Figure Ground

TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR VISUAL-PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
Figure-Gound (Basic Level)

ACTIVIDADES DE ENTRENAMIENTO DE HABILIDADES VISO-
PERCEPTIVAS Figura-Fondo (Nivel Bsico)
Authors: Rodn-Gonzlez, Antonio;

Vidal-Lpez, Joaqun; Javaloyes-Moreno,
Beatriz; Muios-Durn, Mnica; Rif-
Giribet, Montserrat; Garca-Montero,
Mara; Gimeno-Galindo, Patricia; Codina-
Fossas, Marta
Editors: Rodn-Gonzlez, Antonio; Vidal-

Lpez, Joaqun
Copyright 2009. Saera. Solutions for

Learning and Research, S.L.
(www.saera.es)
ISBN-13: 978-84-692-4351-0
TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR FIGURE-GROUND SEGREGATION
The term visual perception makes reference to the capacity that brain has to
understand and to interpret that eyes see (Gardner, 1986; Scheiman, 1997). Along
with the basic visual functions and motor skills, visual perceptual skills allow us to carry
out many activities of daily life (Chaikin and Downing-Baum, 1997; Erhardt and
Duckman, 2005; Van Waelvelde, De Weerdt, De Cock and Smits-Engelsman, 2004),
and guide our actions (Goodale and Milner, 2009; Jeannerod, 2006).
In our daily lives we do not perceive a world composed of isolated visual stimuli.
Usually we work in an environment with multiple stimuli, and sometimes, these are
presented in dynamic conditions.
Figure-ground segregation is a visual perceptual ability that enables us to detect,

differentiate and select visual stimuli (figure) within an environment (ground) to be able
to discriminate or distinguish these as separate or isolated. These stimuli can be faces,
figures and objects, landscapes, letters, numbers, etc.
The segregation of the figure with respect to the ground takes place from the
visual discrimination of certain features such as color, brightness, depth, orientation,
texture, movement or time information (Fahle, 1993).
Figure-ground segregation is an important part of visual information processing,

and participates in many academic and daily life activities. In fact, some authors
(Bernspang, Asplung, Ericsson and Fugl-Meyer, 1987) have reported the importance of
some skills in high-level visual processing, such as discrimination or segregation of
figure-ground to enable us to organize our knowledge about the environment.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that the segregation of figure-ground is

important for object recognition, so that this ability occurs before recognition of the
object itself (Peterson and Gibson, 1994). Other authors have postulated that factors
such as memory (Petersen and Wikoff, 1983, Peterson and Gibson, 1994), fixation or
visual attention (Driver, Baylis and Rafal, 1992; Lagreze, Meigen and Bach, 1994;
Peterson and Gibson, 1994; Rock and Mitchener, 1992) have an important role in the
perception of figure-ground.
Some studies have reported the great importance of the primary visual cortex in
the segregation of figure-ground. Supr and Lamme (2007) reported that after the
removal of extraestriate areas of visual cortex in primates, there is a decrease in the
perception of figure-ground.
Furthermore, it has been reported that during the process of visual perceptual
segregation of figure-ground, there are involved different cortical regions responsible of
visual perceptual processes, such as object recognition or visual spatial orientation, as
well as the extraction and detection of the object from its background (Peterson and
Gibson, 1994; Vecera and O'Reilly, 1998). It has also been seen that the visual spatial
attention acts as an operator in the process of visual perceptual skills, so the lack of
visual spatial attention could negatively affect the discrimination or segregation of
figure-ground (Vecera, Flevaris and Filapek, 2004).
Another factor that could be decisive not only in the figure-ground discrimination,
but in other visual perceptual skills, such as visual memory or visual closure is the
visual tracking (Warren, 1990). This author reported that the presence of deficits in
1
visual tracking could significantly interfere with the performance of these visual
perception skills.
Visual perceptual skills of children are not at the same level as for the adult, but
their perception of the world is also good (Arterberry, 2008). It has been estimated that
the segregation or discrimination of figure-ground develops rapidly between 3 and 5
years of age, and stabilizes between 8 and 10 years (Atkinson and Braddick, 1989;
Williams, 1983).
However, any factor that interferes with the child's exploration of the environment
can impede the learning of visual perceptive process (Tsai, Wilson and Wu, 2008),
adversely affecting the ability to perform activities of daily live, such as games or
recreational activities, school work or other developmental tasks related to their age,
especially in school-age children (AOTA, 1991; Dankert, Davies and Gavin, 2003;
Kovacs, 2000; Loikith, 2005). It has also been seen that performance in reading, writing
and maths can be affected negatively (Cornoldi, Venneri, Marconato, Molin and
Montinari, 2003; Schneck and Lemer, 1993; Solan and Ciner, 1989; Weil and
Amundson, 1994).
In the academic context, child usually works with shapes, numbers, letters, and
especially with words. Subjects who have deficiencies in the visual perceptual ability of
segregation of figure-ground may have problems to locate, identify and select relevant
information or certain details of a visual scene or a context, with the omission,
repetition or replacement of some visual information (numbers, syllables, words,
figures, and even lines or paragraphs) when copy or read a text.
Therefore, deficits in this ability could lead to problems in maintaining attention,

organization and selection of visual information in tasks that contain a specified number
of visual stimuli, not only in academic activities but also of everyday life.
Poor performance in tasks of discrimination of figure-ground has been clinically

assessed in persons with brain vascular lesions (Baylis and Baylis, 1997), especially in
the right hemisphere (Shah, Holmes and Leisman, 2007; Su et al., 2000), in cortical
degeneration (Kartsounis and Warrington, 1991), in children with low birth weight
(Davis, Burns, Wilkerson and Steichen, 2005) in epileptic children with learning
disabilities (Morgan, Groh and Wurst, 1980) in patients with deficits in the development
of the coordination (Hulme, Biggerstaff, Moran and McKinlay, 1982; Hulme, Smart and
Moran, 1982; Lord and Hulme, 1987, 1988; Schoemaker et al. 2001; Tsai et al., 2008)
or in schizophrenic patients (Eimon, Eimon and Cermak, 1983; Loas, 2004; Malaspina
et al., 2004). Schizophrenia has also been associated with other deficits in visual
perception, as the low speed in the visual discrimination (Chen et al., 1999), the
difficulty in segmentation of moving objects and shapes on a background (Allman,
Meizin and McGuiness, 1985; Born, Groh, Zhao and Lukasewycz, 2000; Kim, Doop,
Blake and Park, 2005; Nakayama and Loomis, 1974; Schwartz, Maron, Evans and
Winstead, 1999) and in alteration in the perception of 3D shapes (Buracas and
Albright, 1996; Xiao, Raiguel, Marcar, Koenderink and Orban, 1995).
It has also been seen that patients with visual agnosia or cortical blindness
associated with carbon monoxide poisoning and defects in embryonic development of
the corpus callosum, have difficulty in the discrimination of figure-ground, object
recognition, discrimination of faces and construction tasks (Mendez, 1988).
One study (Koeda, Watanabe, Kimura, Nishi and Takeshita, 1990) conducted with
patients with cerebral palsy (spastic dysplasia) reported that after the assessment of
different visual perceptual abilities using the Developmental Test of Visual Perception
2
(Frostig, Maslow, Lefever and Whittlesey, 1963), the ability of the figure-ground in such
subjects showed the worst results.
Delays in visual maturation, particularly in the development of extraestriate

cortical structures, can also produce problems in the work of segregation of figure-
ground and other visual tasks that are processed by the attentional pathways, as seen
Harris and colleagues (Harris, Kriss, Shawkat, Taylor and Russell-Eggitt, 1996) in
infants between 2 and 4 months old.
Moreover, Tseng and Chow (2000) have observed that children with low
achievement in the writing speed had lowest scores on tasks of segregation of figure-
ground.
Age appears to be another factor in the ability of discrimination of the segregation

of figure-ground, so that older people have worse performance than younger adults in
tasks related with this perceptual ability (Bieliauskas, Newberry and Gerstenberger,
1988; Roper, Fiengo, Holker and Bieliauskas, 2001).
Some authors have shown that some children with amblyopia have difficulty in
performance of discrimination tasks with shapes and texture-defined motion (Wang, Ho
and Giaschi, 2007), attributing these visual perceptual deficits to defects in the
processes of segregation of figure-ground.
Often, occupational therapists and other health professionals assess and treat the
problems of visual perception that occur in school-age children (Kalb and Warshowsky,
1991; Todd, 1993; Wright, Bowen and Zecker, 2000) or in people of other ages, in
order to assess the presence and impact of the visual perceptual dysfunction in these
patients (Brown, 2008).
Ruf-Bchtiger (1989) has suggested the enormous importance of the assessment

of some domains of visual perception such as visual discrimination and figure-ground
discrimination, to better understand children with visual perception and to develop most
effective treatment methods. Davis et al. (2005) also found that the visual perceptual
assessment should be a vital part of the routine evaluation in preschool children born
prematurely, because early identification of visual perceptual deficits could facilitate
treatment, achieving an improvement in skills or visual perceptual domains in these
children at high risk. Furthermore, it has been reported that tests of visual perceptual
discrimination of figure-ground are good indicators of neuronal dysfunction, which can
be used to examine cognitive changes associated with aging in elderly, in patients with
brain vascular lesions and in subjects with neurodegenerative disorders (Roper,
Bieliauskas, Basso and Colman, 1995; Bieliauskas, Roper, Trobe and Lacy, 1998).
In another study, Tsai et al. (2008) have considered that assessment of visual
perceptual skills is very important in children with deficits in development of motor
coordination and it has great significance for the processing and implementation of
strategies for better performance on tasks of daily life.
However, it is convenient that, before assessing some of the visual perceptual

skills, such as visual memory, visual closure and figure-background discrimination,
another basic visual functions such as ocular motility, were assessed, as these
functions are important to conduct tests of this type (Warren, 1990). In a similar way,
Cate and Richards (2000), have also argued that there is a high correlation between
the performance of some basic visual functions (such as visual acuity, visual field,
ocular motility, tracking and visual attention) and some high-level visual perceptual
3
processing abilities (such as figure-ground and visual closure) in patients with brain
injury.
The ability of discrimination of figure-ground can be assessed by some visual

perceptual tests, such as the Closure Flexibility Test (Thurstone and Jeffrey, 1982) or
by other tests that assess different abilities, including the figure-ground, among them:
Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayers, 1966)

Embedded figures test EFT (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin and Karp, 1971)
Hidden Figures Test HFT (Ekstrom, French, Harman and Dermen, 1976)
The Hooper Visual Organization Test, Manual HVOT (Hooper, 1983)
Lowenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment LOTCA
(Itzkovich, Arerback and Belazar, 1990)
Birmingham Object Recognition Battery BORB (Riddoch and Humphreys,
1993)
Developmental Test of Visual Perception, Second Edition DTVP-2
(Hammill, Pearson, Voress and Frostig, 1993)
Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Third Edition MVPT-3 (Colarusso and
Hammill, 2003)
Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (non-motor), Third Edition TVPS-3 (Martin,
2006)
Once one or more of these tests was applied it is possible to determine if this
visual perceptual ability is within the level expected for the chronological age of the
subject. In cases where the results were below the expected values for age, it is
possible to train this skill by means of exercises, like the presented in this activity book.
Tsai et al. (2008) have reported that learning of visual perceptual skills can be
improved through practical experience in the same way a child learns to extract
relevant information from their environment in certain activities.
Although few works have studied the ability to improve the figure-ground
discrimination, Sivak et al. (Sivak, Hill and Olson, 1984) investigated the improvement
of some perceptual abilities in subjects with brain damage using a computer training
program. The skills trained were: right-left discrimination, visual scanning, lines
orientation, discrimination forms, visual memory, visual motor coordination and ocular
pursuits. This training produced improvements in some patients trained.
On the other hand, Yi, Olson and Chun (2006) have suggested that training visual
perceptual segmentation of shapes can increase the activity of sensory neurons
responsible for this ability and the performance of the trained task, but learning does
not was completely transferred to locations or shapes without training. The authors
suggest that improving the segmentation of the figure-ground requires perceptual skills
beyond shape recognition only.
Su et al. (2000) have also reported the importance of this training in patients with
brain vascular accidents, and the importance of visual perception and planning
strategies in order to facilitate the success of certain activities in their daily lives. In a
study realised by Mazer et al. (2003) the performance of driving in patients with brain
vascular lesions of the right hemisphere was improved by using speed training in visual
perceptual processing programs.
This book of exercises is recommended for occupational therapists, optometrists,

educators, learning specialists and other health professionals. It allows to train figure-
4
ground segregation skills in those who need to improve this ability (mainly patients with
learning difficulties or neurological damage, both congenital and acquired), and people
who want to enhance their performance in carrying out these activities, for example,
athletes or students who are preparing an opposition.
This book consists of 200 plates containing different figures. In each of the plates
appears at the upper half page a picture that will serve as a reference stimulus, and
that patient must observe in order to identify what single stimulus is exactly the same
between the possible answers given in the bottom of the page. Both the reference
stimuli (figure) and the contents of each of the possible responses (bottom) increase in
the level of difficulty, so the demand to segregate figure from the bottom increases in
each plate of the book.
5
6
ACTIVIDADES DE ENTRENAMIENTO DE LA SEGREGACIN FIGURA- FONDO
El trmino de percepcin visual se refiere a la capacidad que tiene el cerebro

para comprender e interpretar lo que los ojos ven (Gardner, 1986; Scheiman, 1997).
Junto con las funciones visuales bsicas y y las funciones motoras, las habilidades
viso-perceptivas nos permiten llevar a cabo numerosas actividades de nuestra vida
diaria (Chaikin y Downing-Baum, 1997; Erhardt y Duckman, 2005; Van Waelvelde, De
Weerdt, De Cock y Smits-Engelsman, 2004), as como guiar nuestras acciones
(Goodale y Milner, 2009; Jeannerod, 2006).
En nuestra vida cotidiana no percibimos un mundo formado por estmulos

visuales aislados. Normalmente, nos rodeamos y nos desenvolvemos en un entorno
que presenta mltiples estmulos, y en ocasiones, estos se presentan en condiciones
dinmicas.
La segregacin figura-fondo es una habilidad viso-perceptiva que nos permite

detectar, diferenciar y seleccionar estmulos visuales (figura) dentro de un entorno
(fondo) determinado, para as poder discriminar o diferenciar estos de forma
independiente o aislada. Estos estmulos pueden ser rostros, figuras y objetos,
paisajes, letras, nmeros, etc.
La segregacin de la figura respecto al fondo se lleva a cabo a partir de la

discriminacin visual de determinadas caractersticas, tales como el color, la
luminosidad, la profundidad, la orientacin, la textura, el movimiento o la informacin
temporal (Fahle, 1993).
La segregacin figura-fondo es una parte importante del procesamiento de la

informacin visual, y participa en un gran nmero de actividades acadmicas y de la
vida cotidiana de las personas. De hecho, algunos autores (Bernspang, Asplung,
Ericsson y Fugl-Meyer, 1987) han informado de la importancia que tienen algunas
habilidades de procesamiento visual de alto nivel, como la discriminacin o
segregacin de la figura-fondo, para poder organizarnos en el entorno que nos rodea.
Adems, se ha sugerido que la segregacin de la figura-fondo es importante para

el reconocimiento de objetos, de manera que esta habilidad se produce antes que el
propio reconocimiento del objeto (Peterson y Gibson, 1994). Otros autores, han
postulado que algunos factores como la memoria (Petersen y Wikoff, 1983; Peterson y
Gibson, 1994), la fijacin o localizacin y la atencin visual (Driver, Baylis y Rafal,
1992; Lagreze, Meigen y Bach, 1994; Peterson y Gibson, 1994; Rock y Mitchener,
1992) tienen un importante papel en la percepcin de la figura-fondo.
Algunos estudios han informado de la gran importancia que tiene la corteza

visual primaria en los procesos de segregacin de la figura-fondo. En una
investigacin llevada a cabo por Supr y Lamme (2007) se ha visto que, tras la
extirpacin de las reas extraestriadas del crtex visual en primates, se produce una
disminucin en la percepcin de la figura-fondo en el hemicampo del cerebro
lesionado.
Adems, se ha visto que durante el proceso viso-perceptivo de la segregacin de

la figura-fondo, intervienen regiones corticales encargadas en diferentes procesos
viso-perceptivos, como en el reconocimiento del objeto o en la orientacin viso-
espacial, as como en la extraccin y deteccin del objeto de su fondo (Peterson y
Gibson, 1994; Vecera y OReilly, 1998). Tambin se ha visto que la atencin viso-
7
espacial acta como un operador en los procesos de esta habilidad viso-perceptiva, de
manera que la falta de atencin viso-espacial podra afectar negativamente a la
discriminacin o segregacin de la figura-fondo (Vecera, Flevaris y Filapek, 2004).
Otro factor que podra ser determinante no solo en la discriminacin de la figura-

fondo, sino en otras habilidades viso-perceptivas, como la memoria visual o el cierre
visual, es el rastreo visual (Warren, 1990). Este autor inform que la presencia de
dficits en el ratreo visual podra interferir significativamente en el rendimiento de estas
habilidades viso-perceptivas.
Las habilidades viso-perceptivas del nio no estn en el mismo nivel que las del
adulto, pero su percepcin del mundo sigue siendo buena (Arterberry, 2008). Se ha
estimado que la segregacin o discriminacin de la figura-fondo se desarrolla
rpidamente entre los 3 y 5 aos de edad, y se estabiliza entre los 8 y 10 aos
(Atkinson y Braddick, 1989; Williams, 1983).
Sin embargo, cualquier factor que interfiera en la exploracin del entorno del nio
puede impedir el proceso de aprendizaje viso-perceptivo (Tsai, Wilson y Wu, 2008),
afectando negativamente a la capacidad para llevar a cabo actividades de la vida
diaria, como juegos o actividades recreativas, trabajos escolares u otras tareas de
desarrollo relacionadas con su edad, especialmente en nios en edad escolar (AOTA,
1991; Dankert, Davies y Gavin, 2003; Kovacs, 2000; Loikith, 2005). Adems, se ha
visto que en el mbito escolar el rendimiento de la lectura, la escritura y las
matemticas puede verse afectado negativamente (Cornoldi, Venneri, Marconato,
Molin y Montinari, 2003; Schneck y Lemer, 1993; Solan y Ciner, 1989; Weil y
Amundson, 1994).
En el contexto acadmico, habitualmente se trabaja con figuras, nmeros, letras,

y sobretodo con palabras. Los sujetos que tienen deficiencias en la habilidad viso-
perceptiva de la segregacin de la figura-fondo pueden tener problemas asociados
para ubicar, localizar y seleccionar la informacin revelante o determinados detalles de
una escena visual o de un contexto, producindose la omisin, repeticin o sustitucin
de cierta informacin visual (nmeros, slabas, palabras, figuras, e incluso renglones o
prrafos) al copiar o leer un texto escrito.
Por tanto, los dficits en esta habilidad podran dar lugar a problemas para
mantener la atencin, la organizacin y la seleccin de informacin visual en tareas
especficas que contienen un nmero determinado de estmulos visuales, no solo en
actividades acadmicas, sino tambin de la vida cotidiana.
El bajo rendimiento en las tareas de discriminacin de la figura-fondo ha sido

valorado clnicamente en personas con lesiones cerebro-vasculares (Baylis y Baylis,
1997), especialmente en el hemisferio derecho (Shah, Holmes y Leisman, 2007; Su y
cols., 2000), en degeneraciones corticales (Kartsounis y Warrington, 1991), en nios
con bajo peso al nacer (Davis, Burns, Wilkerson y Steichen, 2005), en nios
epilpticos con dificultades de aprendizaje (Morgan, Groh y Wurst, 1980), en pacientes
con dficits en el desarrollo de la coordinacin DCD (Hulme, Biggerstaff, Moran y
McKinlay, 1982; Hulme, Smart y Moran, 1982; Lord y Hulme, 1987,1988; Schoemaker
y cols., 2001; Tsai y cols., 2008) o en pacientes esquizofrnicos (Eimon, Eimon y
Cermak, 1983; Loas, 2004; Malaspina y cols., 2004). La esquizofrenia tambin ha sido
asociada a otros dficits en la percepcin visual, como la baja velocidad en la
discriminacin visual (Chen y cols., 1999), la dificultad en la segmentacin de objetos y
formas en movimiento sobre un fondo (Allman, Meizin y McGuiness, 1985; Born, Groh,
Zhao y Lukasewycz, 2000; Kim, Doop, Blake y Park, 2005; Nakayama y Loomis, 1974;
8
Schwartz, Maron, Evans y Winstead, 1999) y la alteracin en la percepcin de formas
en 3D (Buracas y Albright, 1996; Xiao, Raiguel, Marcar, Koenderink y Orban, 1995).
Tambin se ha visto que pacientes con agnosia visual o ceguera cortical

asociada a la intoxicacin de monxido de carbono y defectos en el desarrollo
embrionario del cuerpo calloso, presentan dificultad en la discriminacin de la figura-
fondo, el reconocimiento de objetos, la discriminacin de caras y las tareas de
construccin (Mendez, 1988).
En un estudio (Koeda, Watanabe, Kimura, Nishi y Takeshita, 1990) llevado a

cabo con pacientes con parlisis cerebral (displejia espstica), se vio que tras la
evaluacin de diferentes habilidades viso-perceptivas con el Developmental Test of
Visual Perception DTVP (Frostig, Maslow, Lefever y Whittlesey, 1963), la habilidad
de la figura-fondo en este tipo de sujetos era la que mostraba peores resultados.
El retraso en la maduracin visual, concretamente en el desarrollo de estructuras

corticales extraestriadas, tambin puede suponer problemas en las tareas de
segregacin de la figura-fondo y en otras tareas visuales que son procesadas por las
vas atencionales, tal y como han visto Harris y colaboradores (Harris, Kriss, Shawkat,
Taylor y Russell-Eggitt, 1996) en bebs de 2 a 4 meses de edad.
Por otro lado, Tseng y Chow (2000) han observado que los nios con bajo
rendimiento en la velocidad de escritura tienen resultados ms bajos en tareas de
segregacin de la figura-fondo.
La edad parece ser otro factor determinante en la habilidad de discriminacin de

la segregacin de la figura-fondo, de manera que las personas mayores presentan
peores resultados que los jvenes adultos en tareas de sta habilidad viso-perceptiva
(Bieliauskas, Newberry y Gerstenberger, 1988; Roper, Fiengo, Holker y Bieliauskas,
2001).
Algunos autores han revelado que algunos nios con ambliopa tienen
dificultades en el rendimiento de tareas de discriminacin de formas con textura y
movimiento definido (Wang, Ho y Giaschi, 2007), atribuyendo estos dficits viso-
perceptivos a defectos en los procesos de segregacin de la figura-fondo.
Con frecuencia, los terapeutas ocupacionales y otros profesionales de la salud

evalan y tratan los problemas de percepcin visual que se producen en nios en
edad escolar (Kalb y Warshowsky, 1991; Todd, 1993; Wright, Bowen y Zecker, 2000) o
en personas de otras edades, con el fin de valorar la presencia y el impacto de las
disfunciones viso-perceptivas en este tipo de pacientes (Brown, 2008).
Ruf-Bchtiger (1989) ha sugerido la enorme importancia que tiene la evaluacin

de algunos dominios de la percepcin visual, como la discriminacin visual y la
discriminacin de figura-fondo, para entender mejor a los nios con trastornos de
percepcin visual y poder desarrollar de manera ms eficaz los mtodos de
tratamiento. Davis y cols. (2005), tambin han considerado que el examen viso-
perceptivo debe ser una parte imprescindible de la evaluacin rutinaria en nios de
edad preescolar nacidos prematuramente, ya que la identificacin temprana de los
dficits viso-perceptivos podran facilitar su tratamiento, logrando una mejora en las
habilidades o dominios viso-perceptivos en estos nios con alto riesgo. Adems, se ha
informado de que las pruebas viso-perceptivas de la discriminacin de la figura-fondo
son buenos indicadores de algunas disfunciones neuronales, por lo que pueden ser
usados para examinar cambios cognitivos relacionados con la edad en personas
mayores, en pacientes con lesiones cerebro-vasculares y en sujetos con desrdenes
9
neuro-degenerativos (Roper, Bieliauskas, Basso y Colman, 1995; Bieliauskas, Roper,
Trobe y Lacy, 1998).
En otro estudio, Tsai y cols. (2008) han considerado que la valoracin del
rendimiento viso-perceptivo en nios con dficits en el desarrollo de la coordinacin
motora DCD, tiene una gran importancia de cara al tratamiento y a la aplicacin de
estrategias para un mejor rendimiento en las tareas de su vida diaria.
No obstante, es conveniente que antes de evaluar algunas de las habilidades

viso-perceptivas, como la memoria visual, el cierre visual y la discriminacin de la
figura-fondo, sean valoradas algunas de las funciones visuales bsicas, como la
oculomotricidad, ya que estas funciones son importantes para llevar a cabo las
pruebas de este tipo de habilidades perceptivas, tal y como ha sugerido Warren
(1990). De forma similar, Cate y Richards (2000), tambin han afirmado que existe una
correlacin elevada entre el rendimiento de algunas funciones visuales bsicas (como
la agudeza visual, el campo visual, la oculomotricidad, el rastreo y la atencin visual) y
en algunas habilidades de procesamiento viso-perceptivo de alto nivel (como la figura-
fondo y el cierre visual en personas con lesin cerebro-vascular), adems,
recomiendan la evaluacin previa de las funciones visuales bsicas.
La habilidad de discriminacin de la figura-fondo se puede evaluar mediante

algunas pruebas viso-perceptivas especficas, como el Closure Flexibility Test,
Concealed Figures (Thurstone y Jeffrey, 1982), o mediante otras pruebas que valoran
distintas habilidades, entre ellas la figura-fondo, entre ellas destacan:
Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayers, 1966)

Embedded figures test EFT (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin y Karp, 1971)
Hidden Figures Test HFT (Ekstrom, French, Harman y Dermen, 1976)
The Hooper Visual Organization Test, Manual HVOT (Hooper, 1983)
Lowenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment LOTCA
(Itzkovich, Arerback y Belazar, 1990)
Birmingham Object Recognition Battery BORB (Riddoch y Humphreys,
1993)
Developmental Test of Visual Perception, Second Edition DTVP-2
(Hammill, Pearson, Voress y Frostig, 1993)
Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Third Edition MVPT-3 (Colarusso y
Hammill, 2003)
Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (non-motor), Third Edition TVPS-3 (Martin,
2006)
Una vez que se haya administrado una o varias de estas pruebas, se puede
determinar si esta habilidad viso-perceptiva se corresponde o no con el nivel de
rendimiento esperado para la edad cronolgica del sujeto. En aquellos casos en los
que los resultados obtenidos estuvieran por debajo de los valores esperados para su
edad, es posible entrenar esta habilidad viso-perceptiva mediante ejercicios como los
que aparecen en el presente cuaderno de actividades.
Tsai y cols. (2008) han informado de que el aprendizaje de las habilidades viso-
perceptivas pueden mejorarse mediante la experiencia prctica, de la misma manera
que un nio aprende a extraer la informacin relevante de su entorno en determinadas
actividades cotidianas.
Aunque no son muchos los estudios que han evaluado la mejora de la habilidad
de discriminacin de la figura-fondo, Sivak y colaboradores (Sivak, Hill y Olson, 1984)
10
investigaron la mejora de algunas habilidades perceptivas en sujetos con dao
cerebral, a partir de un programa de entrenamiento computerizado. Las habilidades
entrenadas fueron la discriminacin derecha-izquierda, el rastreo visual, la orientacin
de lneas, la discriminacin de formas, la memoria visual, la coordinacin viso-motora y
los seguimientos oculares, vindose ciertas mejoras en algunos de los pacientes
entrenados.
Por otro lado, Yi, Olson y Chun (2006) han sugerido que el entrenamiento viso-
perceptivo de la segmentacin de formas puede incrementar la actividad de neuronas
sensoriales responsables en esta habilidad, as como el rendimiento de la tarea
entrenada, aunque el aprendizaje no fue transferido completamente para
localizaciones o formas sin entrenar. Los autores sugieren que la mejora de la
segmentacin de la figura-fondo requiere otras habilidades perceptivas ms all del
nico reconocimiento de formas.
Su y cols. (2000), tambin han informado sobre la importancia que tiene en

pacientes con accidentes cerebro-vasculares, el entrenamiento temprano de este
dficit viso-perceptivo y la planificacin de estrategias especficas que faciliten el xito
de determinadas actividades de su vida cotidiana. En un estudio llevado a cabo por
Mazer y cols. (2003), se ha visto la mejora del rendimiento de la conduccin en
pacientes con lesiones cerebro-vasculares del hemisferio derecho, utilizando
programas de entrenamiento de velocidad de procesamiento viso-perceptivo, as como
de atencin visual dividida y selectiva.
El libro de ejercicios que presentamos a continuacin est recomendado para ser

utilizado por terapeutas ocupacionales, optometristas, educadores, especialistas del
aprendizaje y otros profesionales de la salud. Permite entrenar la habilidad de la
segregacin figura-fondo en aquellas personas que necesiten mejorar esta habilidad
(principalmente pacientes con dificultades de aprendizaje o con daos neurolgicos,
tanto congnitos, como adquiridos), y en personas que quieran aumentar su
rendimiento al realizar estas actividades, por ejemplo, deportistas o estudiantes que se
estn preparando una oposicin.
Este cuaderno est compuesto por 200 lminas que contienen distintas figuras.
En cada una de las lminas aparece una figura en la parte superior que servir de
estmulo de referencia, y que la persona debe observar para poder identificar un nico
estmulo exactamente igual dentro de las posibles respuestas dadas en la parte
inferior de la lmina. Tanto los estmulos de referencia (figura), como los contenidos de
cada una de las posibles respuestas (fondo) aumentan en el nivel de dificultad, de
manera que la demanda para segregar la figura del fondo se incrementa conforme se
supera cada lmina del cuaderno.
11
12
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18
ADMINISTRATION
NORMAS DE APLICACIN
In the following pages, in the upper half of each plate a figure is presented. You
must to find the IDENTICAL figure (in shape, size and orientation) among the
responses that are displayed on the bottom half. Please, do the same in other
plates. There is only one correct answer in each plate.
A continuacin, aparece en la parte superior de la lmina una figura. Trate de buscar

otra TOTALMENTE IDNTICA (en forma, tamao y orientacin) entre las diferentes
respuestas que se muestran en la parte inferior. Haga lo mismo en el resto de lminas.
Solamente existe una nica respuesta correcta para cada lmina.
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1 2 3 4
TABLE OF ANSWERS PLANTILLA DE RESPUESTAS
The correct answers are shown below. If the correct answer is the first figure of the plate, the number 1 is shown; if the
correct answer is the second figure, a number 2 will be shown, and so on.
A continuacin se muestra la plantilla de correccin, que contiene el nmero de cada una de las lminas y la respuesta correcta
para cada una de ellas. Si la respuesta correcta es la primera figura de la lmina el nmero mostrado es un 1; si la respuesta
correcta corresponde con la segunda figura aparece un 2, y as sucesivamente.
ITEM CORRECT ITEM CORRECT ITEM CORRECT ITEM CORRECT

# ANSWER # ANSWER # ANSWER # ANSWER
1 3 26 4 51 1 76 2
2 2 27 1 52 3 77 3
3 3 28 1 53 3 78 3
4 1 29 4 54 3 79 2
5 3 30 2 55 1 80 4
6 3 31 1 56 1 81 4
7 3 32 2 57 3 82 2
8 3 33 3 58 1 83 3
9 1 34 2 59 3 84 4
10 2 35 2 60 3 85 2
11 2 36 1 61 1 86 2
12 4 37 2 62 2 87 4
13 2 38 3 63 3 88 4
14 4 39 3 64 3 89 2
15 2 40 2 65 3 90 2
16 1 41 3 66 4 91 1
17 1 42 1 67 2 92 2
18 3 43 3 68 3 93 2
19 2 44 3 69 2 94 3
20 4 45 4 70 1 95 1
21 3 46 4 71 3 96 3
22 2 47 2 72 1 97 2
23 3 48 3 73 3 98 3
24 3 49 3 74 3 99 3
25 1 50 2 75 2 100 4
TABLE OF ANSWERS PLANTILLA DE RESPUESTAS
(CONTINUATION CONTINUACIN)
ITEM CORRECT ITEM CORRECT ITEM CORRECT ITEM CORRECT

# ANSWER # ANSWER # ANSWER # ANSWER
101 2 126 2 151 3 176 1
102 4 127 4 152 2 177 3
103 3 128 3 153 4 178 1
104 4 129 3 154 1 179 3
105 3 130 1 155 3 180 3
106 4 131 1 156 3 181 4
107 2 132 4 157 4 182 1
108 2 133 2 158 4 183 1
109 4 134 3 159 1 184 3
110 3 135 3 160 1 185 3
111 1 136 2 161 2 186 3
112 1 137 1 162 2 187 2
113 2 138 3 163 4 188 2
114 1 139 3 164 3 189 1
115 2 140 3 165 4 190 1
116 2 141 3 166 4 191 4
117 2 142 2 167 3 192 1
118 3 143 2 168 4 193 4
119 2 144 3 169 4 194 2
120 4 145 4 170 3 195 2
121 2 146 3 171 1 196 3
122 1 147 4 172 2 197 4
123 4 148 2 173 2 198 2
124 4 149 4 174 3 199 3
125 3 150 2 175 3 200 4

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TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR VISUAL-PERCEPTUAL SKILLS

Figure-Gound (Basic Level)

Authors: Rodn-Gonzlez, Antonio;

Editors: Rodn-Gonzlez, Antonio; Vidal-

Copyright 2009. Saera. Solutions for

Figure-ground segregation is a visual perceptual ability that enables us to detect,

Figure-ground segregation is an important part of visual information processing,

Furthermore, it has been suggested that the segregation of figure-ground is

Therefore, deficits in this ability could lead to problems in maintaining attention,

Poor performance in tasks of discrimination of figure-ground has been clinically

Delays in visual maturation, particularly in the development of extraestriate

Age appears to be another factor in the ability of discrimination of the segregation

Ruf-Bchtiger (1989) has suggested the enormous importance of the assessment

However, it is convenient that, before assessing some of the visual perceptual

The ability of discrimination of figure-ground can be assessed by some visual

Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayers, 1966)

This book of exercises is recommended for occupational therapists, optometrists,

El trmino de percepcin visual se refiere a la capacidad que tiene el cerebro

En nuestra vida cotidiana no percibimos un mundo formado por estmulos

La segregacin figura-fondo es una habilidad viso-perceptiva que nos permite

La segregacin de la figura respecto al fondo se lleva a cabo a partir de la

La segregacin figura-fondo es una parte importante del procesamiento de la

Adems, se ha sugerido que la segregacin de la figura-fondo es importante para

Algunos estudios han informado de la gran importancia que tiene la corteza

Adems, se ha visto que durante el proceso viso-perceptivo de la segregacin de

Otro factor que podra ser determinante no solo en la discriminacin de la figura-

En el contexto acadmico, habitualmente se trabaja con figuras, nmeros, letras,

El bajo rendimiento en las tareas de discriminacin de la figura-fondo ha sido

Tambin se ha visto que pacientes con agnosia visual o ceguera cortical

En un estudio (Koeda, Watanabe, Kimura, Nishi y Takeshita, 1990) llevado a

El retraso en la maduracin visual, concretamente en el desarrollo de estructuras

La edad parece ser otro factor determinante en la habilidad de discriminacin de

Con frecuencia, los terapeutas ocupacionales y otros profesionales de la salud

Ruf-Bchtiger (1989) ha sugerido la enorme importancia que tiene la evaluacin

No obstante, es conveniente que antes de evaluar algunas de las habilidades

La habilidad de discriminacin de la figura-fondo se puede evaluar mediante

Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayers, 1966)

Su y cols. (2000), tambin han informado sobre la importancia que tiene en

El libro de ejercicios que presentamos a continuacin est recomendado para ser

Allman, J., Meizin, F. & McGuiness, E. (1985). Direction and velocity-specific

American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) (1991). Statement: Occupational

Arterberry, M.E. (2008). Perceptual development. Encyclopedia of Infant and Early

Brown, T. (2008). Factor structure of the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills-Revised

Cate, Y. & Richards, L. (2000). Relationship between performance on tests of basic

Fahle, M. (1993). Figure-ground discrimination from temporal information. Proceedings

Itzkovich, M., Arerback, S. & Belazar. (1990). Lowenstein Occupational Therapy

Jeannerod, M. (2006). Motor cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kovacs, I. (2000). Human development of perceptual organization. Vision Research,

Lagreze, W.D., Meigen, T. & Bach, M. (1994). Asymmetries in texture perception.

Loas, G. (2004). Visual-spatial processing and dimensions of schizophrenia: a

Mendez, M.F. (1988). Visuoperceptual function in visual agnosia. Neurology, 38 (11),

Nakayama, K. & Loomis, J.M. (1974). Optical velocity patterns, velocity-sensitive

Rock, I. & Mitchener, K. (1992). Further evidence of failure of reversal of ambiguous

Scheiman, M. (1997). Understanding and managing visual deficits: a guide for

Todd, V.R. (1993). Visual perceptual frame of reference: an information processing

Williams, H. (1983). Perceptual and motor development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

A continuacin, aparece en la parte superior de la lmina una figura. Trate de buscar

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