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ANCIENT INDIA
ANCIENT INDIA
HISTORIOGRAPHY AND
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA
The Ascriptions are writing carved on seals, stone
pillars, rocks etc. The earliest inscriptions have been found
in Harappa. The study of inscriptions is called as
Epigraphy
Inscriptions show area of influence of a king and the
oldest deciphered inscriptions are in Brahmi and
Kharosthi scripts. These belongs to
Ashoka
Max Mueller, an indologist, translated many an-
cient scriptures of India and published under the series
of books called
Sacred Books of the East
Naturalis Historia (in Latin) describes trade
relation between India and Italy. The author is
Pliny
The first systematic history of India but pro-imperialist,
was prepared in 1904 in the early history of India, written by
VA Smith
SirWilliam Jones founded theAsiatic Societyof Bengal
in 1784 to study Indian history and published a journal called
Asiatic Researches
Literature of South India gives information about so-
cial, economic and political conditions of South India along
with trade relations with Rome and Greece. It is called
Sangam Literature
Archaeologyis a science form, which gave an idea of
material life of past through excavations of old mounds, be-
gan in 20th century in India. Father of IndianArchaeology is
Alexander Cunningham [SSC CGL 2006]
Manusmriti, a Dharmashastra, translated in English
in 1794 as institutes of Hindu law. The translater was
William Jones
Ancient coins mainly made of copper,silver orlead con-
tained few symbols, later the names of kings, Gods or dates.
Gtiptas issued largestnumber ofcoins. Studyofcoinsis called
Numismatics [SSC CGL 2002]
AI-Beruni gives account of India during Mahmud
Ghaznis conquest, is considered finest account of me-
dieval India. The book is called .
Kitab-ul-Hind [UP PCS 2003]
Huen Tsang, a Buddhist scholar, visited India during
Harshavardhansrule,giveninformationaboutIndiainhisbook
Buddhist Records of the Western World
Rajatarangani, written in 12th century, gives a dy-
nastic chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. The author is
Kalhana [SSC CGL 2002]
Abdur Razzak, an ambassador from Samarqand
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in 15th century, provides valuable information about
South India. He lived in the court of the
Zamorin of Calicut
The study of old writings is called Paleography.
Most of the Mauryans, Post-Mauryans and Gupta
writings and inscriptions have been published in a se-
ries of collection called
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum
Human beings used stone tools during the Palaeolithic
age, which have been found throughout India except al-
luvial plains. The estimated period of Palaeolithic age is
1 million to 10000 years ago
During Palaeolithic age, till about 9000 BCE, hu-
man beings had no knowledge of cultivation and do-
mestication. They survived through
Hunting and Gathering
Palaeolithic age is divided into three phasesLower,
Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. The climate became warm
and less humid in last phase. HomoSapiensemerged in
Upper Palaeolithic Age
Paintings of Upper Palaeolithic, in green and dark
red colours, throw light on social life and subsistence
economy. Major site is
Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh)
Mesolithic age, which was warm and dry, contin-
ued from 9000-4000 BCE. People started using small
pointed stone tools called as
Microliths
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and
food gathering and started domestication at a later stage.
Earliest evidences of domestication are found in
Adamgarh and Bagor
Mesolithic sites are found in good numbers in
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and South India. Bagor
is the largest Mesolithic site. It is on the bank of river
Kothari
The term Neolithic was first used in bookPre-his-
toric Times,published in 1865. The term was coined by
Sir John Lubbock
Pottery first appeared in Neolithic age in form of
black burnished-ware and grey-ware. Earliest evi-
dence of pottery have been found in
Chopani Mando
Neolithic settlements appeared in Kashmir by
2500 BCE, characterised by pit-dwellings. Evidence
have been found in
Gufural and Burzahome
Neolithic settlements in South India emerged on
the hilly and dry Deccan plateau around 2500 BCE.
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ANCIENT INDIA
The economy was
Agricultural-cum-Pastoral
Chalcolithic period existed between 2000-700 BCE
People domesticated animals and practiced agriculture.
The first metal used by humans, is [SSC CGL 2010]
Copper
The Megalithic culture from 500 BCE to CE100 brings
us to the historical period in South India. The megaliths used
big pieces of stones to encircle [SSC MTS 2001]
Graves
Chalcolithic Cultures
Name Period (BCE) MaJor Sltes
Ahar/Banas culture 2500-1500 Ahar, Gilund, Balathal
Kayatha culture 2500-1400 Ujjain
Malwa culture 1700-1200 Navdatoli, Eran, Nagada
Jorwe culture 1400-700 Prakash,Daimabad, Inamgaon
Rangpur culture 1400-700 Rangpur (Gujarat)
Extensive excavations have been done at
Chalcolithic sites in Maharashtra. Earliest evidence of
fortification has been found in Inamgaon. It is near
Pune
The Chalcolithic people were the first to use painted
pottery including ochre-coloured pottery. The main
characteristic pottery of the Chalcolithic phase was
Black and Red Ware
Both Rabi and Kharif crops were cultivated in
Chalcolithic farming culture. Urbanisation started in
this period and became extensive in
Indus Valley Civilisation
Large scale farming activities were undertaken in
peninsular India during Chalcolithic period. The earli-
est farmers belong to
NeolithicAge
In Chalcolithic age, western India practiced complete
extended burial and eastern India practiced fractional burial.
In Maharashtra, the dead body was placed in
North-South Direction
Burial practices in Chalcolithic age suggest existence
of social inequalities. Evidence of worship of mother god-
dess have been found. Symbol of religions cult was
Bull
Chalcolithic cultures in Central and Western In-
dia disappeared by 1200 BCE except Jorwe culture.
The eclipse of the Chalcolithic habitation is due to
Decline in Rainfall
Development of permanent settlements started in
Chalcolithic age due to discovery of copper and im-
provement in agriculture. Evidence of stone-built
houses have been founded in
Ahar
Most of the cultures emerged near river valleys.Ahar
culture which emerged in Rajasthan was on the bank of
Banas River
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Black and red ware pottery is a painted pottery
with black colour inside and near the rim outside the
body with red colour on the rest of the body. Black
and red ware is sandwitched between ochre coloured
pottery and
Painted Grey Ware
Chalcolithic people practiced agriculture and do-
mesticated animals. Evidence of eating beat have been
found. Four bronze objects (elephant, rhino, buffalo
and chariot) have been found in
Daimabad
The Chalcolithic people made tools, weapons and
bangles of copper. They knew the art of making
clothes. Manufactured beads of semi-precious beads
have been discovered from
Malwa
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
Harappan culture was an urban civilisation and most
sites discovered are on the bank of river Indus and its
tributaries. The cities with centre of authority were
Harappa and Mohenjodaro
The Indus valley civilisation had good drainage
system, street lights and wide roads. The town plan-
ing followed the
Grid System
The great bath, measuring 12m 7m 2.4 m
had a floor of burnt bricks and was used for ritual
bathing. It was discovered in
Mohenjodaro
None of the major cities in Indus valley civilisation
had any stone building. Mostly houses had a square
courtyard, 2-3 rooms and a bathroom. The buildings
were built by
Burnt Bricks [SSC CGL2008]
Evidences such as Harappan seals and steatites found
in Mesopotamia proved direct trade relations with Harappan
cities. The seals have animals engraved and short inscrip-
tions, are made up of [SSC MTS 2002]
Terracotta
The towns in Indus valley civilisation were divided into
the Citadel and the LowerTown. Public buildings were built
on citadel. No separate citadel, has been discovered in
Chanhudaro [SSC CGL 2005]
Lower town in Harappan culture had houses of
common people with no window facing the streets.
The main streets ran in
North-South Direction
The chief crops cultivated by the Indus people
were wheat, barley, peas, sesamum, mustard etc.
They were earliest people to produce cotton. A
wooden furrow has been discovered from
Kalibangan
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ANCIENT INDIA 3
Cemetery H and R-37 have been found in Pashupati Shiva
Harappa. The dead body was usually laid in North- Daimabad was associated with bronze industry,
South direction. Evidence of burying a dog with the Chanhudaro with beads factory and Lothal with
master has been found in Stone Tools Factory
Ropar The art of dying was known to Harappans. Pot-
Northern Afghanistan facilitated trade relations of tery was heavy and utilitarian, and was made by
Indus people with Central Asia. Mesopotamia records Potters Wheel
mention Indus region as Meluha. An artificial dock- Weights and measures in Indus valley civilisation
yard has been discovered in [ssc cgl zoos] Lothal were made of limestone and steatite, generally in cu-
Seal-making and terracotta manufacture were im- bicle shape with linear system of measurement. Weights
portant crafts of Indus people. They were expert bead- were in multiple of 16
makers. Most widely used metal by Harappans was Harappan pots were generally decorated with the
Bronze designs of trees and circles along with human images.
Major Sites of Indus Valley Civilisation Script is also engraved on it. Generally, the colour is
Site Associated River Year of Discovery Dark Red
Harappa Ravi 1921 Domestication of animals was an important part
Mohenjodaro Indus 1922 in Harappan economy. Remains of horse bones have
Lothal Bhogawa 1954 been found in Surkotada, which is now in
Kalibangan Chaggar 1961 Gujarat
Chanhudaro Indus 1931 Discovery of numerous seals and granaries sug-
Ropar Setluj 1953 gested flourishing trade in Indus valley. They had regu-
Rangpur Mahar 1931-53 lated weights and method of trade was mainly
Alamgirpur Hindon 1958 Barter System
Harappan agricultural economy was mainly based Indus valley civilisation was a secular societywith pres-
on wheat and other winter crops. Evidence of rice ence of religious elements. Temple worship was not prac-
husk has been found at ticed.Worshipofambiguousanimalisprovedbytheworshipof
Lothal and Rangpur Unicorn
Soft limestone and steatite were the most com- No religious structure has been found in Indus Val-
mon materials used in Harappan stone sculpture. Seals ley civilisation except the great bath in Mohenjodaro.
were manufactured by cutting. Most of the Indus Cemetry R-37 suggests grave burial as a large prac-
terracotta figurines were tice, which is discovered from
Hand Modelled Harappa
Mohenjodarohadeasylandwatercommunication,which Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce
made societyof Indus valley civilisation heterogeneous. The than conquests, so lacked weapons. Priest had no major im-
social systemof the Harappan was [SSC CGL 1999] pact in the society. The society was probably ruled by some
Egalitarian Merchants
The Indus script had around 270 characters, mostly Indus Velley civilisation was extended to
pictographic. The writing was from right to left and then Alamgirpur in the East, Daimabadin the South, Manda
left to right in alternate lines. This type of writing is called (Jammu-Kashmir) in the North, and Western bound-
Boustrophedon ary of Indus Valley civilisation represented by
The Indus script has not been deciphered yet, but Suktagendor
is thought to be the closest to modern Dravidian script. Sugarcane was not known to Indus people. Indus
A small pot, regarded as an inkwell, has been found at valley people were earliest people to produce cotton.
Chanhudaro Greeks called cotton as
Dayaram Sahni discovered Harappa in 1921. Sindon
However, Sir Alexander Cunningham had collected Elephants were well known to the Harappans.
certain archaeological objects from Harappa. Oxens, buffaloes, goats, sheeps and pigs were domes-
Mohenjodaro was discovered in 1922 by ticated, and dogs were treated as pets. Seal with rhi-
RD Banerjee noceros depiction has been found at
Mother Goddess was a popular deity. A terracotta Amri
of a God surrounded by animals have been discov- In Indus Valley civilisation, dominance of mother God-
ered from Mohenjodaro. He is similar to dess in religion suggests that family was matriarchal. The

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ANCIENT INDIA 4
society was casteless but, was divided on the lines of Purcharishnu
Classes Rigvedic Society was a semi-nomadic tribal so-
Kalibangan literally means Black Bangle. Fig- ciety with pastoral economy. The basis unit of social
ures of mother Goddess are absent here. It witnessed and political organisation was
three different cultural layersIndus, Jhukar and Kula
Jhangar Griha/Kula were the common terms for family
Dholavira was the warehousing settlement of which was patriarchal with eldest male member as
Harappan civilisation. Evidences of irrigation, dams the head called as
and embankments have been discovered here. It was Kulapa
one of the two largest settlements, the other one was The popular mode of government was monarchy
Rakhigarhi with control on monarchs powers by the body of
Evidences shows that Mohenjodaro was flooded elites and elders called Sabha and the house of com-
more than seven times. Human skeletons suggests in- mons called
vasion and massacre. Mohenjodaro in Sindhi means Samiti
Mound of the Dead The Battle of Ten Kings was fought on the bank
Pre-Harappan and Harappan phase is found in of Ravi river. The triumphant Bharat tribe was sup-
Banawali, .largest number of barley grains have been ported by priest Vashishtha and was led by chief
found here. It lacked systematic drainage pattern, had SUdas
radial streets and shape of the settlement was Oval Sabha and Samities called Twin Daughters of
Phallus worship was prevalent in Indus region. They Prajapati, were also attended by women in Rigvedic
believed in ghosts and evil forces. Trees were also wor- times. The tribal chief was called
shipped, proved by picture of a deity on the branches of Rajan
Peepal Rivers Mentioned in Rigveda
Lothal was a major trade centre between the Indus Modern Name Rigvedic Name
valley and Mesopotamia. A sacrificial fire alter has been Setluj Satudri
discovered here and has evidence for the cultivation of Indus Sindhu
Rice Chenab Askini
Discovery of bronze image of a dancing girl from Jhelum Vitasta
Mohenjodaro suggested use of ornaments. Use of metals Beas Bipasa
such as gold, silver tin, copper etc, was known. There is Swat Suvastu
no evidence of use of [CSG PSC 2012] Kabul Kubha
Iron Comati Coma
Shops of bead makers, ornament makers and metal Ghaggar Drishadati
workers have been discovered from Chanhudaro. Joint family system was prevalent. Napatri was a
Bangles have been discovered from Kalibangan. Evi- common term used for cousins, nephews, grandsons
dence of art of wall painting was been revealed from etc. People gave their primary loyalty to tribe called
Harappa Jana
Decline of Indus Civilisation Different Views Aryan language speakers were fair and the in-
External Aggression Wheeler digenous inhabitants were dark in complexion. The
Tectonic Disturbances Marshall and Raikes term Varna was used for colour. The people con-
Flooding Marshall and SR Rao quered by Aryans were called as
Climatic Change RL Stein and AN Ghosh Dasas (Dasyus)
Epidemic KVR Kennedy Rigvedic economy was essentially pastoral
Ecological Imbalances Fairservis economy with cattle breeding as main occupation and
The Aryans and the Uedic Age agriculture as the secondary activity. The voluntary
Indo-Aryans migrated from Central Asia into the tax was called [CDS 2011]
Indian sub-continent in several stages around 2000- Bali
1500 BCE. They settled in the region called as Vidhata was the oldest tribal organisation in
Sapta Sindhu Rigvedic times. It performed multi-dimensional func-
The reasons for rapid expansion of Aryans was tions of political, social, religious and economic na-
use of better weapons, armour and chariot driven by ture. The basis of the social structure was
horses. They used a destructive machine called Kinship

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ANCIENT INDIA
The importance of cow can be understood by the
fact that the wealthy persons was called Gomata, and
the Chief of Jana as [SSC (10+2) 2010]
Gopati
Rigveda refers to only one grain yava (barley).
Rigvedic people knew about copper and iron called as
Ayas and Shyama Ayas respectively. Hiranya refers to
Gold
The religion of the Vedic Aryans was a form of
nature worship to gain its favours. Gods were per-
sonified and classified into
Terrestrial, Aerial and Celestial Gods
Among the Gods, Indra has been mentioned maxi-
mum number of times in Rigveda. He had the dual
function of War God and Weather God, also called
Purandara
People in the Vedic age were solely theists and
worshipped various forces of nature. Most of the Gods
were benevolent except Rudra. The intermediary be-
tween Gods and men was
Agni
According to Rigveda, Varuna regulates the Sun
and the Dawn. He is the moral governor of all deities
and has an origin from
Indo-Iranian Society
Rudra in Rigveda, was associated with storm and
was the guardian of healing herbs. He is the only one
God with
Malevolent Traits
Aryans extracted a drink from a creeper found in
the Miyawant mountains and was called Amrita and
Shuddha, was used in Vedic rituals and was known as
Soma
People of early Vedic period were confined to the
modern day eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and parts of
western Uttar Pradesh. Aryans mingled with the local
people and settled in small organised communities. The
source of the information is [SSC CGL 1999]
Rigveda
Total number of hymns in Rigveda is 1028. Collection
of lyrics is calledRik-Samhitaand the collection of hymns
related to Indian drama is called [IAS 2006]
Samvada Sukta
In Rigvedic times, there was no regular revenue
system and there is no reference to the judicial func-
tion of the king. The officer who_ enjoyed authority
over the pasture ground has called
Vrajapati
The Aryans relied for Jheir unit of value and means
of barter on the cow. There is no mention of a regular
class of merchants. Lump of gold is mentioned in
Rigvedic period called as
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5
Nishka
Marriage was usually monogamous in Rigvedic
times, widow remarriage was allowed, no reference
of child marriage is found. The marriageable age was
16-17 Years
In Rigvedic age, worship of Gods was not for
spriritual uplift, but for national prosperity. The
Rigvedic hymns have no consistent theory regarding
life after death. The God of plants was
Soma
We learn about Aryans in India from Rigveda, the
earliest specimen of the Indo-European languages.
Rigveda has much in common with the oldest text in
Iranian language, the text is
Avesta
Aryans had wholly subjugated Dasas, who were
dark-skinned, snub-nosed and worshippers of the
Phallus. Dasas were rich in cattle and dwelt in forti-
fied places called
Pur
The education system in Rigveda is given in Frog
Hymn, seventh Mandal. Gayatri Mantra mentioned
in Rigveda was attributed to
Goddess Savitri
The caste system came to picture in later Vedic
phase. The earliest mention of caste system is found
in 10th Mandal of Rigveda. Which was added.in later
Vedic period. It was called
Purushsukta
The later Vedic age extends from 1000 BCE to
600 BCE and Aryans expanded from Punjab over
the whole of western Uttar Pradesh in Ganga-Yamuna
doab. The period is also called
Painted Grey Ware Phase
The two tribes Bharat and Puru were jointly called
as Kuril. Their capital was Hastinapur and territory
was known as
Kurukshetra
In later Vedic age, Barter system was the major
means of exchange. Money lending was a lucrative
trade. A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana
is mentioned in
Sathapatha Brahmana
In later Vedic age, private land ownership gradu-
ally increased. The food crops grown were barley,
wheat and rice. Rice was known as
Vrihi
Discovery of iron resulted in emergence of artists
and craftsman, and trade was boosted as one of the
important economic activities. The earliest evidence
of iron are found in
Atranjikheda [SSC MTS 2010]
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ANCIENT INDIA 6
The administrative system was fully established in They stress on meditation and provide details about
later Vedic age with tribal authority becoming territo- hermits in jungles. It protests the system of
rial. The Vidatha was completely disappeared. Ad- Yajnas
ministrative officers were called The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had
Ratnina existed in form of ballads in Prakrit. It is also known as
In later Vedic age, patriarchal sentiments strength- Adi Kavya
ened, weakening the position of women. Women were Upanishads are books on philosophy and are
no longer allowed to attend tribal .council. The gen- mystic writings. These are also called Vedanta and
eral form of marriage was there are
Monogamy 108 Upanishads [SSC CGL 2011]
The concept of Gotra emerged in later Vedic times. Vajpeya was a ritual in which royal chariot was
No marriage was allowed within the Gotra. The lit- made to win in a chariot race. It was to elevate the
eral meaning of Gotra is position of Raja to that of Samrat. It was held for
Cow Pen 17 Days
All the verses in Samveda except 75 are taken from Two kind of intercaste marriages existed in later
Rigveda. Its songs were to be sung at Soma sacrifice Vedic age. Anuloma was allowed while Pratiloma
by the priest. It is important for the history of was prohibited. Anuloma marriage is mentioned in
Music Yajurvalkya Smriti
Yajurveda deals with the procedure for the perfor- Upaveda deal with medicine, architecture, archery
mance of sacrifice. Satapatha and Taittriya Brahmans and various arts and crafts. They were partly derived
are attached to it. The work, generally, is in the form of from original Veda textsAyurveda from Rigveda,
Prose Dhanurveda from Yajurveda, Gandharvaveda from
Kingship became hereditary in later Vedic age. Samaveda and Shilpaveda from
Kings influence was strengthened by many rituals such Atharvaveda
as Ashvamegha, to expand the territory and Rajasuya Vedic Doctrines of Hinduism
at the time of Darshan Author Original Book
Coronation Ceremony Nyaya Gautama Nyaya Sutra
Important Officials in the Later Vedic Period Vaisheshik Kanada Vaisheshik Sutra
Purohita Chief Priest Sankhya Kapila Sankhya Sutra
Senani Supreme Commander of Army Vedanta Maharishi Vyas Uttara Mimansa Sutra
Mahishi ChiefQueen Yoga Patanjali Yoga Sutra
Sangrahitri Treasurer RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
Bhagaduga TaxCollector The Jainas believe that the Jainism is the outcome
Palajal Messanger of the teachings of Tirthankars. Mahavira was not a
Gramani Headof the Village founder of the new faith, but a reformer of the existing
Large number of animal sacrifices and practice of religious sect. He was
idol worship started in later Vedic age. Trinity con- 24th Tirthankar [CDS 2011]
cept of God became popular. The God of Shudras Vardhman Mahavira was born is 540 BCE in Vaishali.
who was supposed to look after catties was called His family was connected with the royal family of
Pushan Magadha
Sabhas in later Vedic age were dominated by Mahavira attained Kaivalya (enlightenment) at the
nobles and Brahmins. Village assemblies were con- age of 42 on the bank of river Rijupalika under a
trolled by the chiefs of the dominant tribe. A new term Sal Tree
for territory appeared in this period was Mahavira propogated Jainism for 30 years and
Rashtra his mission took him to Kosala, Magadha, Champa
The ornaments were used by both the sexes in etc. He passed away in 468 BCE at
later Vedic age. There was no difference between the Pavapuri
clothes of male and female. Two piece clothes were Rishabha was the first Tirthankar and he is de-
normally worn: the upper garment was calledUttariya scribed as the incarnation of Narayana in the Vishnu
and lower as Purana. His symbol is
Antariya Bull
Aranyakas contain the philosophy and mysticism. Bhadrabahu, greatest exponent of Jain philoso-

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ANCIENT INDIA
phy, was born in third century BCE and composed
Kalpasutra
Followers of Bhadrabahu who accompanied him
to South India followed rule of nudity and were called
Digambars. Sthulabhadra and his followers in North
India wore white garments and were called
Svetambars
Jain Councils
Council Year Venue Presided by
First Around 300 BCE Pataliputra Sthulabhadra
Second 512 CE Vallabhi Devardhi
Kshamasramana
The Jainas adopted Prakritto preach their doctrine
and theirreligious literature was written inArdha Magadhi.
The Jain literature is known as [SSC MTS 2013]
Angus
Jainas architecture could be seen in caves of
Hathigumpha, Udaygiri and Khandagiri. Jainas en-
joyed the patronage of Kalinga King
Kharvela
Tirthankar is one, who has attained salvation.
Jamali, son-in law of Mahavira, was the first disciple
of Mahavira. The followers of Mahavira were called
Nirgranthas
The Hindu religion texts were all in Sanskrit and
the Buddhist texts were mostly in Pali language. The
Jains mostly opted for Prakrit. The earliest important
works in Apbhramsha were composed by
Jains
Non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing and non-
possession were already present in the doctrines of Jainism
before Mahavira. A monk had to observe them strictly.
The fifth code of conduct added by Mahavira was
Celibacy
Trisastisalaka deals with the deeds of 63 en-
lightened men including 24 Tirthankars, is the longest
poem composed by Jaina scholar
Hemachandra
Jainism rejected the authority of Vedas and stressed
on right faith, right knowledge and right conduct to at-
tain salvation. They stressed on the doctrine of
Syadvada
The sect, Ajivika, was definitely atheistic and its
main feature was strict determination. They rejected
the doctrine of
Karma
Gosala Maskariputra, the contemporary of
Mahavira, also practiced complete nudity, founded
as unorthodox sect called
Ajivika
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7
Ajivikas practiced severe asceticism. They be-
lieved that the whole universe was conditioned and
determined. The whole universe was controlled by a
cosmic principle called
Niyati
The beginning of legal and judicial systems in In-
dia are traced to sixth century BCE with the second
urbanisation in India. The duties of the four Varnas
were prescribed in
Dharmasutras
Ajanta caves have decorative designs including
variety of trees, flowers and animals. They portrayed
various images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The nar-
rative scenes portray
JatakaKathas [NDA 2011]
During this period, both inland and foreign trade
was fairly brisk with Tamrilipti and Barukachcha as
main ports. The Jatakas name at least 18 such groups
which were organised by people of same profession.
This system was called
Guild System
LordBuddhawasbornin566BCEtomotherMahamaya
and father Suddhodhana at [SSC MTS 2012]
Lumbini
Lord Buddhas real name was Siddhartha and
gotra Gautama. His father was a chief of a clan in
Nepal Terai region. The name of the clan was
Sakya
Siddhartha began to be called as Buddha after he
attained Nirvana (enlightenment) at the age of 35 at
Bodh Gaya, under a
Peepal tree
Buddhism repudiated the authority of the Vedas
and rituals. It used local language to preach the doc-
trine. Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha are called
Triratnas
Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God
and Soul. Buddha recommended an eight-fold path
for the elimination of human misery. The great middle
path leads to attainment of a perfect state of tranquil-
ity and liberation called
Nirvana
Menander, an Indo-Greek King, was convinced by
the Buddhist monk, Nagasena to adopt Buddhism. The
discussion between them is recorded in a book called
Milind Panho
The Sutta Pitaka in Pali is a collection of Buddhas
sermon, was codified at the first council at Rajagriha
and was recited by
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ANCIENT INDIA 8
Ananda Sanskrit
Buddhist Councils Charvaka did not believe in God, soul, rebirth,
Buddhist and was. opposed to the Vedas. He founded a mate-
Council Year Venue Chairman Royal rialistic sect called
Patron Lokayat
First 483BCE Rajagriha Mahakassapa Ajatshatru Ajita Keshakambalim was the earliest teacher of
Second 383 6CE Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka complete materialism and propogated vchchidavad.
Third 250 6CE Patliputra Mogliputra Tissa Ashoka
Parana Kassepe believed that virtons conduct had no
Fourth 72 CE Kundalvana Vasumitra Kanishka effect on a mans Karma. His philosophy was called.
The Buddhist texts, written in Pali are collectively Samkhya Philosophy
known as Tripitaka which includes Vinaya Pitaka, The Buddhist monks were organised into the
Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. The earli- Sanghas, which were open to all castes. Buddha was
est Buddhist literature which deal with the stories of not in favour for ordaining women as nuns, but did so
the previous births of Buddha are at the persuasion of. his chief disciple named
Jatakos [CDS 2011] Ananda
Numerous Buddhist texls-werelfanslated into Ti- Events of Buddhas Life and their Symbols
betan language. The synthesis of Tantrik Buddhism
with the Bon religion and came to be known as Ti- Event Symbol
betan Buddhism. The Buddhist monk who spread Birth Lotus
Buddhism in Tibet was Mahabhinishkramana Hors
Padma Sambhava [SSC CGL 2013] Nirvana Bodhi Tree
Buddha took religious instructions from two per- DhannachakraParivartana(FirstSermon) Wheel
sons before enlightenment-Alarakalama and Rudraka Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa
Ramputta. Buddhaslast teaching were heard by a Both Jainism and Buddhism were non-theistic re-
wandering ascetic Subhadra and his.favourite disciple ligions founded by Kshatriyas and opposed
Ananda Brahminical denomination. Jainism believed while
Buddha got enlightenment on the banks of river Buddhism did not believe in existence of
Niranjana and delivered his first sermon to his five Soul
former disciples at Deer Park in The Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules and regu-
Sarnath lations of monastic discipline for monks. It was codi-
Eight-Fold Path for Elimination of Misery fied at the first Buddhist council by
Right Understanding Right Thought Upali
Right Speech Right Action A third vehicle of Buddhism appeared in eastern In-
Right Livelihoods Right Effort dia in 8th century, This form of Buddhism was modified
Right Mindfuiness Right Concentration by primitive local cults and tantaric practice and was called
Hinayana, the lesser vehicle, sought salvation Vajrayana
through self discipline and meditation. It does not be- Kanishka patronised Mahayana Buddhism.
lieve in idol worship. Pali was used to propound it Mahayana had two philophical schools
and the oldest school of Hinayana, is Madhaymika propounded by Nagarjuna and
Sthaviravatia Yogachara founded by
Stupas (dome-like structures) were first built by the Maitreyanath
recipients over the divided ashes of the Buddha. The place Four Buddhist councils were held to discuss on
of worship in called Chaitya and place of residence of teaching of Buddha. Monks were spilt into Sthairmadis
Buddhist monks is called [UPSC 2013] and Maha Sanghikas in second council. The division of
Vihara Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana happened in
Gautam Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Fourth Buddhist Council
483 BCE at a place called The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains philosophy
Kushinagar of the Buddhas teachings. The Buddhavamsa
con1tains legends of verses about the Buddhas who
Mahayan Buddhism, the greater vehicle, believes proceeded Gautama. The total number of these
in idol worship and sought salvation with the help of Buddhas was
Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The language used by
Mahayana scholars was 24
The Dhyan Mudra is the gesture of meditation, of

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ANCIENT INDIA 9
the concentration of the Good Law and the Sangha. and Sindh. The name of the ruler was
This mudra represents Sakyamuni Buddha and Darius
Amitabha Buddha There was increase in prosperity and the growth
Three commentaries of the three Pitakas were col- of towns in this age. The main reason was foreign trade
lected at fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir. growth. A Janapada, which was known for cotton
Visuddhinagga, the first systematic and philosophical textiles and a horse market, was
treatise on Buddhist doctrine was written by Kashi
Buddhaghosha The 16 Mahajanapadas
Syadvada, the theory of may be is related to Name Capital
Jainism. The theory is similar to Gandhara Taxila
Samakhya Philosophy Kamboj Rajpur
InJainism,Ari,hantmeansapersonwhoisaboutto attain Asmaka Potana
NirvanaandTirthankarisonewhohasattainedNirvana.The Vatsya Kausbambi
way to Nirvana consists of three ratnasRight Faith, Right Avanti Ujjain
Knowledgeand [SSC CISF CONSTABLE 2011] Surasena Mathura
Right Conduct Chedi Shuktimati
Buddhism became popular due to middle path for Maila Kushinurd
salvation, practical morality and simple philosophy. It Kurus Hastinapur
got royal patronage and the language used to explain Matsya Viratnagari
the doctrine was Vajjis Vaishali
Pali Anga Champa
THE MAHAJANAPARIAS AND THE Kashi Banaras
PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD Kosala Shravasti
In the later phase of Vedic age, the tribal Magadha Rajgriha
organisation shifted to the tribal identity turning demo-
cratic pattern to monarchy, The area of settlements Panchala Ahichhatra
were called Haryanka dynasty was followed by Sisunaga dy-
Janapadas nasty in Magadha, who temporarily shifted the capital
to Vaishali. They ended the 100 years old rivalry be-
Each Janapada tried to dominate others to be- tween Magadha and
come Mahajanapada. There was a strong conscious-
ness of the pure land of Aryans called Aryavrat and Avanti [SSC MTS 2011]
people living in the lower Ganga valley were called Alexander marched towards India in the fourth
Mlechhas century BCE. He was resisted by Porus whose king-
dom lay between the Jhelum and Chenab. Ambhi sub-
Generally, the Kings in the Mahajanapadas had mitted to Alexander. Ambhi was the ruler of
the supreme authority. But, some Mahajanapadas
such as Vajji, Malla, Panchal, Kamboj, etc were re- Taxila
publics and had an assembly called Alexander remained in India for 19 months in 326-
Gana Parishad 325 BCE and wanted to move eastward, but his army
refused to accompany him. He divided his territorial
Magadhas capital was surrounded by five hills, possessions in India among different Greek gover-
which made it impregnable. The earliest capital of nors. He had divided territory into
Magadhawas at Rajgir and was called
Three Parts
Girivraja
Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas in
Magadha came into prominence under the lead- Magadha. Nandas conquered Kalinga from where they
ership of Bimbisara who strengthened his position by brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. It
marriage alliances. He belong to the took place in the reign of
Haryanka Dynasty Mahapadma Nanda [WB PSC 2008]
Pataliputra, earlier known as Jaldurga, was situ- Vajji was a confederation of republics and
ated on the -bank of rivers Ganga, Gandak and Son Lichchavi was a part of it. The capital Vaishali was
and was founded by founded by
Udayin King Vishal
The Iranian ruler penetrated inter North-Western Persian invasion resulted in growth of Indo-lranian
India 518 BC and annexed Punjab, West of the Indus

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ANCIENT INDIA
trade and opening of a new water route in Arabian
Sea. Introduction of Aramaic form of writing lead to
development of
Kharoshthi Script
Mahashilakantaka, a war engine which catapulted
big stones and Rathmusala chariot helped Ajatashatru
to overcome
Lichchavis
The Haryanka dynasty was established in 566 BCE
and came into prominence under Bimbisara. He was killed
by his son whose name was [UP PSC 2007]
Ajatasatru
Aratha Jataka, the earliest available version of the
Rama story mentions Dashratha, Rama etc as kings of
Kashi, not of Ayodhya. The foremost city of India was
Varanasi
Magadha was at an advantageous location with
both Rajagriha and Pataliputra at strategic locations.
Magadha used elephants on large scale in,war. De-
velopment of metallurgy boosted trade and commerce
and the character of Magadhan society was
Unorthodox
Urban city states developed in sixth century BCE
in India due to surplus crops production and the de-
velopment of metallurgy, particularly application of
Iron
An account by Herodotus in 516 BCE mentions about
naval expedition of Darius to explore the valley of Sindhu
river. Herodotus is known as the Father of [NDA 2010]
History
Asmaka, ruled by the Ikshavakus, was the only
republic in South India. It was situated on the bank of
Godavari River
Sisunaga, who shifted the capital of Magadha tem-
porarily to Vaishali, was succeeded by Kalasoka.
Kalasoka shifted his capital from Vaishali to
Pataliputra
The Buddhist literature mentioned six Mahanagars:
Champa, Kashi, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saket and
Kaushambi. The coins in circulation were Karsapana,
Masas, Kakani and Satamana. The highest valued coin
Satamana was made-up of
Silver
The kings of Kosala favoured both Brahminism
and Buddhism. King Prasenjit of Kosala was a friend
and contemporary of
Buddha
The rise of 16 Mahajanapadas in sixth century
BCE correspond to second urbanisation. The men-
tion of these Mahajanapadas is found in Buddhist text
Aguntar Nikaya
Sakya was a republic situated on the northern
boundary of the Nepal Tarai region. Lord Buddha
For more visit, www.studyiq.com
10
was born in the republic. The capital was
Kapilvastu
Alexander (in fourth century BCE) conquered Asia
Minor, Iran and Iraq. He marched to India attracted
by its wealth. He was a
Greek
Mahapadmananda, founder of Nanda dynasty, was
also known as Ekarat, Ek-Chchatra and
Sarvakshatrantaka. The last ruler of Nanda dynasty was
Dhanananda
Udayin who succeeded Ajatashatru, built the fort
upon the confluence of the Ganga and the Son rivers
and transferred his capital to Pataliputra from
Rajgir
Bimbisara sent his personal physician Jivak to
Chandrapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of
jaundice. Pukkusati sent an embassy to Bimbisara.
He was the ruler of
Gandhara
MAURYAN EMPIRE
Buddhist sources connect Mauryas with the tribe
of Sakyas, whose region was full of Moriya (pea-
cocks) and they mentioned their castes as
Kshatriyas
Arthashastra explains how the good government
should be organised and talks about efficiency in po-
litical and public administration system. It is divided
into 15 parts and is written by
Chanakya
The Mauryan dynasty was founded by
Chandragupta Maurya by overthrowing Nanda dy-
nasty in 321 BCE. The last Nanda ruler was
Dhanananda
Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and went
to Shravanabelagola and spent rest of his life there.
He accompanied a Jaina saint called
Bhadrabahu
Chandragupta, in 305 BCE, campaigned against
Seleucus Nicator which ended with a treaty in favour
of the Mauryas and was strengthened by a
Marriage Alliance
Indica is a book written in Greek by
Megasthenes, who lived in Chandragupta Mauryas
court and was the ambassador of
Seleucus Nicator
Hemachandra, a Jain writer, provides information
about Chandraguptas life and conversion to Bud-
dhism, conquest of Magadha, and famine in Magadha
in his work called as
Parisitha Parvan
The unorthodox character of Magadhan society
and use of iron on large scale in agriculture and manu-
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ANCIENT INDIA 11
facture of weapons helped Chandragupta to expand Moral Law
towards North-West. There was a power vacuum in Ashokas Dhamma was capable of universal appli-
North-West due to retreat of cation. It was to promote religious tolerance. The Rock
Alexander Edict XIII describe the practical Dhamma. The officials
Dynastic Histpry of Mauryans appointed for propagation of Dhamma were called
Emperor Years of Rule (BCE) Dhamma Mahamattas
Chandragupta Maurya 321-298 According to Buddhist tradition, one lakh people
Bindusara 298-273 were killed in Kalinga War, which seems exaggeration.
Ashoka 268-232 After war, Ashoka abandoned policy of physical occu-
Dashratha 232-223 pation in favour of cultural conquest. The principal source
Samprati 223-215 of information on Kalinga War, is [SSC CPO 2013]
Salisuka 215-202 Rock Edict XIII
Devavarman 202-195 The Ashokan Edicts gives details of Ashokas per-
Satadhanvan 195-193 sonal concerns but are silent about events of the em-
Brihadratha 193-187 pire. The name Ashoka is explicitly mentioned in
Mudra Rakshasa, a drama in Sanskrit, says that Maski, Gujarra and Nittur. The Edicts of Ashoka are
Chandragupta was the King of all over Jambudweep. collection of [CDS 2011]
It was written by 33 Inscriptions
Vishakhadutta Indigo and cotton were most traded commodities. The
Chandragupta Maurya was assisted by a Brahmin, trade routes were calledVani Katha.Turamaya, a contem-
Kautilya to rise to power. Plutarch mentions that porary ofAshoka, was the ruler of [UP PSC 2011]
ChandraguptahadmetAlexanderandcalledChandraguptaas Egypt
Androcottas Ashokas Inscriptions and their Subject
Arthashastra, a treatise on politico-administration writ- First Major Rock Edict Prohibition on animal
ten by Vishnugupta (Chanakya) propounded the seven slaughter and festivities.
levels of administration called a [NDA 2010] Second Major Rock Edict Mention of places ofCholas,
Saptanga Theory Pardayans Satayaputras
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son and Keralputras.
Bindusara, whose religious learnings are said to be Third Major Rock Edict Directions to Pradeshikas,
towards the Ajivika sect, which was founded by Yuktas and, Rajukas for
Makkali Gosala propagation of Dhamma
Deimachus, the Ambassador of Greek King Liberty towards Brahmins
Antiochus-l, lived in court of Bindusara. Greek writ- and Sramanas.
ers referred Bindusara as Fourth Major Rock Edict Impact of Dhamma on
Amitraghata society. Non-violence
Bindusara appointed his eldest son Susima as viceroy toward animals.
of Taxila. There was a revolt in Taxila, which was sup- Fifth Major Rock Edict Appointments of Dhamma
pressed by Ashoka. At that time, Ashoka was viceroy of Mahamatras
Ujjain Sixth Major Rock Edict Welfare majors, efficient
Ashoka fought only one major war called as organisationofadministration.
Kalinga War.Kalinga was a feudal republic located on Seventh Major Rock Edict Propagationofpeace,balance
the coast of present day Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. ofmindandfaith,tolerance
Kalinga War took place in [SSC (10+2) 2011] among allthe sects.
261BCE Eighth Major Rock Edict Details of visit to Bodhi
Bharu inscription states that two years after the tree, Dhammasutras.
Kalinga War, Ashoka became a supportor of Bud- Ninth Major Rock Edict StressonceremonyofDhamma.
dhism, under the influence of Buddhist monk Tenth Major Rock Edict Ashokas desire to gain
Upagupta popularity for Dhamma.
The inscription on Pillar Edict II of Ashoka enu- Eleventh Major Rock Edict Appraisal of Dhamma,
merates the basic attributes of Dhamma, and states religious tolerance.
that the Dhamma is not religion but a Twelfth Major Rock Edict Promotion to religion of

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ANCIENT INDIA 12
different faiths, change of Mahamantri and Chief Minister and Chief
heart after Kalinga war. Priest Purohita
Thirteenth Major Rock Largest of all, victory over Senapati Commander-in-Chief
KalingasEdict ,destruction Yuvraja Crown Prince
of war, mention of Greek Dauvarika Chamberlain
rulers-Antiochus, Ptolemy, Prasastri Inspector General of Prison
Antigonus,Megas,Alexander. Sanidhatta Incharge of Treasury
Mentionofcastleslike-Kamboj, Nayaka City Constable
Nabhkas,Nabhakapless Vyavaharika Chief Judge
Bhoja,Pittinik,Andhara,Parindas. Mantri Secretary Incharge of the
Fourteenth Major Rock Edicts Natureofallotherrockedicts. Office of Ministers
Ashoka was the founder of the city of Srinagar. Parishadadhyasha Ministers
The Junagarh rock inscription mention Tusaspa as Duvara Pala Chief of the Home Defence
Governor of Ashoka in (Warden of the place to
Saurashtrtt control entrance and exit)
Ashoka is credited with building 84000 stupas all over Antarvesika Chief of the Harem
India and Afghanistan. The best example of stupa is at Samaharta Tax Collector General
Sanchi Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner
Ashoka ruled for 27 years after which Mauryan Paura Governor of the Capital
empire started disintegrating. The last Mauryan ruler Karmantika Chief of the Industries
Brihadratha was murdered by his General Pushyamitra Dandapal Police Chief
who laid the foundation of [SSC (10+2) 2013] Anantpal ChiefoftheFrontier Defence
Sunga Dynasty Different Types of Taxes (Mauryan Era)
Barabara caves are the earliest example of the Bhaga Land revenue
rock cut method caves. The caves are located in Bihar Bali Additional tax
and speaks about Ashokas donation of caves to the Chorarajju Tax collected for the search
Ajiwkas of thief
Ashokan inscription use three languages (Prakrit, Pranaya Emergency tax
Greek and Aramaic) and four Scripts (Brahmi,
Kharoshthi, Greek and Aramaic). The mention of the Pindakara Collected annually from
exception of Lumbini from tax is found in entire village
Rummindie Pillar Inscription Praveshya Import duty
Ashoka had paternalistic attitude towards the Senabhaktam Tax of army, from the region
people. The Mauryan ruler was assisted by the through whichitpassed
Mahaparishad in day-to-day administration. The high- Sulka Custom duty
est functionaries at centre were called Tirthas, and Vishti Forced labour
there were Hiranya A tax paid in gold
Eighteen Tirthas Udayabhagokal Irrigation tax
Megasthenes in India has mentioned that the city Nishkramya Export duty
council was divided into six boards of five members Rajukas were officials who headed districts,
each. The city superintendent was assisted by two which were further divided into group of villages
officials and was called headed by Sthanikas. The lowest administrative unit
Nagarika was the village headed by
The head of the provincial administration was Gramini
Kumara, assisted by Mahamattas. The provinces were In Mauryan empire, there were two types of
divided into divisions headed by courts-Dharmasthiya (Civil Courts) under
Pradeshikas Dharmastha and Kantak Sodhan (Criminal Courts)
Pushyagupta built a dam in Saurashtra known as under Pradeshika. The Chief Justice presided over
Sudarshan dam. Pushyagupta was the Governor of the Supreme Court and was called
Chandragupta Maurya Dbarmadhikarina
Eighteen Tirthas in Mauryan Administration There were types of spies in Mauryan Empire-

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ANCIENT INDIA 13
Sanstha and Sanchara. Sanstha spies worked in a an incapable and ease-loving ruler. He was put to
fixed area. The espionage department under death in 75 BCE by
Mahamatyapasurpa Vasudeva Kanva
The punch-marked coins of Mauryans was the Hunas were the fierce tribes, who invaded India
imperial currency and carried symbols of peacock, since Sunga period and were resisted by Indian ruler
hill and crescent. The coins were made up of until CE 5th century, when they were able to occupy
Silver Eastern Malwa and some parts of central India. They
There were different sources of state revenue, land were from
tax being the chief source of revenue. According to Central Asia
Megasthenes, the society was divided into seven The Satvahanas succeeded Mauryas in Deccan.
classes on the basis of They ruled for over 460 years. Their names suggest
Occupation that their family structure was
Greek Governor Strabo wrote important geo- Matrilineal
graphical work. He refers to the women bodyguards Satavahana Dynasty Important Rulers
of Chandragupta Maurya and Chandraguptas matri- Simuka Founder of the dynasty
monial alliances with Kanha As per Nasik inscription,
Seleucus (Greek King) ruled between207-189 BCE
Justin, in second century CE, mentions Chandragupta Satakarni I Son of Simuka, took title
a Sandrocottus in his book. It was identified by ofDakshina Pathapati
William James Sri Satakarni II Ruled for 56years
The caves primarily served as residence of monks Hala ComposedGathaSaptashati
and assembly halls. Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves Gautami Putra Greatestruler of the dynasty,
were donated to Ajivikas by achievements
Ashoka Satakarni mentioned in Nasik Prasasti
The Mauryan dynasty has divided into five prin- Vashishtiputra Pulamayi His coins have been found
ciples. The capital of Uttarpatha was Taxila, Awanti in Gunturdistrict, repaired
Rastra was Ujjain, Kalinga Pranta was Toshali, old Stupa ofAmravati
Dakshinapatha was Suvarngiri and central province was Pulamayi IV Last ruler
Pataliputra The administration of Satvahanas was checked
There were mainly three internal trade routes in by custom and the Shastric injustices. Monarchy was
Mauryan empire. South-West route joined Shravasti hereditary and the title used for king was
to Pratisthana, East-West route joined Taxila to Rajan
Pataliputra and South-East route joined Shravasti to
Gautamiputra Satakarni claims to have reestab-
Rajagriha lished the four-fold Varna system which had fallen into
POST MAURYAN PERIOD disorder due tc infiltration by Shakas and superficial
Pushyamitra Sunga, a Brahmin general of Brahminisation of the tribes in Deccan. The Shakas
Brihadratha killed him and ended Mauryan dynasty. were absorbed in Hindu society as
According to Panini, the Sungas were the well-known Kshatriyas
Brahmin family of the The official language of the Satavahanas was
Bhdradwajas Prakrit. All inscriptions were written in Prakrit lan-
The Ashtadhyayi was written by Panini and the guage and Brahmi script. Gathsaptashati, a text in
Mahabhashya by Patanjali. Both of these deal with Prakrit, is attributed to
the principles of [CDS2009] King Hala
Grammar Indo-Greek rulers introduced Hellenistic art fea-
Under Sungas, Brahminical influence revived. tures in North-Western India which culminated in the
Pushyamitra is said to have performed two Ashwamedha Gandhara art style. The Gandhara art flourished un-
Yajnas.Themainlanguageofhighclasspeopleintellectuals,was der the [SSC CPO 2013]
Sanskrit Kushanas
Malvikagnimitra, a play on life of Agnimitra Sunga, Indo-Greeks ruled in Punjab and parts of the
is written by North-West divided into several small kingdoms.
Kalidasa Manu describes them as degenerate Kshatriyas while
The last king of the Sunga dynasty was Devbhuti, placing in Hindu society as

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ANCIENT INDIA
Yavanas
By the middle of the first century BCE, only a few
petty Greek chiefs ruled in India and the power of
Shakas reached as far as Mathura. There were five
branches of the Shakas. The earliest Shakas ruler
known in India, was
Manes
The Karmadaka dynasty of the Shakas founded by
Chashtana, ruled the Saurashtra region. The most fa-
mous ruler of this dynasty, Rudradaman called himself
Mahakshatrapa
A king of Ujjain effectively fought against the
Shakas and called himself Vikramaditya and started
an era called Vikram Samvat in
58 BCE
By the end of first century BCE, a line of Kings
with Iranian names (known as Parthians) conquered
many parts in North-Western India. The first Parthian
(Pahlava) ruler was
Mithridates
The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas
(Yuehchis) who spoke Iranian language. The first dy-
nasty of Kushanas was
Kadphises
The first Kushan ruler Kadphises-l was succeeded
by his son Kadphises-ll who issued a large number of
gold coins and spread his kingdom to East of the river
Indus
Kanishka organised the fourth Buddhist Council
in Kashmirs Kundalavana. The President of the
Council was Parsvika Vasumitra and the Vice-Presi-
dent was
Ashvaghosh
Kanishka patronised Charaka, who wrote
Charaka Samhita. Another great medical student
Sushruta was contemporary of Kanishka. He wrote
Sushruta Samhita
St. Thomas came to, India in first century for the
propogation of Christianity in the region of most fa-
mous Parthian King
Gondophernes
Kanishka, the most famous Kushana ruler
patronised Buddhism and started Shaka Era in
[ssc cpo inspector 2011]
CE78
Chedi dynasty of Kalinga rose to prominence in
the middle of first century BCE under Kharvela, whose
achievements are described in Hathigumpha inscrip-
tion. He was a follower of
Jainism
The capital of Chedi dynasty was Kalinganagara.
Kharvela built Mahavijaya Prasad to commemorate
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14
his victories in the North. He is credited with the con-
struction of a magnificent temple at
Bhubaneshwar
The Central Asian contacts led to the develop-
ment of feudatory organisation. The idea of divine
origin of kingship was strengthened by the Shakas and
the Kushanas. The Shakas governors were called
Kshatraps
Mathura School of Arts originated in second cen-
tury BCE. The Greek influence is almost absent in
this art form, and was mainly patronised by
Kushanas
Kanishka ruled an empire extending from Turfan
to Pataliputra. He belonged to the second dynasty of
Kushanas to rule in India. The year of accession of
Kanishka to throne was [SSC (10+2) 2011]
CE 78
There was a great progress in the field of Metal-
lurgy and Geometry. Indian medicine made remark-
able progress. The Greek influence on astronomy is
evident from the text
Romaka Siddhanta
Nagarjuna, known as Indian Einstein, propounded
the theory of relativity in his book
Prajana Paramita Sutra Shastra
Guilds became an important factor in urban life.
They functioned as administrators of their trade through
fixing the rules of work, quality of the product and
their prices. About two dozen occupations have been
mentioned in
Dighanikaya
Gandhara School of Arts represents realistic hu-
man figure with anatomical accuracy. The curly hair-
style represents Greek influence. The stone used was
[SSC MTS 2010]
Grey Sandstone
The influence on Gandhara School was mainly Hel-
lenistic in style and Buddhist in theme. Marble was
not used in it. The excellent example of this art was
the Bamiyan Buddha of
Afghanistan
The Mathura School ofArts is influenced by Jainism,
Buddhism and Brahminism. The theme was not only
religious but also secular. The chief material used was
Red Sandstone
Mathura School represented images of Buddhas,
Bodhisattvas, Jain Tirthanakars, Yaksha-Yakshini and
Kushana Kings. The masculine physical features pro-
vide eroticism to the images. The spirituality is repre-
sented by using
Halo
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ANCIENT INDIA 15
Amravati School of Arts was patronised by According to Devichandragupta written by
Satvahanas and Ikshvakus. Chief material used was Vishakhadutta, Shakas attacked Ramagupta and he
white marble and was influenced by surrendered his queen Dhruvadevi to the Shaka ruler.
Buddhism She was saved by
Religion played a great role in the development of Chandragupta-II
sculptural art in India patronised by various rulers, par- Chandragupta-l minted Kumaradevi type coins to
ticularly Kushanas. The art style, which combines Indian commemorate their marriage. He started the Gupta
and Greek feature, is called [RAS2008] era in
GandbarArt 320 CE
The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started NAVRATNAS OF CHANDRAGUPTA-II
from China and passed through CentralAsia,Afghanistan 1. Kalidas 2. Dhanvantari
and WesternAsia. Kanishka built a Stupa and monastery at 3. Varahamhira 4. Vareruchi
Peshawar 5. Ghatakarna 6. Amar Singh
A Greek sailor discovered the monsoon sea route 7. Kshapranak 8. Velabhatt
to India from West India in CE 46-47. He was 9. Shanku
Hippalus Fa-Hain, a Chinese traveller, visited India in fifth
Mathura School to some extent influenced century at the time of Chandragupta-II. His mission
Amravati School of Arts. The Kushana Kings such as to trace the origin of
Kanishka and Wima Kadphises were shown in Cen- Buddbism [CDS 2004]
tral Asian dresses in Mathura School of Arts. The Information about Kumaragupta is provided is
headless image of Kanishka has been found from Vilsada Edict. At the end of his career, Gupta power
Mat Village (Mathura) was seriously menaced by the Hunas, who were de-
The Shakas and the Kushanas introduced turban, feated by
trousers and long coat in India. Some of these rulers Skandagupta
adopted Buddhism, which led to rise of Chandragupta-ll adopted the title of Vikramaditya
Mahayanism after victory over Shakas in Western India. He con-
GUPTAAGE quered from them Western Malwa and
The Gupta dynasty came to power in about CE Gujarat
275 by Srigupta and he took the title of Skandagupta was able to re-establish the power
Maharaja of Guptas after defeating barbaric Hunas and the
Chandragupta-l, successor of Ghatotkacha, as- Pushyamjtras as indicated by
sumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He strengthened Bhittari Stone Inscription
his control over portions of Nepal and Bihar through The Gupta rulers adopted pompous titles such as
matrimonial alliance with the Parameshvara, Maharajadhiraja, Parambhattaraka
Lichchavis etc. The kingship was hereditary. The King was as-
The Gupta empire was expanded by sisted by a council of ministers and the officials. The
Chandraguptas son Samudragupta. The information most important officers were
of his region is provided by Prayag Prashasti com- Kumaramatyas
posed by his court poet Harisena. Historian VA Smith The city committee was comprised of local rep-
called him [SSC (10+2) 2012] resentatives and was not appointed by the govern-
Indian Napoleon ment. The council responsible for city administration,
The Guptas issued largest number of gold coins which was called
were called Dinaras in their inscriptions.The coins, which re- Paura
veal love for music, were issued by [SSC (10+2) 2011] The group of villages was called Vithi and group of
Guptas Vithis was called Vishya. Head of frontier state was called
Samudragupta is called as the Hero of Hundred Gupta
Battles. He is mentioned as Kaviraja and a great mu- The Guptas empire was divided into Bhuktis
sician. To show his love for music, he issued coins of headed by Uparika. Bhuktis were further divided into
Veena-type Vishyas headed by
The basic strength ofthe Guptas laid in the use of horses. Vishyapati
Guptas were Vaishyas and their official language was The major part of the revenue of the state came from
Sanskrit [NDA2009] agriculture land tax was between one-fourth to one-sixth

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ANCIENT INDIA
of the produce. The land under cultivation was called
Kshetra
Tamralipti was an important port and trade cen-
tre on the Eastern coast and trade was carried on
with China, Ceylon, Java and Sumatra from here. This
port was located in
Bengal [SSCMTS2011]
Samudragupta granted permission to the Buddhist
King of Ceylon, Meghavarman, to build a monastery at
Bodh Gaya [SSC (10+2) 2010]
The Gupta era heralded two important styles in
temples. In North India, it was Nagara style and in
South India style was called .
Dravida Style
The Indian notational system was learnt by Arabs
from India and they took it to the West. It was called as
Hindsa
The craftsmen of this period were experts in work-
ing metals. An iron pillar at Mehrauli near Delhi is
known for its resistance against i Rusting
The position of Shudras improved slightly. They
were permitted to listen to the epics, to perform cer-
tain domestic rites and to worship a new God called
Krishna
Yashovardhan, who defeated Mihirkula to stop
the Hunas and destroyed Gupta empire was a
feudatory of the Guptas in
Malwa
The practice of granting land and fiscal and admin-
istrative concessions to priests and administrators be-
came a regular affair in the Gupta times. Most of the
posts became hereditary. The royal seat has imprint of
Garuda
In Gupta era, cavalry came to the forefront and horse
archery became prominent in military tactics. The infan-
try was supplemented by the forces supplied by the
Feudatories
Womens position declined in Gupta period. Widow
remarriage was disallowed. The first appears in Gupta
times in CE 510 at
Eran
The schools of Hindu philosophy were enunci-
ated in this period. By the CE 4th century, Bhagvadgita
was finally complied which taught devotion to Lord
Krishna. It led to the development of concept of
Bbakti
Village under Gramadhyaksha (Gramapati) was
the lowest unit of administration. Pustapalas were dis-
trict level officials whose work was to manage
Records
Guilds came into prominence in this period. The
head of the city merchants was called Nagarsethi and
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16
the caravan leader was called
Sarthavaba
KalidasasAbhigyanShakuntalamis considered to be
oneofthebesthundredliteraryworksintheworld.Amarkosha
was writtenbyAmarsinha.Theylivedin thecourtof
Chandragupta-II
The Gupta sculpture suggests simplicity and se-
renity. An over two-metre high bronze image of the
Buddha has been recoved from
Sultanganj (Bhagalpur)
Padartha Dharmasangraha based on Vaisheshika phi-
losophy was written by Acharya Pcashastipada.
Sankhyakarikabasedon Sankhyaphilosophywaswritten by
Ishwar Krishna
An inscription of the 5th century CE from
Mandasor (Malwa) refers to a guild of silk weavers
who had migrated to Malwa region from
South Gujarat
Feudalism started developing in Gupta period
through land grants and administration and judicial
rights to priests and administrators. The local units
enjoyed certain level of liberty and independence.
Atarika Rajyas was the term used for
Forest Kingdoms
Chandragupta-II married the Naga princess,
Kubernaga and allowedhis daughter Prabhavati to
marry with Rudrasena-ll who was a
Vakataka King
Following the end of Gupta power, Maukharis
rose to power in sixth century in Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh, with their capital at
Kannauj
The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in
ancient India: The number of silver coins declined during
Gupta region. Gupta inscriptions mention gold coins as
Dinar
POST GUPTA PERIOD
Hunas come from central Asia to attack continu-
ously to India. They first attacked in reign of
Kumamgupta
Attack of Hunas was resisted by Kumaragupta
& Skandagupta. Who is considered winner against
Hunas amongst Gupta dynasty? [BPSC 2011]
Skandagupta
After the arrival of weaker Gupta King, Hunas
dominated northern India. Who is considered the
ablest ruler of Hunas?
Toramana
Mihirakula, the most barbarous out of Hunas Kings,
was defeated by Magadha King. Where did he died?
Kashmir
Maukharis ruled over the region of western Uttar
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ANCIENT INDIA
Pradesh near Kannauj and some parts of Magadh
Kingdom. Their powerful king was
Isanavarman
Isanavarman and his son adopted the title of
Maharajadhiraja. Who was son of Isanavarman?
Sarvavarman
The western part of India like Saurashtra was
under the kingdom of Maitrakas in Post-Gupta pe-
riod. What was capital city of Maitrakas kingdom?
Valabhi
Valabhi became the centre of learning and culture
as well as trade and commerce. Who was the king
who took Valabhi to its height?
Bhatarka
The Gaudas were ruling in Bengal. Its most pow-
erful king who murdered his brother Rajyavardhan,
the ruler of Thaneswarwas
Sasanka
Kannauj remained the centre of political activities
in India till Turkish invasion and conquest. Who shifted
his capital to Kannauj?
Harshavardhan
Harshavardhan was son of Prabhakaravardhan.
Who succeeded Prabhakaravardhan in CE 605?
Rajyavardhan
Rajyavardhan to take revenge of his brother-in-
laws murder by Devagupta and Sharhanka alliance,
killed Devagupta. Who killed Rajyavardhan?
Shashanka
After death of Rajyarardhan inCE 606, Harshavardhan
became the King. Who coronated Harshavardhan?
Harshavardhan (Himself)
LITERATURES IN HARSHAVARDHAN PERIOD
Writer Work
Banabhatta Kadambari,ParvatiParinay,Harshacharita
Hieun Tsang Si-Yu-Ki
Hui-li Biography of Hieun Tsang
Harshavardhan Ratnavaii, Nagananda, Priyadarshika
Harshavardhan conquered Kongoda Ganjam in
Orissa. He offered 80 township of this Kingdom to a
Buddhist monk named as
Jayasena
Banabhatta wrote thefirstnovel in India Kadambari,
ParvatiParinay.Hewasthecourtpoetof [SSC (10+2) 2011]
Harshavardhan :
Harsha was controlling the largest area in the country at
the time. Who sent three ambassadors in Harshas court?
Tang (Chinese King)
Harsha made his administration more feudal and
decentralised. Who was the provincial head in his
administration?
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17
Uparika Maharaja
The Commander of army in Harsha period was known
as Baladhikrita. Who was the highest official of theArmy?
Mahabaladhikrita
The kingdom of Harshavarshan disintegrated af-
ter death of Harshavardhan. He died in
CE647
Chalukyas dynasty has two branchesviz,Vatapiand
Kalyani.Who ruled from Chalukyas in Post Gupta period?
Vatapi
The contemporary ruler of Harshavardhan from
Chalukyan period was Pulkesin-ll (611-642 CE). He
is also known as
Satyasara
The greatest achievement of Pulkesin-ll was his
victory over Harshavardhan in CE 620. He made mat-
rimonial alliance with
Gangas
Huen Tsang visited India in Harshavardhansperiod and
wrote Si-Yu-Ki. He was known as[SSC (10+2) 2011]
Prince of Pilgrims
Pulkesin-ll was most famous ruler of Chalukya
dynasty. He extended his kingdom over most of
Deccan, He was from
Chalukyas ofBadami [SSC CGL 2013]
The Aihole inscription gives information about the
conquest of Pulkesin-ll over Harshavardhan. This in-
scription was written by [SSC (10+2) 2013]
Ravikirti
Dhilika is the ancient name for the Delhi. Who
founded Dhilika in CE 736? [SSC (10+2) 2002]
Tomars
SANGAM PERIOD (SOUTH INDIA)
The southern most part of India was divided into
three kingdomsCholam, Chera and Pandya.
Pandyas were ruling from per-historic times to the end
of 15th century. Their initial capital was
Korkai
Pandyan empire built many temples like Meenakshi
Amman temple, Nellaiappar temple. MeenakshiAmman
temple is at Madurai while Nellaippar temple is on the
bank of river Thamirabarani in
Tirunelveli
Pandya kings were Jains earlier but later turned
to Shaivaits, What were Pandya kings called as?
Jatavarman or Maravarman
Fish was the official symbol of Pandyan state. Who
was the famous Pandyan ruler who sent his ambassa-
dor in the court of Roman king Augustus?
Nedunj Cheliyan-I
Sangam period is supposed to expand from 3rd
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ANCIENT INDIA 18
BCE to CE 4th. The poets and scholars of the period dom) was strengthened and managed the gain over Pandyas
were meeting together from which the name was de- and Chera in CE 2. Who was the king at that time?
rived. The meeting was placed at Karikala
Madurai Chola kingdom weakened after Karikala and strength-
Sangam period in our myths, divided into three ened only in medieval period. They were attacked by
periods. Historians approve third Sangam period. Pandyas and Cheras
These were patronised by which kings? CholaswhowererulinginKerala,alsoruledoverSriLanka
Pandyas for approximately 50 years in 2 BCE. Who was the king of -
Pandyas ruledforthelongestperiod in SouthIndia. They CholawhoconqueredSriLanka? [SSC (10+2) 2010]
senttheirambassadortoRomanempirein [MPPSC 2005] Elara
26BCE KINGDOMS IN SANGAM AGE
The rock inscription of Ashoka are the first reference Kingdom Capital Emblem Port
about modern state of Kerala. It tells that area was ruled by Pandyas Korkai, later Madurai Fish Korkai, Saliyur
Chera Dynasty Cheras Vanji Bow Muzris, Bardar
Cheras ruled from Alleppy to Calicut during 900 Cholas Uraiyur, later Puhar Tiger Puhar
BCE to CE 198. They were also known as (Kaveripatnam)
Keralaputras Sangam literature has been divided into two major
Cheras were trading with middle east and south- parts named as Melkanakku and Kilkanakku. The
ern Europe with productsspices, ivory, timber and word Sangam was first used by Appar, also known as
gems. Their capital was located at Tirunarukkarasu Nayannar
Vanchi Tirukkural is considered as the Bible of Tamil
Sangam literature has maximum description about Land and also as fifth Veda. It was written by
Chera kings. Which kings is credited with start of sug- Tirruvalluvar
arcane cultivation in south India? Apart from Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas,
Adigaman Ezhni Vellals were fourth caste. The minimal work was done
The first Chera king was Udiyangeral, who, accord- by lowest caste known as
ing to .legends, is supposed to feed the participants of Kadaisiyar
Mahabharata war. What was the symbol of Chera? Vellalas were the rich peasants while Arasar were
Bow the ruling class. What was the captain of the Army
The famous Chera ruler Senguttavan was also known called as?
as The Red or Good Chera. He constructed temple of Enadi
Kannagi First Sangam meet happened at Madurai. Who
Romans built a temple of Augustus in Chera king- was its. Chairman?
dom and the trade between them was so rigorous that Agastaya
they set-up two regiments in the Cheras country. These Second Sangam meet was founded by Agastaya
temples and regiments were set-up at and later presided by Tolakappiyan. Where was it held?
Muziris Kapatapuran Alvai
The Chola kingdom was situated between the The suriving proof of third Sangam were Pattu-pattu,
Pennar and the Velar rivers. The capital of Chola king- Ettulogati Patinerlei Lakarakku. Where was it held?
dom in Sangam period was [SSC LDC 2013] North Madurai
Kaveripatnam TAMIL LITERATURE
The chief centre of political power of Chola was Book Writer
at Uraipur. It was famous for which trade? Tirukkural Tirruvalluvar
Cotton Toikappiyam Tolkappiyan
Sangam literature was compiled in the early Chris- Silappadikaram IllagoAvadigal
tian era. What was the language of Sangam literature? Manimekalai Sattanar
Tamil SivagaSindamani/JivakaChintamani Tiruttakkadevar
Karikala constructed a 160"km long embankment
along the Kaveri river. He also founded which city?
Puhar
Chola kingdom (later known as Cholamandalam king-

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