Fig. 11 presents a generalized soil profile of two sites developed by the Toa Nenryo Company. Aspects of this project are described in detail in Lambe (1969). Critical Predictions.—The development of the Toa industrial sites involved two critical predictions, namely:ENGINEERING PROJECT * = site 200 FIG, 12.-KAWASAKI SITE SETTLEMENT, JULY 1963 TO FEB. 1965 rs e| G2 ps : re Poo g | Zo: oe =o la : u ry ge] gs | : 3 28 | E 53 | } md ee TEGEND = go |e -ales-¢ ho Ga Np ~ dlierroce| ul 10 emry 23 iB - v/®2- @ 20 emi ay w-2-eli-4- 4 30 em sve a ze w-3- 920 - O Ber aes age 5s 500 ser SETTLEMENT OF REVETMENT ~ SITE 400 FIG. 18,-SETTLEMENT OF SITE 400TERZAGHI LECTURES 1, The subsoils were in static equilibrium. 2. The hydraulic fill required no special drainage. Evaluations of Predictions.—The initial planning and design for the Kawa- saki industrial sites were based on the assumption that conditions were static, Because of the recent placement of the hydraulic fill and because of the well-known pumping of water from the subsoils for industrial use, the en- gineer predicted that conditions were not static. Settlement devices and piezometers were installed throughout the two sites. Figs. 12 and 13 proved that the Kawasaki area was not in static equilibrium but was settling at a rapid rate. Fig. 24 compares predicted and measured values of total head for Site 400. This figure indicates that considerable excess pore pressure still exists and that continued settlement can be expected. Attempts to limit the Fie coat METERS 210 euay -360 ELEVATION cuay 480 60. TOTAL HEAD IN METERS FIG. 14.—TOTAL HEAD AT SITE 400 (1968) . pumping of ground water may prove to be effective in reducing the general site settlement. ‘To check the need for special drainage inthe fill and to evaluate the relative effectiveness of paper and sand drains, the load test shown in Fig. 15 was carried out, By having settlement observation points at the top and bottom of fill in each of the three treated zones, a determination could be made of the effectiveness of the drains. The settlement of the fill is shown in Fig. 16. These data show that the fill consolidates almost as rapidly as the test load was built and there was no significant difference in settlement behavior among the three zones. Pore pressure readings in the fill confirm that essen- tially no excess pore pressures were developed by placement of the load test. These measurements of settlement and pore pressure confirm that PredictionENGINEERING PROJECT $6,136 be BaF eOHT OEE nae sy tse as aT sul z wo.p2 ger , ! x so el a fe : 's1 -.0/Pa ps-i80 CLAY I 1 se -2h = 1 ' i CLAY II cLay ti a46 FIG. 15.-LOAD TEST SITE 400 49.0) er -20 40 IN. METERS ELEVATIONTERZAGHI LECTURES ° ior Canter of Leos 5-5, a |_| _| | ote Traine 55; | | © Sond Drains Se Sy | Pope Ordos S59 ge. = 5 ges & of "oer. eC] van T Fee. T man, apr Twa | vunet wal ave | see T oc) 1966 ‘967 FIG, 16,—SETTLEMENT OF FILL TIME IN YEARS 2 3 aj os | is z Tae Tiseay | 90s Taeer Ter Teer (09m otter 25 yeon) METERS Zz SITE serTLement placement ond. pumg 2 FIG. 17.—COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED TANK SETTLEMENTSENGINEERING PROJECT eS 2—no drains needed in fill—was correct. Fig. 17 shows a comparison of predicted settlement and measured settle- ment for the large crude ofl storage tanks built at Site 200. The field data show that Tanks 1, 2, and 3 settled almost the same amount and the predic- tion of tank settlement was correct. The close agreement between predicted and measured tank settlements is remarkable in view of the fact that the en- gineer used the wrong tank load in making his settlement prediction, Based on information supplied to him, the soil engineer predicted that for the first few years the tanks would operate at near capacity. He thus made his settle ment predictions on the basis of a tank full of oil. The actual loading history of one of the large tanks indicated that the tank operated close to half ca- pacity. The engineer making the settlement prediction should have somehow approximated the predicted loading with a cyclic load, averaging half ca- pacity, rather than a static load of full capacity. DIFFICULTIES WITH ICEP The initiation and execution of ICEP has encountered nontechnicaldifficulties. To obtain and install es usually required considerable ‘timewand"money# Even though there have been recent developments in field instrumentation, the profession isa long way from having + AllineMEEVICes-to™ obtain "al atsthi@Mt9pesON Uatameeded onperfoxmances evaluation, When a device goes bad on a field project, the consequences are generally more serious than would be true in a laboratory experiment. One seldom gets a second chance on an actual project whereas a laboratory ex- periment can usually be repeated. ‘The most troublesome of the nontechnical problems is the difsieultwrerews tainingith®"Spportunity:to\doICEP. Many ownersare understandably reluctant to finance ICEP because of its OOOSVO Atos PO renvaIePomcuratiee nature and because of the uncertain results of the performance evaluatioi Owners are much more receptive to programs of field measurements after serious Peinneestave developed. The systems normally employed to create and operate a constructed fa~ cility are not ideal for the close integration of project components. On the typical complex project the large number of organizations involved, the sys- tem of payments, the allocation of responsibilities, etc., combine to make it very difficult to obtain maximum value out of a performance evaluation. ICEP IN THE UNIVERSITY ‘The conduct of IOBBREBWaxeh and the study of examples of ICEP Practice are of great value to the student and to the profession. ICEP has developed knowledge and fed it thereby making courses relevant and, in fact, exciting. Many of today’s students want the opportunity to apply recently learned fundamentals to real field cases. They want and need the perspective which can be gained from studying the For the last couple of decades the university has been the most impor- tant source of research in civil engineering in the United States. A dispro- Portionately high percentage of papers published by the ASCE are authored332 TERZAGHI LECTURES by educators and further a disporportionately nigh percentage of ASCE prizes awarded for research and publications are won by educators. For example, during 1969 there were a total of 950authors of papers published in the Journals of the American Society of Civil kgineers. Sixty-six percent of these authors were educators, agroup that constitutes 8 % of the total mem- bership of the ASCE. Two reasons why the university is such a power force in civil engineering research are: a ran is to producevand"disseminate 2, The university has a cOftinwouswilowsofisid@HtS who question the ac~ cepted and then search for the answers to questims that they (and their pro- fessors) raise. Unlike industry, the university does research primarily to contribute to knowl- edge, not to produce proprietary products and tehniques. Publication of the results of research is encouraged—maybe overen,ouraged. ICEP Research constitutes an ideal format for university research. It gives the professor and his students real casesto study. It indicates to the professor those aspects of prediction techniques that are deficient. ICEP thus gives the professor and his student the opportunity to select significant problems—those most in need of research. ICEP Research would seem to offer a solution to the problem of a growing percentage of published papers being theoretical, whereas the percentage of case studies is declining. A potential problem with ICEP Research is thetendency for the researcher to be drawn into the engineering of the project on which the research is being conducted. Having field performance data, the professor and his research team are prime candidates for helping the engineer and contractor solve problems which arise during the project. This potential problem can be pre- vented by the professor’s maintaning close communication with the project engineer, supplying him field data as he needs them. At the present time, both engineers and contractors working on the MIT Campus request that ICEP Research be conducted on projects with which they are involved. 1 consider this solid proof of the success of ICEP! CONTRIBUTIONS OF ICEp Successfuul.—On the whole, both ICEP Research and ICEP Practice have proved highly successful. The ICEP format was developed to ‘attack and ‘WOPEAMIyesolveysome of the SHOFLCOMINGS) WEiliesses, and negléct in civil engineering research and practice which I myself have done and have observed others do, J@BP:was intended to help: (1) [demtify the most sig- nificant aspects of a project, and indicate where the engineer should concen- trate his efforts; (2) in the design analysis; (3) ensure that the facility was built &@6iding.towthedesigh; and (4) evaaaReMENENFWAPHENHdecisions-which had been made during the planning and design. Fifteen years of experience with the CEP approach has shown it to be successful beyond my fondest hopes. Field performance evaluations have been made on a number of types ofENGINEERING PROJECT structures, including: A breakwater; buried structures; braced excavations; open excavations; earth dams; embankment foundations; building foundations; and foundations for refrigerated structures. Publications cited in the Ap- pendix—References, and others, describe some of these specific cases. Preceding parts of this paper illustrate aspects of four ICEP’s. In addition, there are several general findings from ICEP’s which are of interest. These are described in the following paragraphs. Documented Field Cases.—A well-documented field case, even without full interpretation, can constitute a worthwhile contribution to the profession. ‘Terzaghi many years ago pointed out the importance of field observations to our fundamental knowledge. At the 1936 First International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering he stated: ‘. . . Our theories will be superseded by better ones, t .” Well-documented field cases are useful to the re- searcher who develops a new prediction technique and to the engineer pre- paring a state-of-the-art evaluation of a topic. For example, Hoeg et al. (1969) used the reported Lagunillas Preload data tohelp develop their method of estimating in situ shear strength from measured pore pressures, Further, considerable use has been made of FERMIT data (e.g., Fig. 5) by engineers doing foundation work in the Boston area. Correct Prediction Does Not Prove Technique is Correct.—ICEP Research has shown on several occasions that, even though some prediction technique correctly predicts performance, the technique may not be a sound one. For example, a very close prediction was made of the pore pressure at the bot- tom of the excavation for the CAES Building, Lambe (1968). This correct prediction resulted to some extent from a cancellation of errors—an under- prediction of the head drop due to the excavation was offset by an under- prediction in the rate of pore pressure dissipation. Further, pore pressures developed in the foundation of the Lagunillas preloads were predicted very closely by a method based on the theory of elasticity even though shear stresses predicted by elastic theory were as much as two to three times the «shear strength of the soil. Importance of Initial and Final Conditions.—Field performance evaluations have repeatedly emphasized that initial and final subsoil conditions may be far different from those typically assumed by the engineer. For example, the assumption that static ground water exists before the construction of the facility and will exist when equilibrium has been reached can be seriously in error. The Kawasaki and Amuay cases are striking examples of nonstatic equilibrium ground-water conditions. On important projects, the engineer should measure ground movements and pore pressure prior to construction. A measurement of lateral soil stress as a function of depth would also be very valuable; however, instrumentation for this measurement is not yet available. Importance of Construction Details!=ICEP experience has repeatedly shown the great importance that details in construction procedures can have on performance. This fact is especially true on braced excavations. The lateral movements of sheeting and the magnitudes of strut loads depend very greatly on such things as the sequence of excavation, the timing of construc- tion operations, the extent of strut preloading, the extent of dewatering, etc. Need for Improvements in Project Management.—There is a great needTERZAGHI LECTURES to develop and teach principles of project management. ICEP experience has repeatedly shown potentially useful field performance data were not used to maximum benefit. Field data must be obtained and processed rapidly, portrayed, and interpreted correctly, and—most importantly—the significant interpretations must be put at the disposal of the engineer making decisions. Experience has repeatedly shown the difficulties of processing field data rapidly and feeding them back to the decision maker. Partly as a result of experiences with ICEP, MIT plans to initiate a pro- gram in Project Management. This program of education and research will focus on the three major aspects of producing constructed facilities— preconstruction planning, construction management, and postconstruction surveillance and evaluation. The program will emphasize integration of the entire management process through improved information processing and use. The ICEP theme, prediction evaluation, will be central to the program. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS By its very nature ICEP is a team effort. Many of my past and present colleagues and research students have contributed to the development of ICEP and to the execution of many successful projects. Credit is due to these many people who have so greatly contributed to ICEP. David J. D’Appolonia helped interpret the data from a number of projects. Harry Horn helped initiate FERMIT. L. A. Wolfskill has worked closely with all of the ICEP projects for the past 7 yr. His tenacity and skill enabled us to obtain accurate field data. Able and progressive management at the Creole Petroleum Corporation and MIT has substantially aided the ICEP effort. Deserving special credit are: S. J. Mathis, formerly of Creole now of Standard Oil of New Jersey; R. W. Willmon, former Manager of Creole’s Amuay Refinery; William R. Dickson, Associate Director of MIT’s Department of Physical Plant; and Philip A. Stoddard, MIT’s Vice President-Operations and Personnel. APPENDIX,—RE FERENCES 1. Hieg, K., Anderstand, O, B.. and Rolfsen. FE N., “Undrained Behavior of Quick Clay Under Load Tests at Asrum,” Genrecimigue Vol, 19, No. t, London, Englind, March, 1969 2 Lambe, T W., “Pore Pressures in a Foundation Clay.” Jvurnal uf the Sil Mechanies and Foundartons Divisinnt, ASCE, Vol. $8, No. SM2, Proc. Paper 3097, April, 1962, pp. 19 47 3. Lambe. T.W., “An Earth Dam for the Storage of Fuel Oil (Its Design and Behavior During Construction)” 2nd Pan--Lmericun Canterence un Sait Mechanies anid Fuundation Engineering Vol. I, Brazil, Fuly, 1963, 4.Lambe, T. W.. “The Behavior of Foundations During Construction,” Journul uf the Sorl Mechanies and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol 94, No. SMI, Proc. Paper 3740, Jan... 1968. pp. 93-130. 5 Lambe, T W., “Reclaimed Land m Kawasaki Cy, Japan.” Josmnal of the Suid Mechanics ad Foundations Disisun, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SMS, Proc. Puper 6780, Sept.. 1969. pp. HI81 1198 6.Peck, R- B. “Advantages and Limitations of the Observutional Method in Applied Soil Mechames.” Gevrechnique, Vol. 19. No. 2. London, England. June, 1969ENGINEERING PROJECT 7. Rutledge. P. C., “Uulization of Marginal Lands for Urban Development,” Jivurital of she Suit Mechanus and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol, 9. No SMA. Proc. Paper 7000, Jan.. 1970, pp. 122 8. Terzaghi. K.. “Consultants, Engineers July. 1988. Chents and Contractors.” Journal ut the Buston Sucier of Cait