Ground Improvement

Techniques
INTRODUCTION

India has seen increasing growth in infrastructure development in last

decade. The presence of large deposits of weak soil of varying type has necessities the
development & application of various ground improvement techniques which are as
follows.

VIBRO COMPACTION

Vibro-compaction is a deep compaction ground treatment technique for

densifying granular soils in-situ by means of a vibrating probe, or "vibroflot". Shown
below, the vibroflot is a long, slender, hollow tube of cylindrical shape, consisting of two
parts. The lower part, termed the vibrator, is connected by means of a special elastic
energy coupling to the upper follow tubes. The vibrator houses two components,
including a 150 Kw electric motor in the upper part, to drive an eccentric weight in the
lower compartment. Capable of 1,500 to 1,800 revolutions per minute, the vibrator
develops an unbalanced (centrifugal) force of 30 to 50 tonnes, creating vibrations in a
horizontal plane.

Follow tubes are custom made to length to suit the required penetration
depth. The total weight of the vibroflot is adjustable by using a combination of heavy
and lightweight follow tube sections. In compaction operation, the vibroflot is freely

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suspended from the crane and the vibrator gyrates about the vertical axis with a
maximum (peak-to-peak) displacement of 23 to 32mm. The design of the elastic
coupling, or vibration isolator, allows the follow tubes to remain nearly stationary while
the vibrator is in motion.

Under the influence of simultaneous vibration and saturation, loose particles are
rearranged into a more compact state, improving the engineering properties of the treated
profile. In general, vibrocompaction is suitable for granular soils with silt contents up to
10 %.

Sequentially depicted below, the vibroflot first penetrates under its own
weight and vibrations, with the jetting action of water or compressed air. After reaching
the desired treatment depth, the vibroflot is extracted at 0.5m intervals while maintaining
vibration energy at each increment until the power consumption rises to the specified
maximum.

Benefits:

Vibrocompaction increases both the moist and submerged unit weights of the
soil and improves the angle of internal friction. Consequently, bearing
capacity is increased.
Anticipated foundation settlements are reduced due to increases in
compressibility modulii, resulting from pre-straining prior to loading.
Resistance to liquefaction is improved since void ratios are decreased and
confining pressures are increased.

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Where fines content of the soils in the target treatment interval exceeds the acceptable
range for vibrocompaction, another ground improvement process of Vibro-
Replacement/Displacement by installation of stone columns can be applied.

SUBSEALING

S ubsealing is a process whereby fluid grout is injected beneath concrete

slab and foundation elements (or behind wall elements) to fill voids, providing positive
contact with subgrade soils. Grout mixes for this purpose commonly have a Portland
cement base, and depending on the application can contain a variety of additional
components. Typical additional grout constituents include fly ash, bentonite, silica fume,
or sand.

Injection pressures are typically far lower than for compaction grouting
applications, since the objective of subsealing is to fill voids, rather than to displace and
compact weak soils.

Subsealing applications include:

Subsealing of concrete roadway pavement and bridge approaches

Filling voids beneath residential and commercial floor slabs
Filling voids beneath foundations after mechanically releveling
Undersealing of voids beneath seawalls

Contact grouting, also known as "backpack grouting", is a similar process,

but the term is typically reserved for filling with grout of the annular space between a
permanent tunnel lining and the surrounding formation (ASCE, 1980).

PERMEATION GROUTING

Permeation grouting is a term used to describe a ground treatment method

in which grout is injected into a porous medium without disturbing its original structure.
In geotechnical engineering, this usually refers to the process of filling the pores and
joints in a soil and/or rock deposit to change its geotechnical properties. Almost any
grout material may used for permeation grouting, but there are distinct limits on the grout

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mix used for specific types of soil or rock. Applications are for enhanced foundation
bearing value, improvement of excavation character in running sands and reduction of
liquefaction potential.

Par
ticulate grouts are typically water-based slurries of cement, fly ash, lime or other finely
ground solids that undergo a hardening process with time. These materials may be used
to fill pores and joints in soil and rock, provided the grout particles are small enough to
be carried through the pore or joint openings. A good rule of thumb is that the effective
particle diameter in the grout suspension should be less than the dimension of the pore or
joint aperture divided by 5.

Slurry grout mixes used for permeation grouting are designed primarily to
promote passage of the grout particles into the porous medium. The grain size of the
slurry is matched to the pore aperture and steps are taken to assure the grout particles are
properly dispersed in the grout. Both high speed mixing and wetting agents are used to
break up clumps and aggregations of grout particles that would cause the grout to have a
lager apparent grain size than the actual grain size of the slurry. Water content is adjusted
in the mix design to control the mean free path between the slurry particles rather than
simply providing enough water to allow complete hydration.

Two types of slurries are used. The so called stable slurries exhibit less than
When solids and water are mixed, the solid particles begin to settle out and water is
displaced upward (bleed). The forces acting in the suspension to reduce the settling of
the particles are random impacts of water molecules against the particle, viscosity of the

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water, interparticle attraction and friction. Since the interparticle attraction is inversely
proportional to the square of the mean free path length between particles and the other
forces are inversely proportional to the cube of the particle diameter, either reducing the
particle size or increasing concentration reduces the bleed. As a general rule, for Portland
Cement grout 0.66 : 1 is the water to cement ratio (by weight) which is the borderline
between stable and unstable grout.

Stable slurries are too thick to be used for permeation grouting of all but the
most coarse grained soils or extremely fractured rock. Unstable slurries having water to
cement ratios from 0.66 : 1 to 3 : 1 (by weight) may be used to permeation grout granular
soils with effective grain size down to coarse sand or fractured rock with joint widths as
low as 0.01 inch. However, the bleeding of these grouts causes channels 10% bleed
(separation of water from the slurry) at final set. Unstable slurries bleed from 10 to 90%
of the water prior to setting and open pathways to remain through the grout.

To eliminate the effect of bleed on Portland cement grout, additives are used
to hold the cement grains in suspension at water to cement ratios that would otherwise be
quite unstable. The most common additive is a water suspension of bentonite. Even
small amounts of bentonite increase the interparticle forces dramatically and hold the
cement particles in suspension. Typically, cement/bentonite grout used for permeation
grouting has water to cement ratio varying between 1 : 1 and 2.65 : 1 and exhibits zero
bleed.

The image on this page shows a sample of permeation grouted sand from a
project that required steep-walled footing excavations in running sands. The proposed
excavation area was permeation grouted with a microfine cement slurry prior to cutting
footing trenches, resulting in a significant reduction in project cost. Unconfined
compressive strength tests performed on samples trimmed from the field yielded 28-day
strengths on the order of 800 psi.

Chemical grouts are liquid resins or water solutions of grout constituents such
as polyurethane, sodium silicate or prepolymers. In some instances, the chemical grout is
an emulsion of water and a liquid resin. These materials my be injected through the pore
or joint aperture depending on the viscosity of the solution instead of the particle size.

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MECHANICAL JACKING

Mechanical jacking is a process whereby structures can be releveled from

the foundation's base, in contrast to disconnecting at the sill. The advantage is that this
type of jacking effort will typically translate to adjacent interior slabs, reducing the need
for slab replacement. The detail below is part of a process developed by Moore & Taber
for mechanically lifting foundations.

Jacking pits are typically positioned every five feet, or so, beneath
continuous foundation elements in the area to be lifted. Jacking force is then applied as
needed to raise the structure in the desired sequence.

Once raised to the desired elevation, jacking pits are backfilled with concrete.
Mechanical jacking may also be performed in conjunction with bond beam construction.
These underpinning elements can be cast monolithically, resulting in an integral
supplemental foundation. This type of foundation is often recommended for undersized
footings, or in areas where expansive soils are prevalent.

Void space beneath the raised footings and slabs is then backfilled by subsealing

CONTACT GROUTING

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C ontact grouting, sometimes referred to as "backpack grouting", is a term

is typically reserved for grouting the annular space between a permanent tunnel lining
and the surrounding formation. In a broader sense, contact grouting involves the
injection of fluid grout into an existing void to provide positive contact between a
structure and an adjacent subgrade. Subsealing is a type of contact grouting.

Typical contact grout mixes consist of neat cement, fly ash/cement and
bentonite/cement. Fluid grout is injected into voids, typically under very low pressure.

CHEMICAL GROUTING

C hemical grouting is a ground treatment method for soils with a relatively

low-viscosity grout. There are many types of chemical grout, each having different
strength, cost, viscosity, toxicity and durability. By far the most common type of grout is
based on gellation of sodium silicate by one of a wide variety of hardeners. Polyurethane
and acrylate grouts make up most of the rest of the materials in common use. There are
new materials in the market and the cost is dropping rapidly.

By far, the greatest amounts of chemical grout materials are used to improve
the strength of granular soils. Seepage control grouting using chemical resins accounts
for a large share of the market value, but only a small part of the total volume of material

MUDJACKING

Mudjacking, also called "slabjacking", is the injection of grout under a

concrete slab (or foundation element) in order to raise it to a specific grade. It is often
referred to (erroneously) as "compaction grouting", which is one of several ground
improvement processes.

Mudjacking is commonly used to raise overlying grades and structural

elements, and can be performed in conjunction with compaction grouting or mechanical
jacking.

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UNDER PINNING

Underpinning is a means of transferring foundation loads to deeper soils

or bedrock. It can be accomplished by deepening existing foundations with new bond
beams or grade beams, if competent bearing soils are relatively shallow. When loads are
to be transferred to deeper strata, caissons, pin piles or pipe piles can be used in
conjunction with grade beam construction.

We can apply any of the above methods, depending on site-specific soil and foundation
conditions and recommendations of the project design professional. The photograph to
the left shows Moore & Taber personnel underpinning a home in a development where
expansive soils were pervasive. The perimeter foundations of 40 residential units in this
tract were strengthened with reinforced concrete grade beams. In addition to stiffening
the existing foundations, these new foundations also served as a mitigation measure for
controlling moisture migration beneath the buildings.

RAPID IMPACT COMPACTION

A new method of dynamic ground improvement, known as Rapid Impact

Compaction. The method uses a Rapid Impact Compactor (RIC), developed in the early
1990s by B.S.P. in conjunction with the British Military. It is mounted on an excavator,

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and can access challenging locations.

The RIC imparts energy by dropping a 7.5 ton weight from a controlled
height of about 1 m onto a patented foot. Energy is delivered at a rate of 40 to 60 blows
per minute.The foot, measuring 5 feet in diameter, is maintained in contact with the
ground to allow efficient and safe transfer of energy. The high degree of control allows
the machine to be used in difficult locations, and for a variety of applications.

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The drop height, number of blows and penetration per blow are monitored
and/or controlled by a data acquisition system. The output provided includes the total
energy input, total penetration and final set for each compaction point. The RIC mobilizes
on two trucks and assembles in about an hour, keeping mobilization costs to a minimum.

Essentially designed for use in granular deposits, benefits have also been
noted in random fills and mine wastes. As seen in the accompanying graph, significant
ground improvement was realized to depths of 25 to 30 feet for a petroleum tank farm
project in Hokkaido, Japan. However, typical ground improvement results show
improvement on the order of 20 feet deep.

Potential applications for the RIC include compaction of loose soils to

improve bearing capacity and mitigate liquefaction potential, compaction of
environmental remediation site backfills, or use in conjunction with other ground
improvement technologies to reduce the need for confining fills or excessive stone
consumption in the upper profile.

At 100 feet, peak particle velocities have been measured to vary from 1 to
2.25mm/second. Vibrations will vary with material type, and will increase as the degree
of compaction achieved increases. Results to date indicate that without site specific
testing, a safe working distance to structures on the order of 20 feet may be appropriate.
Measured noise levels are about 88 decibels at 20 feet.

. COMPACTION GROUTING

Compaction grouting is a ground treatment technique that involves

injection of a thick-consistency soil-cement grout under pressure into the soil mass,
consolidating, and thereby densifying surrounding soils in-place. The injected grout
mass occupies void space created by pressure-densification. Pump pressure, as
transmitted through low-mobility grout, produces compaction by displacing soil at depth
until resisted by the weight of overlying soils.

Where injected into very dense soils or bedrock, compaction grout remains
somewhat confined, since the surrounding material is quite dense. However, when
injected into under-consolidated or poorly-compacted soils, grout is able to "push" these

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materials aside. This is depicted in the images to the left, showing an excavated grout
column in the local bedrock (top image), and higher in the treatment profile in a zone of
weak fill (bottom image). The images were obtained by a geologist during a down-hole
inspection of a 24-inch bucket auger drill hole through a completed grout column.

When grouting treatment is applied on a grid pattern, the result is

improved compaction of displaced soils, and greater uniformity of the treated soil mass.
As a secondary benefit, the resulting grout columns add strength in the vertical axis, as
typical grout compressive strengths exceed those of the surrounding soils.

Compaction grouting applications include densification of foundation

soils, raising and releveling of structures and foundation elements, mitigation of
liquefaction potential, augmentation of pile capacity and pile repair, and densification of
utility trench backfill soils.

Although densification of foundation soils subject to long-term

settlement remains to be the principal application, ground improvement methods
incorporating compaction grouting methods have become increasingly accepted by the
engineering community as a means of mitigating liquefiable soils influencing existing
facilities. Inherent in the grouting process is the capacity to work in areas of limited
access and existing improvements to treat discrete zones within the soil profile.

New Products and Technology:

Geosynthetics are used for ground improvement techniques to reduce

1. Depth excavation required for the removal of unsuitable subgrade materials.
2. The differential settlement of the roadway
3. Maintenance and extended the life of the pavement
4. Distribution of the subgrade during construction
Geotextiles are used for reinforcement of embankments
CONCLUSION
The above techniques are used worldwide as effective ground improvement
techniques. These techniques may be used for structures such as buildings, highways,
railway lines, petro-chemical plants & other infrastructure facilities to allow
maintaining the required quality and performance standards.

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REFERENCE
1. Magazine Construction Engineering, article foundation & ground
improvement
2. website google.co.in.

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