Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993

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Renovable y sostenible Energy Reviews

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visiones del pasado, las tendencias actuales y futuras contexto: Una revisin de energa del edificio, carbono y
sostenibilidad

Na Wang un , , Patrick E. Phelan segundo , Chioke Harris mi , Jared Langevin do , Brent Nelson re , karma Sawyer F
un Pacfico fi Laboratorio Nacional del Noroeste c, 902 Battelle Blvd, Richland, WA 9354, EE.UU.
segundo Arizona State University, Facultad de Ingeniera de la Materia, transporte y energa, 501 E Tyler Mall, ECG 303, Tempe, AZ 85287-6106, EE.UU.
do Laboratorio Nacional Lawrence Berkeley, 1 Ciclotrn Rd, Berkeley, CA 94720, 1000 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20585-0121, EE.UU.
re Universidad del Norte de Arizona, Departamento de Ingeniera Mecnica, PO Box 15600, Flagsta ff, AZ 86011-5600, EE.UU.
mi Laboratorio Nacional de Energa Renovable, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO 80401, EE.UU.
F Washington DC

INFORMACIN DEL ARTCULO ABSTRACTO

palabras clave: Las personas pasan la mayor parte de su tiempo dentro de los edificios, y los edificios son responsables de aproximadamente un tercio del total de las emisiones
Visiones directas e indirectas de carbono en todo el mundo relacionadas con la energa. Del mismo modo, los edificios en los EE.UU. representan aproximadamente el
Edificios de 40% del consumo total de energa de Estados Unidos. el desarrollo futuro edificio ser impulsado no slo por los nuevos desafos, como la vulnerabilidad a la
Energa
escasez de recursos y el cambio climtico, sino tambin por las innovaciones disruptivas y los cambios sociales. Reconociendo la imposibilidad de predecir el
Tendencias de
futuro desenvolvimiento edificio, es imperativo desarrollar una visin teniendo en cuenta los edificios a futuro ' signi fi no puede correo ff efecto sobre el medio
entorno
ambiente mundial, el consumo de energa primaria o de la fuente, y la salud de los ocupantes, la productividad y el bienestar. Como un paso necesario en el
tecnologas
desarrollo de una visin integral, que se publicar en un documento separado, este artculo proporciona una comprensin del pasado, presente y futuro
paradigmas de construccin. Se presenta el contexto posible futuro en relacin con la demografa, medio ambiente y recursos. Tambin se explica cmo el
desarrollo de la construccin en el siglo pasado fue formada por salto tecnolgico y los movimientos sociales. Se examinan las tendencias tecnolgicas y sociales
de hoy en da que es probable que en Florida influir en la estructura y el funcionamiento de los edificios del futuro.

1. Introduccin
El Departamento de Energa (DOE) O Building Technologies FFI ce,
en colaboracin con el Pacfico fi c Northwest National Laboratory, ha desarrollado una
visin de lo que nos edificios convencionales podran convertirse en 100 aos, momento en el cual
es probable que se renov el edificio actual de las acciones en los EE.UU. [1,2] . Edificio de vida til
(es decir, el perodo en el que un edificio est en uso) es una ff ected por numerosos factores [3] . Una
vida de diseo de 50 aos se utiliza a menudo en la evaluacin del ciclo de vida [4] Y algunos edificios
pueden durar 100 aos o ms con un programa de sustitucin y mantenimiento integral [5] . Un
artculo de la visin separada discute los atributos deseables para los edificios en el futuro [186] , Sino
como un paso necesario de desarrollar una visin integral para el futuro, este artculo busca revisar
varias proyecciones de los datos de consumo de recursos demogrficos y que es probable que una ff ect
diseo del edificio; Examinar, evaluar y aprender de las visiones anteriores de paradigmas de
construccin; y
Examinar, evaluar y proyectar las tendencias actuales en el diseo y la tecnologa de la construccin.
Este trabajo se centra en gran medida en los edificios tpicos de la
Estados Unidos, tanto comerciales como residenciales, y las cuentas de la energa y el uso del agua,
las corrientes de desechos, la productividad y la salud de los ocupantes, la sostenibilidad con respecto
a los materiales de construccin, uso de la tierra, el medio ambiente natural que lo rodea, y las
interacciones entre los edificios y servicios centralizados tales como la electricidad, el gas natural y el
agua.
No hay duda de que la creacin de un entorno construido sostenible que soporta mejor la vida
es un objetivo comn en la construccin de la comunidad. Este objetivo no puede alcanzarse si
paradigmas de diseo, estrategias y soluciones tcnicas son parciales en lugar de integral. Muchos
paradigmas de construccin ltimos dejase ' t tener plenamente en cuenta los edificios como
componentes de los distritos ms grandes edificios o aislar de su contexto histrico. O bien se
crearon barrios o zonas aisladas (por ejemplo, la Unidad de Barrio [6] , Ciudad Jardn [7,8] ) O edificios
conectados de una manera altamente ordenada que no respete plenamente cmo la conectividad
debe formarse de forma natural (por ejemplo,

abreviaturas: DOE, EE.UU., el Departamento de Energa; I + D, la investigacin y el desarrollo; AIE, Agencia Internacional de la Energa; NASA, Administracin Nacional de Aeronutica y del Espacio; EIA,
Administracin de Informacin de Energa de Estados Unidos; PIB, el producto interno bruto; PV, fotovoltaica; EPA, Agencia de Proteccin Ambiental de Estados Unidos; La UE, la Unin Europea; RMI, Rocky Mountain Institute; LEED, Liderazgo en
Energa y Diseo Ambiental; IO, (Internet of Things)
Autor correspondiente.

Correos electrnicos: Na.Wang@pnnl.gov (N. Wang), Phelan@asu.edu (PE Phelan), chioke.harris@nrel.gov (C. Harris), Jared.Langevin@lbl.gov (J. Langevin),
Brent.Nelson@nau.edu (B. Nelson), Karma.Sawyer@gmail.com (K. Sawyer).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.114
Recibido el 7 de enero de de 2016; Recibido en forma 11 de abril 2017 revisado; Aceptado 30 de de abril de 2017

1364-0321 / 2017 Elsevier Ltd. Todos los derechos reservados.

N. Wang et al.
Figura 1. mtricas de construccin agrupados por su nivel de desarrollo.
Ciudad radiante [9] ). En otros casos, los nuevos edificios rechazaron por completo las ciudades y
comunidades existentes fueron reconstruidos confiando en las nuevas tecnologas en ese momento, como
los automviles (por ejemplo, la ciudad de Broadacre [10] ). Estas visiones utpicas destinados a resolver
una serie de problemas sociales mediante el rediseo mejores edificios y ciudades; Sin embargo, se
rompieron los vnculos entre los edificios y su contexto y lagunas existentes en el medio.
paradigmas actuales han mejorado en este aspecto. Visionarios ya no empezar de cero y que
reconocen las condiciones existentes de los edificios y ciudades. Sin embargo, todava no existen
paradigmas totalmente integrados. actores de construccin estn creando visiones pieza por pieza.
Una serie de construccin de mtricas de rendimiento y los correspondientes objetivos cuantitativos
para el desarrollo futuro (como la reduccin de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero,
energa y agua) han sido identificados fi ed. Mtricas u objetivos explcitos de muchos otros aspectos
de los entornos construidos (como la salud y la capacidad de recuperacin) an no se han
desarrollado completamente. Figura 1 grupos el vigente e ff Orts por su nivel de desarrollo. Algunas
reas tienen mtricas ampliamente aceptadas, bien de fi objetivos de la NED, y identi fi caminos ed
hacia adelante (Grupo 1), mientras que otros son ms cualitativa o anecdtica, con muchas
incgnitas (Grupo 3). Por ejemplo, no est claro cmo la resistencia a condiciones ambientales
cambiantes fi TS a los compromisos actuales para reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto
invernadero. Cmo se puede alinear la energa E FFI metas carenciales con agua e FFI eficiencia y
gestin de residuos? Una visin del futuro se pretende fi t estos factores juntos mediante la creacin
de un modelo de conexin. Adems, los edificios deben ser concebidos como partes activas de los
distritos ms grandes donde el transporte urbano, los servicios pblicos, y el intercambio de recursos
quizs son igualmente importantes.
Reconociendo la imposibilidad de predecir el futuro, fi en primer lugar explorar las proyecciones
de la posible marco futuro que directamente Florida uye en la construccin del desarrollo, incluyendo
las proyecciones de poblacin y demografa, el cambio ambiental, y la energa y el consumo de agua.
Teniendo en cuenta las formas actuales prioridades podran en Florida uencia nuestro sentido de lo que
se necesitar en el futuro, se revisan los actuales objetivos y compromisos para reducir el consumo de
energa del edificio y las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero para mitigar futuros riesgos
ambientales. Se discute por qu estas energas e FFI carenciales y objetivos de reduccin de carbono
son insuficientes para crear una visin para el futuro de los edificios.
Debido a que las proyecciones del futuro estn sesgadas por las prioridades del momento en el
que se desarrollan, examinamos pasado visiones que estaban destinados a guiar el desarrollo de la
construccin y discutir las lecciones aprendidas. Investigamos las proyecciones de diseo, tecnologa
y estilo de vida cambia en relacin a los desafos tcnicos y sociales ms acuciantes de su tiempo.
Mediante la comprensin de las innovaciones de estas visiones del pasado, as como sus puntos de
fallo, se identifican los enfoques ms prometedores y bloques principales obstculos a un desarrollo
de la visin de xito. Una revisin de cmo el desarrollo de la construccin en el siglo pasado fue
formada por los movimientos salto tecnolgico y social ayuda a centrar nuestra investigacin y
977
Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993
el desarrollo de actividades sobre los temas esenciales que pueden aportar valor a la construccin de las partes
interesadas hoy y en el futuro (I + D).
Sobre la base de las proyecciones del futuro y una visin histrica de los edificios existentes, se
revisan algunos de los populares puntos de vista econmico, medioambiental y social en la actualidad y
se discuten las tendencias actuales en la utilidad, la infraestructura de la ciudad, y la evolucin de la
tecnologa de construccin. Un examen de las actividades de I + D y las tendencias actuales de
construccin es esencial para sugerir posibles enfoques para abordar los problemas actuales y conducir
a una ms e FFI ciente, saludable y productivo entorno construido.
2. contexto futuro: proyecciones de la demografa, el medio ambiente, la energa y el agua en el
prximo siglo
El crecimiento demogrfico, el cambio climtico, y las tendencias de consumo de recursos son
factores importantes que una ff ect edificio de la filosofa de diseo y guiar el desarrollo de las metas y
estrategias de I + D de la actualidad. Anticipamos que estos factores contextuales seguirn siendo
crtico para el desarrollo futuro edificio.
2.1. El crecimiento demogrfico, el envejecimiento y la urbanizacin
El crecimiento demogrfico aumenta la demanda de alimentos, agua, energa, tierra y otros
recursos. Es una de las causas de muchos problemas ambientales. Incluso en el escenario de baja
fecundidad proyectada por las Naciones Unidas [11] , Se prev que la poblacin mundial aumente en
ms del 20% en 50 aos. 1 La poblacin de Estados Unidos se prev que aumente en ms del 40%
en el prximo siglo 2 [ 11 - 13] .
Debido al aumento de la esperanza de vida y el descenso de la natalidad, se espera que la edad
media de todos los pases a aumentar, especialmente en las regiones desarrolladas ( Figura 2 ). La
relacin de dependencia total 3 en los EE.UU., se estima que crezca de 59% en 2010 a 74% para el ao
2050. [12] . Esto significa que ms personas tendrn que trabajar ms para aliviar la carga econmica
creciente en la poblacin en edad de trabajar. Tanto el desarrollo del lugar de trabajo y la vivienda tendr
que adaptarse a las necesidades fsicas y sociales de la creciente poblacin de personas mayores.
En 2014, el 81% de la poblacin estadounidense viva en zonas urbanas 4 ; 2050,
1 De 6,1 mil millones en 2000 a 7400000000 [baja], 8,9 mil millones [medio], o 10,6 mil millones [hig] en 2050.
2 De los 321 millones en 2015 a 420 millones en 2060 y de 462 millones en el 2100.
3 Las tasas de dependencia indican la carga potencial de la poblacin dependiente, aproximado por los menores de
18 aos y las personas de 65 aos y ms, en los de la poblacin en edad de trabajar [12] (P. 9). La relacin de picos
de dependencia en los EE.UU. fue 67% en 1960 [15] . La porcin de la poblacin de 65 y ms aos en los Estados
Unidos se prev que crezca del 15% en 2015 a ms del 20% en 2030 [14] .
4 No hay de comn global fi nicin de un asentamiento urbano. la clasificacin fi criterios de cationes pueden estar basadas
en la densidad de poblacin, el umbral mnimo de la poblacin, proporcin
N. Wang et al. Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993

Figura 2. la edad mediana de la poblacin mundial y de Estados Unidos en el escenario de fertilidad media. ( Fuente: Perspectivas

de la poblacin mundial: El 2015 Revision [diecisis] )

que se prev que aumente a 87% [13] . Esto sugiere que los edificios en zonas urbanas seguirn futuro impacto climtico en la construccin el uso de energa es limitada, y se han estimado dos
siendo el foco de desarrollo de la visin, como lo harn una ff ect uso de la energa y el cambio disminuciones netas totales [28] y aumentos [29] en la energa sitio y el consumo de energa
climtico ms de los edificios en las zonas rurales. Un aspecto crtico del desarrollo urbano del primaria.
edificio es la expansin - Aunque los resultados de estas correo ff Orts para controlar el calentamiento global son actualmente

caracterizado por patrones no planificadas y desiguales de crecimiento, impulsado por una multitud desconocidos, no hay duda de que la construccin del desarrollo en el futuro ser una ff ejada por las polticas

de procesos y conduce a ine FFI ciente uso de los recursos [19] . La expansin en los EE.UU. de emisiones y tendrn que adaptarse a las futuras condiciones climticas mencionadas anteriormente. Un

repurposes 890 mil hectreas (2,2 millones de acres) de tierras de cultivo, ranchos, y el bosque cada reciente informe de la Agencia Internacional de Energa (AIE) [30] muestra que los edificios son responsables

ao [20] . Por otra parte, algunos estudios han pronosticado una tendencia de los cambios dramticos de aproximadamente un tercio del consumo mundial de energa primaria y alrededor de un tercio de las

en los mercados de futuros de vivienda [21,22] . Algunos adultos jvenes tienen una fuerte preferencia emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero relacionadas con la energa total directo e indirecto. sin correo ff ectantes

por la vida urbana - un desarrollo ms compacto y unidades ms pequeas. casas suburbanas acciones para mejorar la construccin de la energa e FFI ciencia, la demanda de energa en los edificios

dependientes del automvil pueden perder valor en comparacin con aquellos situados en zonas aumentar en un 50% a nivel mundial en el ao 2050, basado en el crecimiento proyectado de la poblacin y el

cntricas durante el prximo medio siglo [23] . Con el aumento de la demanda de vivienda en las uso de energa. Una combinacin de acciones polticas y tecnologa puede reducir las emisiones de gases de

zonas urbanas, Gentri fi catin asociado con la renovacin urbana plantea otro reto a una ff vivienda efecto invernadero a una cuarta parte del nivel actual para el ao 2050 [31] .

Asequibles [24,25] . A pesar de que la equidad est ms all del alcance de este estudio,
reconocemos su existencia como un contexto social para el desarrollo futuro edificio.

2.3. histricos de consumo de energa de Estados Unidos y las perspectivas

Segn la Administracin de Informacin de Energa (EIA), el consumo total de energa en los

EE.UU. ms que duplicado cada 50 aos durante el siglo 20 [31] . Construyendo el uso de energa
2.2. Cambio climtico
por sector de uso final no fue bien documentado hasta 1949, cuando los sectores comerciales y
residenciales representaron el 29% del consumo total de energa primaria en el
El Panel Intergubernamental sobre el Quinto Informe de Evaluacin del Cambio Climtico [26] proyectos
que la temperatura de la superficie terrestre aumentar durante el siglo 21 en todos los escenarios de
NOS [32,33] . Actualmente los edificios representan el 41% del consumo total de energa primaria [31] .
emisiones evaluados, y muchos aspectos del cambio climtico y asociado correo ff ECTS continuarn
El sector de la construccin comercial es el sector de la energa de ms rpido crecimiento en los
durante siglos, incluso si se detienen las emisiones antropognicas de gases de efecto invernadero. Estos
EE.UU., y su uso de energa creci 4,9 veces entre 1950 y 2010. En comparacin, el edificio
escenarios proyecto aument y las olas de calor ms largos, extremos fros del invierno, la disminucin de
residencial, transporte y sectores industriales creci 3,8, 3,6 y 2,1 veces, respectivamente, durante el
las precipitaciones en las regiones secas, el aumento del nivel del mar, y los cambios en la seguridad
mismo perodo. Aunque el promedio sitio el uso de energa por unidad de superficie de los edificios
alimentaria y agua.
comerciales disminuy entre 1980 y 2010, el fuente el uso de energa aument ligeramente [34] , Lo
que indica que los edificios comerciales estn utilizando menos gas natural y ms electricidad.
planes de accin climtica estn en la agenda de muchos organismos gubernamentales y
Mercantil y O FFI ce edificios son los principales consumidores de electricidad.
entidades industriales. Ms de 30 pases, incluyendo Estados Unidos, han contribuido al nuevo
acuerdo sobre el cambio climtico de Pars de 2015 [27] . El acuerdo se llevar a correo ff ect en 2020,
y el objetivo es evitar que el cambio de temperatura media global de superior a 2 C [27] . Mientras
residencial anual sitio el uso de energa en los EE.UU. ha disminuido un 35% entre 1978 y 2009.
que los cambios reales de temperatura pueden tener un mnimo en Florida influencia en el uso de la
Mientras tanto, se han convertido en ms hogares con aire acondicionado (57% en 1980 y 87% en
energa total de la construccin stock, el aumento de eventos extremos tendr un mayor impacto en
2009) y se han instalado ms electrodomsticos y aparatos [31] . El tamao promedio de una casa
la demanda mxima y los costos asociados y fuentes de energa. El nmero de estudios de
unifamiliar aument un 62% entre 1973 y 2013, con un menor nmero de personas que viven en
estimacin
cada casa ( Fig. 3 ). Los proyectos de la IEA que en 2050 el tamao medio de la vivienda en los
EE.UU. ser ligeramente ms pequeo que el de hoy (205 m 2 / 2204 ft 2) [ 30] . A partir de 1949 - 2011, el
consumo de energa primaria por producto interno bruto
( Continuacin de la nota)

empleada en los sectores no agrcolas, y la presencia de la infraestructura, la educacin o los servicios de salud [17] .
La identificacin oficina de censo de Estados Unidos fi ES dos tipos de zonas urbanas: reas urbanizadas de 50.000 o
(PIB) en los EE.UU. se redujo de 18,3 MJ / $ (17,4 KBTU / $) a 7,7 MJ / $ (7,3 KBTU / $) [37] . Debido a que
ms personas y grupos urbanos de al menos 2.500 y menos de 50.000 personas. ' Rural ' abarca toda la poblacin, la
vivienda, y el territorio no incluido dentro de un rea urbana [18] . el PIB est en Florida influenciada por una variedad de factores, incluyendo un cambio de la fabricacin

intensiva en energa (por ejemplo, la produccin

978
N. Wang et al.
Fig. 3. Tendencia nica vivienda familiar de 1973 - 2013. ( Fuente: Datos de
la Oficina del Censo de EE.UU. [36,37] )
Fig. 4. ndice de uso de energa por sector (2014 Despus de Belzer [38] ).
de productos metlicos) a las industrias menos intensivas, tales como alimentos, servicios y tecnologa
de la informacin, un mejor indicador es el ndice de Intensidad Energtica [38] . Similar a un ndice de
precios, el ndice de Intensidad Energtica re Florida ECTS cambios en la intensidad de energa asociados
con la energa e FFI ciencia. El ndice de intensidad energtica total se redujo en un 14% entre 1985 (ao
de referencia) y 2010. El valor del ndice de 2010 para el sector comercial es mayor que la unidad, lo que
indica que el consumo de energa est creciendo ms rpido que comercial Florida espacios oor ( Fig. 4 ).
El crecimiento despus de 1985 se asocia con un mayor uso de equipo elctrico y la disminucin de uso
de combustible para la calefaccin debido a un mayor uso de bombas de calor elctricas y la ganancia de
calor encargado de la carga elctrica de interior. El ligero descenso a partir de 2000 puede ser el
resultado de la energa e FFI carenciales programas, cdigos y normas, y ms energa-e FFI equipos ciente
[38] .
el consumo total de energa primaria en los EE.UU. se prev que crezca a una tasa modesta de
0,3% por ao desde el 2013 hasta el 2040 [33] . precios de la electricidad se prev que aumenten en
un 18%, con el aumento de los costos del combustible y los gastos en la transmisin elctrica y la
infraestructura de distribucin [33] . Estas proyecciones, sin embargo, no representan el reciente plan
de energa limpia [39] . El Annual Energy Outlook EIA [33] proyectos que la generacin de electricidad
renovable representan ms de un tercio de la capacidad de generacin y el 18% de la capacidad
total de generacin en 2040. El viento y la cuenta de energa solar fotovoltaica (PV) la generacin de
casi dos tercios del aumento. El aumento de las energas renovables ayudar o ff establecer las
emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero asociadas a los edificios. Si bien con la energa CO 2 ( no
incluyendo CH 4, norte 2 O, y otros gases de efecto invernadero) emisiones del sector residencial se
prev que disminuya en un promedio de 0,2% por ao desde 2013 hasta 2040, se prev que las
emisiones para el sector comercial para aumentar en 0,3% por ao [33] . Alcanzar metas agresivas
para reducir las emisiones de carbono, discutido en
Seccin 2.5 , Ser necesario explorar nuevos paradigmas de construccin. Pasado
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Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993
paradigmas y las lecciones aprendidas se discuten en Seccion 3 .
2.4. el crecimiento del consumo de agua de Estados Unidos y de proyeccin
Los edificios utilizan signi fi cativos volmenes de agua, no slo por el consumo directo de los
ocupantes del edificio y sus actividades, sino tambin debido al agua utilizada en la generacin de
energa y los edificios ' huella
impacto en el medio ambiente local. Al reducir el consumo de energa, los edificios pueden
indirectamente una ff ect escasez de agua a nivel local y regional y el cambio climtico a nivel mundial.
A partir de 1985 - 2005, el uso del agua en el sector residencial (1,0% anual
tasa de crecimiento) crecimiento de la poblacin de cerca el seguimiento (1,1% por ao) en el
EE.UU., mientras que el uso del agua en el sector comercial creci casi dos veces ms rpido, con un
1,9% por ao [40] . edificios comerciales e institucionales consumen el 17% de los suministros de agua
pblica [41] . Adems del uso domstico de agua, signi fi volmenes de peralte de agua tambin se utilizan
para la calefaccin y la refrigeracin, coccin y limpieza en las cocinas, y paisajismo. Al comparar el uso
del agua proyectada y crecimiento de la poblacin en 2030, muchos de los estados con el crecimiento
proyectado de la poblacin y el uso de agua de alta interno per cpita, como Nevada, Arizona y Texas,
puede esperar una mayor competencia por los recursos hdricos [42] . Los mapas de sequa de la NASA
muestran que los niveles de agua subterrnea en todo el suroeste de Estados Unidos son los ms bajos
desde 1949
[43] . Un estudio de 37 sistemas acuferos ms grandes del mundo muestra que muchos estn siendo
retirados a una velocidad mucho mayor de lo que se reponan [44] .
Fig. 5 muestra las tendencias de consumo de agua estimado en los EE.UU. de 1950 a 2010. El uso
municipal del agua slo representa el 12% de la extraccin total de agua en los EE.UU.; 45% se utiliza en
el sector energtico [45] . La gran mayora de uso del agua en el sector de la energa es para la
refrigeracin de las centrales trmicas. A partir de 1950 - 1975, extracciones totales de agua en los EE.UU.
duplicaron.
N. Wang et al.
Fig. 5. el uso de agua estimado en los EE.UU., 1950 - 2010. ( Fuente: US
Geological Survey [45] )
El nivel se ha mantenido Florida a desde 1975, en parte porque los retiros para plantas de energa
refugio ' t aument. Ms de una vez a travs de los sistemas de refrigeracin han sido sustituidos por
torres de refrigeracin hmeda, que consumen ms agua, pero se retiren menos [46] . Los edificios
tambin una ff ect disponibilidad de agua a largo plazo, contribuyendo al cambio climtico. Un estudio
Natural Resources Defense Council [47]
predice que los suministros de agua en 70% de los condados de Estados Unidos pueden estar en algn
riesgo de problemas de sostenibilidad del agua en el ao 2050 bajo escenarios de cambio climtico.
Aproximadamente un tercio de los condados puede estar en riesgo de grado superior, incluido el aumento
de la demanda de agua, uso del agua subterrnea, la sequa, extracciones de agua dulce y agua de
verano fi cit. La generacin de energa es vulnerable a los cambios anormales en la disponibilidad de agua,
tales como la sequa y las olas de calor. Estas relaciones complejas conectan estrechamente edificios, la
energa, el agua y el medio ambiente.
Los acontecimientos recientes han centrado la atencin nacional sobre las conexiones entre el
agua y la infraestructura energtica. El cambio climtico, el crecimiento demogrfico en las zonas
ridas, y el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologas que exigen tanto retos actuales de energa y agua en
los sistemas de energa y agua interdependientes. De acuerdo con un reciente informe sobre el nexo
entre agua y energa, la escasez de agua, la variabilidad y la incertidumbre son cada vez ms
prominente, que puede conducir a la vulnerabilidad de la
sistema de energa de EE.UU. [ 48] , pag. 1.
2.5. compromisos actuales para reducir las emisiones de gases de invernadero, el consumo de
energa y el consumo de agua
metas cuantitativas y compromisos en el sector de la construccin se centran principalmente en
la reduccin de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, mejorar la eficiencia energtica e FFI eficiencia,reduccin del consumo de agua potable y de aguas pluviales runo ff. los objetivos de reduccin del
y reducir el consumo de agua. tabla 1 muestra ejemplos de estas metas establecidas por diversas
entidades y con di ff Erent fechas objetivo.
Algunos compromisos para reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (como los de
California, Florida, San Francisco y Nueva York) siguen proyecciones de las Naciones Unidas de 80% por
debajo del nivel de 1990 para el ao 2050. Otros se basan en las emisiones locales de nivel en un ao
elegido . di ff objetivos Erent hacen di FFI culto al comparar las metas en todas las regiones. Algunos de los
objetivos son promulgadas a travs de medidas vinculantes o de la legislacin estatal, mientras que otros
siguen siendo voluntarias. Mientras que algunos estados han progresado a travs de cdigos y normas de
construccin, electrodomsticos desacoplamiento utilidad ms riguroso (es decir, la disociacin de una
utilidad de pro fi ts de sus ventas de energa), y hojas de ruta, el logro de los objetivos descritos
anteriormente ha sido un reto debido a una falta general de inters comercial en la conciencia pblica y de
los planes de accin climtica.
energtica de los edificios e FFI ciencia es un componente importante de los planes de accin climtica,
aunque un objetivo para los edificios no siempre es especfica fi ed. El objetivo de la AIE es reducir globales de
CO 2 las emisiones en el sector de la construccin a slo una cuarta parte de los niveles actuales para el ao
2050 [49] . Arquitectura 2030 ha desarrollado una serie de programas e iniciativas (por ejemplo, AIA + 2030,
2030
980
Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993
Distritos, 2.030 paleta) para alcanzar las metas incrementales de reduccin de combustibles fsiles en
los ltimos aos hacia el objetivo final de cero emisiones. La serie de retos 2030 [50] pedir a la
comunidad y el desarrollo de la arquitectura mundial para lograr carbono neutral 5 estado de todos los
edificios nuevos y renovaciones importantes para el ao 2030 mediante la aplicacin de correo FFI ciencia
y estrategias sostenibles, la generacin de energa renovable en el lugar, y / o la importacin de
energa limpia. En 2014, la Unin Internacional de Arquitectos 2050 adopt el imperativos, una hoja de
ruta para lograr una serie de totales de CO anual 2
los objetivos de reduccin de emisiones para el sector de edificios y eliminar de carbono entre los edificios
existentes en el ao 2050 [51] . 6
edificios de energa cero-net han avanzado desde la investigacin a la realidad, aunque el
mercado sigue siendo muy pequea 7 [ 52] . Orden ejecutiva
13514, Liderazgo Federal de Medio Ambiente, Energa, y desempeo econmico, en 2009 prevea que,
a partir de 2020, todos los nuevos edificios federales de Estados Unidos disearse para lograr energa
neta cero para el ao 2030 [53] . Sin embargo, 13693 Decreto Supremo en el ao 2015 de marzo de este
reemplazada con una nueva meta de energa, renovable ms general que se aplica a todos los edificios
[54] . Al igual que el correo ff ORT en el sector federal, de California orden ejecutiva B-18-12 [55] requiere
de todas las construcciones nuevas y retro profunda fi ct de edificios estatales existentes sean de
energa neta cero para el ao 2025, adems de un 50% de la existente (no modificada fi ed) Florida espacio
de suelo. los Ley de Seguridad e Independencia Energtica (EISA) de 2007 espec fi ed que los
nuevos edificios comerciales construidos despus de 2030 en los EE.UU. sea energa neta cero, as
como 50% de todo el edificio de stock de 2040, seguido de 100% de todo el edificio de stock de 2050
[56] . En consecuencia, el DOE tiene como objetivo crear soluciones integradas para los hogares
comercializables de energa neta nula en 2020 y edificios comerciales en 2025 [57] . El Ad Hoc
ASHRAE 2020 Comit prev que la construccin de la comunidad producir cero edificios de energa
neta viable en el mercado en 2030 [58] . agua e FFI medidas carenciales en edificios incluyen la
uso del agua han sido adoptadas por varias empresas de fabricacin, tales como Coca Cola, Abbott
(productos farmacuticos y productos sanitarios), y Anheuser-Busch InBev (cervecera) [59] . En el
sector federal, EISA [56] requiere gestores de energa de las instalaciones federales para completar
las evaluaciones integrales de agua y poner en prctica la identi fi ed correo FFI medidas carenciales.
5 Carbono neutral es fi Ned como un edificio que est diseado y construido para requerir una cantidad muy reducida de
energa para funcionar, satisfacer el equilibrio de sus necesidades de energa a partir de fuentes que no producen CO 2 las
emisiones y por lo tanto resultan en cero neta de CO 2
las emisiones [52] . Esto no incluye energa incorporada y carbono de los edificios.
6 El alcance incluye reducir el uso total de energa edificio y especificando los productos de construccin que cumplen una
serie de CO 2 objetivos de reduccin de emisiones en el tiempo, con el objetivo final de reduccin del 50% en 2030
7 Cero- red- edificios de energa se de fi define como una energa-e FFI ciente edificio donde, sobre una base de la fuente
de energa, la energa real anual entregado es menor o igual a la energa renovable exportado en el sitio [51] . De acuerdo
con la actualizacin de estado ms reciente de la
Nuevos Edificios Instituto, el nmero de proyectos de construccin en los EE.UU. dirigidas a la consecucin del objetivo
o cero neto aument de 60 en 2012 a 160 en 2014 [52] .
 Table 1
Examples of goals to reduce building energy use, water use and greenhouse gas emissions.
N. Wang et al.

Organization Metrics Goals Baseline Year Target Goal Setting Year Source
Year

Selected European Union Greenhouse gas emissions 20% below 1990 2020 2012 Energy Efficiency Directive a
Countries Share of renewable energy 20% https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-e ciency/energy-e ciency-directive
consumption 202 Energy Strategy
Energy e ciency 20% improvement http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-strategy/2020-energy-strategy
Greenhouse gas emissions 40% below 1990 2030 2012 2030 Energy Strategy
Share of renewable energy 27% http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-strategy/2030-energy-strategy
consumption
Energy e ciency 30% improvement
Greenhouse gas emissions 80% 95% 1990 2050 2012 2050 Energy Strategy
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-strategy/2050-energy-strategy

China Greenhouse gas 40 45% reduction 2005 2020 2011 Energy and Climate Goals of China's 12th Five-Year Plan
emissions b
http://www.c2es.org/docUploads/energy-climate-goals-china-twelfth- ve-yearplan.pdf
Share of non-fossil energy use 11.4% 2015

Reduction in energy 15% 2015

consumption per unit of GDP

Australia Greenhouse gas emissions 15% below 2000 2020 2014 Reducing Australia's Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Targets and Progress Review Final Report
40 60% below 2030
80% below 2050 http://www.climatechangeauthority.gov.au/ les/ les/Target-Progress-Review/
Targets%20and%20Progress%20Review%20Final%20Report.pdf

981
U.S. Federal Sector Energy use intensity (site) c 2% annual, 20% total 2005 2015 2005 EPAct 2005 http://energy.gov/sites/prod/ les/2013/10/f3/epact_2005.pdf
reduction
Energy use intensity (site) 3% annual, 30% total 2003 2013 2007 Executive Order 13423
reduction https://www.fedcenter.gov/programs/eo13423/
Energy use (source) and Zero-Net N.A. 2050 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
greenhouse gas emissions www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-110hr6enr/pdf/BILLS-110hr6enr.pdf
Greenhouse gas emissions 25% (Scope 1 and Scope 2008 2020 2010 Executive Order 13514 https://www.fedcenter.gov/programs/eo13514/
2), 8% (Scope 3) below http://www.epa.gov/greeningepa/ghg/requirements.htm
Potable water 2% annual reduction 2007 2020 2009
consumption
Energy use intensity (site) 2.5% annual reduction 2015 2025 2015 Executive Order 13693 d
Clean energy use 25% 2025 2015 https://www.fedcenter.gov/programs/eo13693/
Potable water 2% annual, 36% total 2007 2025 2015
consumption reduction

Selected States in Arkansas Greenhouse gas emissions 20% below 2000 2020 2007
the U.S. 35% below 2025
50% below 2035

California Greenhouse gas emissions Equivalent 2000 2010 2005 Executive Order S 3 05
Equivalent 1990 2020 2005 http://gov.ca.gov/news.php?id=1861
80% below 1990 2050 2005
Greenhouse gas emissions Equivalent 1990 2020 2006 Assembly Bill 32 e
http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/ab32/ab32.htm
Grid-based energy 20% 2003 2018 2012 Executive Order B-18 12
Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993

purchases for Stateowned http://gov.ca.gov/news.php?id=17508

buildings
Colorado Greenhouse gas emissions 20% below 2005 2020 2007 Colorado Climate Action Plan: A Strategy to Address Global Warming
http://www.colorado.gov/governor/images/nee/CO_Climate_Action_Plan.pdf
(continued on next page)
 Table 1 ( continued)

Organization Metrics Goals Baseline Year Target Goal Setting Year Source
N. Wang et al.

Year

Selected States in Connecticut Greenhouse gas emissions 10% below 1990 2020 2008 Public Act No. 08 98, An Act Concerning Global Warming Solutions
the U.S. 80% below 2001 2050 http://www.cga.ct.gov/2008/ACT/PA/2008PA-00098-R00HB-05600-PA.htm Connecticut Climate Change
Action Plan
http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/climatechange/ct_climate_change_action_plan_
2005.pdf
Florida Greenhouse gas emissions Equivalent 2000 2017 2007 Executive Order 07 127
Equivalent 1990 2025 http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/media/enews/2007/pdf/07 127- emissions.pdf
80% below 1990 2050 Florida's Energy and Climate Change Action Plan
http://www.broward.org/NaturalResources/ClimateChange/Documents/ 20071101_ nal_report.pdf

Hawaii Greenhouse gas emissions Equivalent 1990 2020 2007 Act 234, Session Laws of Hawaii 2007
http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/session2007/bills/GM1005_.PDF
Maine Greenhouse gas emissions 10% below 1990 2020 2003 A Climate Action Plan for Maine 2004
http://www.eesi.org/ les/MaineClimateActionPlan2004Volume%201.pdf
Maryland Greenhouse gas emissions 25% below 2006 2020 2009 The 2012 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Act (GGRA) Plan
http://climatechange.maryland.gov/site/assets/ les/1392/mde_ggrp_report.pdf
Massachusetts Greenhouse gas emissions 10% below 1990 2020 2008 Massachusetts Clean Energy and Climate Plan for 2020
http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/eea/energy/2020-clean-energy-plan.pdf

Minnesota Greenhouse gas emissions 15% below 2005 2015 2007 Next Generation Energy Act
30% below 2025 https://www.revisor.mn.gov/data/revisor/slaws/2007/0/136.pdf
80% below 2050

Oregon Greenhouse gas emissions 10% below 1990 2020 2009 House Bill 3543: Global Warming Actions

982
75% below 2050 http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/GBLWRM/pages/HB3543.aspx

Vermont Greenhouse gas emissions 25% below 1990 2012 2007 Title 10: Conservation And Development, Chapter 023: Air Pollution Control
50% below 2028 http://legislature.vermont.gov/statutes/section/10/023/00578

Washington Greenhouse gas emissions Equivalent 1990 2020 2008 Washington Carbon Pollution Accountability Act
25% below 2035 http://www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/docs/
50% below 2050 CarbonPollutionAccountabilityActKeyProvisionsJan2015.pdf
Washington Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Limits
https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/documents/1401006.pdf

Selected Cities in Boston Greenhouse gas emissions 25% 2005 2020 2007 Executive Order: An Order Relative to Climate Action in Boston
the U.S. 80% 2050 http://www.cityofboston.gov/images_documents/Clim_Action_Exec_Or_tcm3
3890.pdf
Greenovate Boston: 2014 Climate Action Plan Update
http://www.cityofboston.gov/images_documents/Greenovat%20Boston
%202014%20CAP%20Update_Summary_tcm3 49733.pdf
Minneapolis Greenhouse gas emissions 15% 2006 2015 2013 Minneapolis Climate Action Plan
http://www.minneapolismn.gov/www/groups/public/@citycoordinator/
documents/webcontent/wcms1p 113598.pdf
New York Greenhouse gas emissions 80% 1990 2050 One City: Build to Last
http://www.nyc.gov/html/builttolast/assets/downloads/pdf/OneCity.pdf

San Francisco Greenhouse gas emissions 20% 1990 2012 2004 Climate Action Plan for San Francisco
80% 2050 http://www.sfenvironment.org/sites/default/ les/ iers/ les/climateactionplan.pdf
Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993

San Francisco Climate Action Strategy (2013 Update)

http://sfenvironment.org/sites/default/ les/engagement_ les/sfe_cc_
ClimateActionStrategyUpdate2013.pdf

(continued on next page)

N. Wang et al. Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993

produced from renewable resources to 20%; a 20% improvement in the EU's energy e ciency. It requires EU countries to establish national plans for renovating overall building stock. In addition, it requires EU countries to renovate at least 3% of the total oor area of buildings owned and occupied by central governments.
Orden Ejecutiva 13514 requiere que las agencias de reducir su intensidad de agua potable en un 2%

the European Commission's 2020 climate and energy package, the Energy E ciency Directive establishes a set of binding measures to help the European Union (EU) meet its 20-20-20 targets: A 20% reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels; raising the share of EU energy consumption
por ao, a travs de fi el ao fiscal 2020, basada en una

http://www.gesustainability.com/building-things-that-matter/energy-and-climate/ ecomagination-ghg-goal/
fi el ao fiscal 2007 la lnea de base. La Agencia de Proteccin Ambiental de Estados Unidos (EPA) ha
desarrollado el programa Green Infraestructura de utilizar la vegetacin, los suelos y los procesos
naturales para gestionar el agua y crear entornos urbanos saludables [60] .

http://www.greenbiz.com/news/2008/05/28/ge-plans-20-percent-cut-water-use2012?src=int
3. visiones pasadas: paradigmas y tendencias de construccin en el ltimo siglo y lecciones

13th Five Year Plan will be announced in early 2016 and is likely to include additional measures to reduce China's greenhouse gas. According to a joint announcement with the United States November 2014, China promised that its total emissions would peak by 2030 [61,62] .
http://www.coca-colacompany.com/setting-a-new-goal-for-water-e ciency aprendidas

Esta seccin resume el impacto de los movimientos en la construccin de diseo y planificacin en

el siglo pasado que se asocia con los grandes cambios sociales, tecnolgicos y medioambientales en los
Estados Unidos. Esta seccin est destinada a dar una idea de cmo los cambios tecnolgicos y sociales
en Florida uida edificios. Una revisin de los paradigmas de construccin con el tiempo nos ayuda a
https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/49989

entender cmo la gente se imaginaba que el diseo, la tecnologa y los estilos de vida podra cambiar
mientras que la bsqueda de soluciones a sus problemas inmediatos. Mediante la comprensin de los
California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 requires the Air Resources Board to adopt a statewide greenhouse gas emissions limit equivalent to the statewide greenhouse gas emissions levels in 1990, to be achieved by 2020. paradigmas del pasado ' propuestas y contexto, se pueden evitar los errores del pasado mientras se
mueve hacia adelante.
Climate Action Plan

3.1. Finales de los aos 19 y principios del siglo 20: El pensamiento utpico para proteger medio
Source

ambiente de vida durante las revoluciones industriales y agrcolas

use intensity is calculated by dividing the total energy consumed by a building in one year (measured in GJ or kBtu) by the total gross oor area of the building (measured in square meters or square feet).

La segunda revolucin industrial (1870 - 1914) ofreci subterrneas

Goal Setting Year

rompiendo inventos que mejoraron fundamentalmente el papel de la tecnologa en nuestras vidas y

en edificios [63] . La produccin en masa del acero y la invencin de los elevadores accionados y
sistemas de aire acondicionado, entre otras cosas, impuls la construccin de rascacielos y edificios
2014
2015

2004

2008

2004

nuevos, ms grandes [64,65] . Una consecuencia inesperada de edificios cada vez ms alto y la
prestacin de mejores servicios se increment el consumo de energa, lo cual no era una
preocupacin en el siglo 20. Aunque el efecto invernadero e ff ect era fi primero publicado por un
cientfico sueco en 1896
2050
2030

2015
2020
2012

2020
Year

[66] , La venida calentamiento por efecto invernadero no recibi la atencin mundial hasta CO 2 en la
Baseline Year Target

atmsfera se midi en 1,960 [67] con tcnicas mejoradas y clculos.

Desde la dcada de 1890 a la dcada de 1920, el movimiento City Beautiful [68] , el

1990

2004
2011
2008

2010

movimiento Garden City [8] Y la Unidad de Barrio [6] eran representativos respuestas a los cambios
rpidos en las ciudades y las condiciones ambientales 8 ( la contaminacin, las condiciones de trabajo
peligrosas, etc.). desarrolladores de la comunidad no previeron que estos modelos de autocontencin,
muy alejada de los centros urbanos, contribuiran a comunidades fragmentadas, cada uno exigiendo la
expansin de la infraestructura de servicios pblicos y redes de transporte. La reconstruccin despus
de la Primera Guerra Mundial fue un catalizador para el intercambio internacional, incluyendo el
80% below

crecimiento de la arquitectura moderna y la planificacin de la ciudad [69] . Desde la ciudad utpica de

Bruno Taut, en el que los espacios urbanos perfectamente estructuradas coexisten en armona con la
Goals

20%
20%

25%

naturaleza [70,71] , A las mquinas modulares de vida de Le Corbusier [9] , Estas visiones intentaron
Greenhouse gas emissions 40% below

borrar los problemas urbanos mediante el diseo de ciudades y edificios nuevos enteras con un total
Water efficiency in manufacturing
Greenhouse gas emissions 25%

desprecio por el pasado [69] .

Global water use

operation

3.2. mediados del siglo 20: la tecnologa centrada en el pensamiento para apoyar el crecimiento de
Metrics

Order 13693 revokes Executive Orders 13423, 13514.

posguerra habilitado por el aumento de la produccin en masa

El auge econmico de la mitad del siglo 20 (1945 - 1960) 9 dado lugar a un crecimiento sin precedentes en

reas urbanas y suburbanas. Si bien la mejora de correo FFI eficiencia y reduccin de costos, el sistema de

produccin en masa no era Florida lo suficientemente flexible para responder a los problemas que origin o
General Electric
Organization

nuevos que surgieron. desarrollo de la construccin depender de estas tecnologas de produccin masiva se
Coca Cola
Portland

reuni

8 El movimiento City Beautiful introdujo beauti fi cacin y la grandeza monumental en ciudades. El movimiento
Garden City propuso planeado, comunidades autnomas rodeadas de cinturones verdes, que contiene reas
Table 1 ( continued)

Corporations

proporcionales de residencias, la industria y la agricultura. La Unidad de Barrio creado autnomos barrios

d Executive

residenciales que promueven un estilo de vida centrado en la comunidad, lejos del ruido y la contaminacin de las
c Energy
Selected

fbricas.
b The

e The
a In

9 Algunas fuentes consideran este boom que dur hasta principios de 1970.

983
N. Wang et al.
(E inducida) la demanda del consumidor, pero alsomass producido nuevos problemas. Por ejemplo, la
produccin masiva de automviles mejor la movilidad y tambin facilit la expansin de un estilo
suburbano dependiente del automvil del desarrollo. Si bien la creacin de oportunidades de vivienda y
suelo para la mayora de los hogares, las consecuencias de la expansin, como los largos
desplazamientos diarios y costosos, la vida de la comunidad debilitados, y el suministro desigual de los
bienes y servicios pblicos, surgieron en la mitad del siglo 20 [72,73] . Las prdidas de poblacin en muchas
ciudades de Estados Unidos alcanz su punto mximo despus de que el censo de 1950 [74] . Las
desventajas sociales y el despilfarro de un punto de vista econmico de la expansin urbana reciben ms
atencin que el mayor consumo de energa y las emisiones de carbono asociadas.
el desarrollo tecnolgico en la mitad del siglo 20 desata la creatividad arquitectnica. Los
ejemplos incluyen de Archigram Plug-in City [75] , Casa del Futuro de Monsanto [76] , 10 y Dymaxion de
Buckminster Fuller 11 mundo, donde la accin racional produce el mayor posible e FFI deficiencia en
los diseos de estructuras, edificios y automviles [77,78] . Estos intentos se basaron en nuevas
tecnologas para ampliar nuestros edificios y ciudades. Estas fueron las reacciones principalmente
tcnicas para el crecimiento. Los impactos sociales o ambientales de los paradigmas de diseo
propuestos no estaban claros. Muchos centradas en la tecnologa, visiones ambiciosas en este
periodo apenas se dieron cuenta debido a su desconexin con el mundo real o la falta de escala
humana. Por ejemplo, despus de vehculo autnomo se concibieron en 1940 [79] , La tecnologa
tom ms de 40 aos para ser probados con xito y otros 30 aos para ser permitido para su uso. 12 Mientras
que un reto pensamiento convencional y explorar caminos innovadores, muchas soluciones
tecnolgicas no crearon soluciones integradas para abordar los aspectos no tcnicos de las
condiciones de vida. Por desgracia, los problemas sociales, culturales, econmicos, ambientales y
rara vez invocan la ciencia y la tecnologa como soluciones.
3.3. Finales del siglo 20: el pensamiento sostenible despus de las crisis energticas y econmicas
El auge econmico de la mitad del siglo 20 fue recibida por la crisis energtica y se asocia crisis
econmica de la dcada de 1970. el declive industrial y el estancamiento econmico condujo a una
cada dramtica para las grandes ciudades norteamericanas, como la Ciudad de Nueva York [81] .
Ms gente continu movindose de centros de las ciudades a los suburbios, posiblemente por los
barrios ms limpios, ms seguros [73] . A pesar de la expansin continu despus de 1970, la tasa se
ha desacelerado [74] . Al mismo tiempo, hubo un reconocimiento generalizado de los lmites de
depender del petrleo para estimular un mayor desarrollo. Ms discusiones se llevaron a cabo sobre
los impactos del desarrollo de enfoques existentes en los seres humanos, ambientes y economas en
el futuro. Esto represent un cambio importante en el pensamiento, en la conciencia de los
problemas inminentes en Florida uida enfoques de desarrollo actual.
los Florida AWS del paradigma de crecimiento en el siglo 20 y se realizaron las llamadas se hicieron
para crear un nuevo orden mundial [82 - 85] . La atencin se desplaz de paradigmas de diseo
exclusivamente centrado en la mejora de la calidad de vida a travs de una mayor comodidad a los que
tambin se considera cmo los impactos ambientales podran una ff ect calidad de vida. La Ley de Aire
Limpio [86] y la Ley de Agua Limpia [87] se pasaron en 1970 y 1972, respectivamente, para hacer frente a
la contaminacin en el aire y en las vas fluviales. Durante este perodo,
10 Archigram previ una ciudad construida como una superestructura masiva de apoyo vainas estandarizados, cada
uno con su propia funcin (por ejemplo, residencias, empresas). Pasar de una ciudad a otra implicara la simple
eliminacin de las vainas de uno de una superestructura e insertndolo en otra. Casa del Futuro de Monsanto - una
atraccin de Disneyland 1957-1967 - mostraron futuro prototipo de casa que fue construida a partir de las alas de plstico
fabricados y podra ser rpidamente ensamblado.
11 La palabra dymaxion es un acrnimo de las palabras dinmico, mxima, y la tensin. Fue utilizado por
Buckminster Fuller por su trabajo como Dymaxion House y Dymaxion Car [80] .
12 En la magia autopistas, publicado en 1940, Bel Geddes, que dise el Pabelln de General Motors - Futurama - para la
Feria Mundial de Nueva York 1939, predijo vehculo autnomo en el camino en 20 aos. pionero alemn Ernst Dickmanns
y su equipo construyeron una furgoneta Mercedes-Benz robtico que podra funcionar de forma automtica en 62
kilmetros (39 millas) por hora en las carreteras (calles vacas) en la dcada de 1980. El estado de Nevada aprob una ley
en 2011 que autoriza el funcionamiento del vehculo autnomo en el estado a partir de 2012.
Opiniones de Energa Renovable y Sostenible 82 (2018) 976-993
visionarios comenzaron a desarrollar puntos de vista holsticos de las implicaciones ambientales del
entorno construido y la exploracin de soluciones factibles a travs del desarrollo de uso mixto. Por
ejemplo, el nuevo urbanismo en la dcada de 1980 y los Principios Ahwahnee en la dcada de 1990 [88]
buscado la sostenibilidad ambiental, la prosperidad econmica y la equidad social en edificios y
ciudades. El Consejo de Construccin Verde de Estados Unidos fue establecida en 1993 [89] y el
Instituto Casa Pasiva (Passivehaus-Institut) fue fundada en 1996 [90,91] .
En contraste con el auge en el pensamiento sostenible, mejoras reales en edificios llegaron de
forma incremental. O FF tecnologas the-shelf tales como materiales verdes y alta-e FFI sistemas
HVAC ciencia continan ponerse al da con los visionarios ' intencin sostenible. La gran mayora de
los promotores y constructores no han adoptado plenamente estrategias sostenibles y energa e FFI tecnologas
carenciales. A menudo se basan en tendencias histricas y tcnicas convencionales para desarrollar
y construir edificios porque tienen miedo de que el exceso de la innovacin o el cambio puede hacer
que pierdan su clientela [76] . La libre empresa, como se esperaba, se ha creado un mercado de la
construccin que es el mejor en servir a las demandas existentes.
3.4. Las lecciones aprendidas de las ltimas tendencias y paradigmas de construccin
Los cambios derivados de la construccin de movimientos pasados y visiones, la urbanizacin y
la expansin, y el aumento de consumo de energa se resumen en Fig. 6 . La energa se utiliza como
una lente para revisar los paradigmas de construccin pasados y actuales. La energa es un
componente bsico para que los servicios de construccin en todas partes y proporcionar un
ambiente interior seguro, cmodo y saludable. El aumento de la demanda de energa asociada con la
poblacin y el crecimiento econmico y los impactos ambientales de la energa de combustibles
fsiles a producir energa un hilo comn en el desarrollo moderno edificio.
3.4.1. desarrollo de la construccin ha sido en gran parte reaccionaria
desarrollo de la construccin reaccion a las nuevas tecnologas, tales como la transferencia de
xitos de fabricacin de otros sectores (como el metal y la produccin de automviles) en edificios.
Reaccion a las necesidades y deseos del cliente - de un automvil y un pedazo de tierra a un
ambiente interior confortable independientemente de las condiciones exteriores e incluyendo
aparatos domsticos innumerables. el consumo de energa asociado no estaba en el orden del da
hasta las crisis energticas de la dcada de 1970. Sin la gua de una visin integrada a largo plazo,
el desarrollo reaccionaria (por ejemplo, exclusivamente dirigido a los consumidores o impulsada por
la tecnologa) puede producir consecuencias que pueden tomar dcadas para remediar.
3.4.2. Muchas de las ltimas visiones fueron impulsados por una sola motivacin o la filosofa
Estas visiones singulares menudo resuelven un problema al crear nuevos problemas e
ignorando otros. Por ejemplo, la segregacin de una ciudad por la funcin tena la intencin de
mejorar la entornos de vida y de trabajo sino que tambin cre distritos abandonados y tra FFI c
congestin. La produccin en masa estaba destinado a proporcionar una ff Asequibles los servicios y
todas las comodidades para todos, pero tambin trajo problemas ambientales y el aumento de la
energa y el uso de la tierra. En resumen, estos enfoques condujeron a soluciones marginales que
crearon problemas adicionales, lo que provoc nuevas soluciones marginales.
3.4.3. Edificios a menudo han sido estudiados en trminos de espacio, pero no en trminos de tiempo [93]
La naturaleza evolutiva de la industria de la construccin se ralentiza la ejecucin de un
paradigma visionario. En vez de considerar el ciclo de vida de los edificios, los diseadores suelen
centrarse nicamente en el uso inicial de los edificios. Los edificios son generalmente considerados
como uno-o ff Se espera que los proyectos y que al pasar por muchas dcadas de uso. Por un lado,
las normas de construccin dejan poco espacio para la experimentacin y muchos desarrolladores
son reacios a probar nuevas cosas debido a la lenta respuesta de los edificios existentes. Esto
desalienta a la implementacin de nuevas tecnologas o materiales, excepto los que se conocen y
probado. En el otro
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Fig. 6. Summary of representative building movements and visions in the U.S. in the past century. ( Sources: EIA Annual Energy Review
2011 [31] ; The World Bank [92] )
parte, los resultados de diseo no se miden de forma sistemtica. Los estudios de casos a menudo
tienen situaciones y caractersticas nicas. Son di FFI cult to compare with one another to identify
trends and patterns, or to conclusively establish successes or failures. Sustainable buildings
emphasize long-term bene ts. The next generation technologies often lack adequate real-world data
to demonstrate their positive impacts when they are compared to the existing, proven technologies.
Without such feedback the building community has not been able to capitalize on past experience.
3.4.4. Many visions in response to the sustainability movement did not yield scalable solutions
The reluctance of market players and slow building stock turnaround resulted in a gap between a
few exemplary buildings and the majority of new buildings. Through exemplary buildings, architects or
building owners created a style, made a statement, tested an idea, or conveyed a vision. In the case
of other buildings, priority was mainly given to economically accommodating physical or market needs
and delivering the project via a known development method or process. To reach the goal of
sustainability, we need channels to deploy new technologies (such as zero-net-energy buildings) at
scale and rethink economic growth beyond the traditional sense, which is often based on near-term
payback.
4. Current trends: building paradigms and technology development in the 21st century
This section reviews some of the popular design philosophies at the time of writing. Based on
this design thinking and these perspectives, various design approaches have been experimented with
to explore a built environment that can support a more sustainable and resilient built and natural
environment. The current development of building technologies are also discussed to identify the
trends and potentials to shift building paradigm in the next century.
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4.1. 21st century perspectives: sustainability, resilience and community-level solutions
4.1.1. Sustainability: continuing battle of long-term value and nearterm cost
Current design trends and visions have shifted toward a philosophy that natural resources are nite
but reusable, in the same way that ecosystems can regenerate and renew themselves. Cradle-to-cradle
thinking posits that the economic systems, in which buildings and consumer products are important
components, should be reusable
[94] . The power to transform the existing open-loop systems into these more sustainable forms is
beyond the scope of individual consumers
[95] . To create an ecosystem in commerce, consumers should see value in the secondary and
repurposed goods (the meaning of which is broader than existing trading of used or refurbished
products) and make purchases accordingly. This would require product prices to re ect true costs,
such as monetized environmental impacts during manufacture and disposal.
The past decade has seen enormous global growth in building evaluation programs and
standards focused on sustainable building and product development [96 106] . The certi cation
systems all cover multiple aspects of buildings, including site, water, energy, indoor environmental
quality, and materials. Although the value of sustainable buildings has gained recognition over time,
the market for buildings has not yet captured the complete cost of ownership or the external cost of
products and services. Buying decisions are made based on location, size, amenities, and aesthetics
all important with no way to compare other risks or values. Unlike appliances or automobiles, which
have standard labels informing consumers of their energy or fuel e ciencies, buildings lack
standardizedmetrics that help buyers or tenants distinguish between the operating costs of two
buildings with similar amenities. EPA's ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager and the DOE Asset Score [107]
are providing solutions to some extent. City ordinances that require building energy use information
disclosure and benchmarking are an important step to add energy e ciency to building owners value
proposition [108] . However, there is still a long way to go before a comprehensive value system is well
established in the marketplace.
N. Wang et al.
No cost-e ective systems exist for the vast majority of buildings. Small commercial buildings and
residential buildings are a critical, but largely underserved, market for resource e ciency. The current
focus for performance measurement is on Class A 13 commercial buildings, or already certi ed green
buildings. Smaller buildings are often in the Class B or C categories; these buildings rarely have
designated energy managers. For e ciency gains in such a market, where savings are marginal but
transaction costs are high, the traditional reliance on utility rebates to improve equipment e ciency is
not su cient.
4.1.2. Resilience: rising needs to decrease vulnerabilities
Resilience as a building attribute is gaining ground in the AEC (i.e., architecture, engineering,
construction) industry. Desired features include remaining livable without any utilities (passive
survivability), protecting life during an extreme event, and quickly recovering after the event. Resilient
architecture is designed to withstand or respond to the natural, social, and economic vulnerabilities of
its site [109] . Some buildings may be designed to withstand natural disasters such as hurricanes,
earthquakes, or oods or to act as gathering hubs that maintain comfortable indoor conditions during
extreme heat or cold. Resilient buildings may serve as utility bridges or generators when public
infrastructure is damaged. Resilient architecture is durable without being ecologically damaging.
Resilient design not only means hardening structures against wind, ood, re, blast, and earthquake,
but also includes alleviating the con ict between the built environment and natural environment.
Several other design philosophies, such as regenerative architecture [110 112] , biomimicry [113 116] ,
and biophilia [117 119] , are exploring ways to learn from nature.
4.1.3. District-scale solutions: smart buildings and cities empowered by information technologies
District-level (community- or urban-scale) strategies provide more opportunities to foster
integrated environmental, social, and economical solutions that cannot be achieved in a singular
building. Solutions to a sustainable and resilient built environment may be more e ective at the
community or even city scale. For example, the goal of net zero energy may not be applicable to all
buildings due to the limitations of their geographic locations, orientation, tree cover, available roof
areas, and energy demand associated with building functions. A net-zeroenergy campus,
neighborhood, or community may be more feasible, although this requires supporting infrastructure
and transaction platforms. The United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals for 2016
2030 [120] include a goal explicitly related to urban development to
make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. The concept of an
eco-district has evolved to mean regions with associated metrics for reducing environmental impacts
on the planet. The Ecodistricts organization seeks to o er a reusable protocol for sustainable
neighborhood-scale development, and provide models for evaluation and monitoring [121] .
Cities largely rely on centralized networks for energy, water, and other supplies. A totally
centralized utility network makes cities and buildings vulnerable to power outages, extreme weather,
and other catastrophic events. A centralized supply model completely separates generation from
consumption. While making the production-end more e cient, this model also adds energy
consumption to the delivery systems. Decentralized networks for generation and delivery of energy
and other building services can provide complementary solutions. However, their development is
constrained by the high upfront costs of extensive infrastructure. The existing centralized systems
have been built and developed over time, with their costs being amortized.
13 According to the Building Owners and Managers Association International, Class A refers to the most prestigious
buildings competing for premier o ce users with rents above average for the area. Buildings have high quality
standard nishes, state-of-the-art systems, exceptional accessibility and a de nite market presence ( http://www.boma.org/
research/Pages/building-class-de nitions.aspx ).
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Compared with the costs of building new, more e cient infrastructure, the delivery costs of using the
current, less e cient infrastructure are insigni cant. For example, energy and water costs seem small
compared to other costs related to an organization's (or a family's) primary activities. Transportation
or commuting from building to building is often considered a city planning issue that is beyond building
solutions once a building site is located. This separation of responsibility dilutes potential demand for
integrated solutions that can take advantage of both centralized and distributed supply networks.
The rapidly growing model of a sharing economy (such as product service systems,
redistribution markets, and collaborative lifestyles)
[122] empowered by information technology and social media has provided new means for
information and resource distribution. New ways (i.e., online markets) have been created for people to
learn about and access resources. The current sharing and online trading are limited to consumer
products and individual labor. However, the changing consumer preference from owning to sharing
may drive a more fundamental change in how buildings and their services are owned and provided in
cities. Anecdotal evidence [123 125] indicates that the new generation has a di erent view of
ownership (or sharing) and values a greater sense of community.
New modes of transportation empowered by service on demand (such as shared rides) and
crowd source solutions (such as real-time tra c reports) are examples of sharing to improve e ciency
and reduce costs. Tra c congestion and the cost of extra time and fuel had grown worse in areas of
every size from 1982 to 2011 [126] . Transportation innovations, such as connected and autonomous
vehicle technologies, advanced tra c and freight management systems, integrated payment
platforms, and on-demand services, have illustrated the potential for safer, cleaner, and more e cient
transportation systems [127] . New modes of transportation will not only a ect urban transport, but
also building design and planning and associated land use, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas
emissions. Electric vehicles o er a potential role as energy storage systems for buildings, and
increased operational accuracy of autonomous vehicles may allow narrow roads and design of more
compact parking structures and lots
[128] . Sharing vehicles and parking spaces can also reduce land and building use for parking. These
leave more space in cities for pedestrians, cyclists, and landscape. More livable city centers that can
accommodate more residents can potentially reduce urban sprawl and improve the overall e ciency
of land use and city infrastructures.
Big Data (high-volume, high-velocity, and high-variety information) provides a means to better
understand how cities work and improve their overall e ciency. A wide range of issues, including
those in buildings, can be remedied through restructuring the sea of data and investigating how
various factors (environment, energy, tra c, etc.) may interact with one another [129] . Big Data from
a variety of device sensors (e.g., building sensors, grid sensors, meteorological sensors, pollution
sensors, sensors on smart phones and vehicles, tra c cameras, inductive sensors) can be integrated
with the transactional, social, and location data generated by people to create a network of intelligent
cities, hospitals, roads, and factories [130] . A recent report from Frost and Sullivan [131] concludes
that the smart buildings market will evolve, relying on technologies such as IoT (Internet of Things),
cloud computing, Big Data, and data analytics.
4.2. Building technologies
Buildings in the U.S. account for about 40% of the primary energy use and 76% of electricity use.
Primary energy in buildings is used for space heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (35%); lighting
(11%); major appliances (18%); and other miscellaneous loads such as electronics (36%) [132] . Fig. 7
shows the energy reduction potentials by comparing energy use in the current commercial and
residential buildings to that in three scenarios of buildings with more e cient equipment required by
federal standards, certi ed by EPA as ENERGY STAR products or
N. Wang et al.
Residential End Use Equipment Efficiency
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Efficiency Index (Base
Efficiency = 1)
End Use Heating (Gas)
Heating (Elec.)
Cooling Refrigeration
Stock Federal Energy
Minimum Star
Efficiency Scenario
Fig. 7. Energy reduction potentials in current residential and commercial buildings.
equivalent [133] , and operated at theoretical e ciency limits. There are still abundant energy saving
opportunities [132] .
4.2.1. Building envelope
Today the majority of buildings in the U.S. are still those built prior to 2010. This trend is
expected to continue even past the year 2035
[134] . Retro tting existing buildings often requires di erent, more challenging technologies at di erent
price points than the energye cient technologies that can be used for new buildings. Because
envelope retro ts are ongoing and slow, they will likely still be challenging in 100 years unless
construction and retro tting methods signi cantly change. There has been much discussion on how to
make deep energy renovation cost e ective [135] ; little attention has been given to how to design
envelope components in consideration of future retro ts. If in the future new buildings are constructed
in a way that makes retro tting the envelope easier and cheaper, it may be possible to update
building envelopes more consistently and in coordination with building equipment to yield more
optimized building systems.
4.2.2. Advanced materials
Advanced materials have always been important to improving building performance, especially
building envelopes. Applications of nanomaterials for buildings take advantage of the ability to
manipulate surface properties at the nanoscale [136 139] . R&D on advanced materials is also
exploring new ways to assemble materials. For example, an increase in modular buildings can help
ensure construction quality (such as envelope thermal performance) and consistency. Additive
manufacturing, or 3D printing, technology is another novel assembly method. The cost and energy
use of 3D printing are still uncertain, especially at the scale of an entire building, so it is too early to
predict whether 3D printing would be used for actual construction at volume in the future rather than
for prototyping new design concepts. However, with 3D modeling and printing and other tools, it may
be possible to develop a new work ow that can move geometrically complex designs from
engineering to construction. Additive manufacturing not only simpli es translation from the design to
the construction phases, but also opens up opportunities for innovative strategies, such as fusing the
structure and the enclosure into a single component, building programmable materials that can
respond to moisture, sunlight, or temperature and change and transform in useful ways
[140,141] .
4.2.3. Heating and cooling systems
Conventional systems (such as condensing boilers, gas- red water heaters, vapor-compression
cooling) with improved e ciencies over time will continue to be the dominant technologies to meet
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 976993
Commercial End Use Equipment Efficiency
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Efficiency Index (Base
Efficiency =1)
End Use Heating (Gas)
Heating (Elec.)
Cooling Refrigeration
Thermo. Stock Federal Energy Thermo.
Limit Minimum Star Limit
Efficiency Scenario
heating and cooling needs [142] . To achieve the ambitious goal of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions by over 75%, it is critical to eliminate fossil fuel and electric resistance heaters for space
conditioning and water heating, respectively. Particular attention should be paid to the development of
low global warming potential HVAC and refrigeration systems based either on the incumbent
vapor-compression cycle or on emerging non-vapor-compression systems [143 145] .
4.2.4. Sensors and controls
Advanced controls and automated fault detection and diagnostics can result in signi cant energy
and cost savings by monitoring and correcting for conditions that a ect system performance.
Additionally, an energy-e cient future is partially driven by simpli cation of climate control and
communications [146] . Human-in-the-loop control strategies also have the potential to move building
control schemes beyond the typically over-simpli ed representation of occupant comfort and actions
to enable real-time feedback on individual-level occupant presence and/or comfort via a local sensing
infrastructure [147,148] . Incorporating human feedback or remote sensor input into building controls
and operations can potentially save energy by not providing unneeded lighting, heating, or cooling
energy. Recent literature suggests signi cant energy savings and comfort improvements are possible
[149 156] .
4.2.5. Lighting and appliances
Energy reduction opportunities with the fastest payback come from e ciency improvements in
appliances and lighting [49] . Although large appliances (such as televisions, refrigerators, clothes
washers and dryers) have become more e cient, the energy savings are o set by growth in
ownership. The R&D focus in this area includes integrated advanced daylighting and solid state
lighting solutions, advanced appliance technologies (such as heat pump clothes dryers, vacuum
insulated refrigerators [157] ), and smart appliances and lighting systems that can communicate with
and respond to signals from the utility grid. Profound performance and cost advances are anticipated
in both light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), such that LEDs are
forecast to account for the majority of installations in the U.S. by 2030 [158] .
4.3. Energy infrastructures and systems
The IEA envisions that the energy system of the future will integrate the sources of and
requirements for energy from all parts of the energy systems [ 49] , p. 29. For example, the
transportation and buildings sectors are connected by electric vehicle charging; cogeneration,
combined heat and power, and various renewable energy
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resources integrate the buildings and industrial sectors. More discussions and goal-setting activities
have been focused on the electric grid and its integration with buildings. Similar opportunities likely
exist for other utilities such as water and natural gas, but are less discussed in the buildings
community, apart from the water-use reduction goals discussed in Section 3 .
4.3.1. Buildings-grid integration
Much research has focused on using smart grid capabilities to enable the interconnection of
building automation and control systems with electric utilities. With only 10% participation, the
potential nationwide bene t of demand dispatch between buildings and the grid (and within buildings)
could be several billion dollars per year in reduced energy costs [159] . Despite this potential, most
buildings are not yet able to transact with the grid. To realize the full potential of a grid-integrated
future, buildings and the grid will need to interact in ways not yet commonplace. Development of
grid-responsive technologies requires improving the ability of buildings to collect and process
occupancy and environmental information, predict energy use, and adjust and balance energy use
based on grid signals. Transactive controls are required to facilitate seamless interaction and
communication within buildings sensors and controllable systems and between buildings and the grid
[40] . This will create an electricity system better equipped to use widespread renewable generation to
meet energy demand and capacity requirements, with end uses playing a signi cant role in balancing
the grid.
4.3.2. Interoperability
Advanced interoperability for integration of intelligent building equipment and systems is
essential to a truly integrated energy network. The landscape for connected buildings interoperability
is complex and includes interactions between a building and its internal operations, interactions
among a community of buildings, interactions with building service providers, interactions with energy
market service providers, and interactions with energy distribution system operations
[160] . The state of the art for integrating connected equipment is quickly advancing.
Network-embedded sensors and actuators and a wealth of software services (collectively, the Internet
of Things) are intended to enable devices to achieve higher functionality through connectivity and
coordination with one another and with the grid. IoT requires reevaluation of system boundaries, as
applications need to process data from more devices. Data are translated to knowledge and then to
control strategies, which will enable intelligent systems. Challenges include the large-scale
infrastructure (product provisioning) to support IoT, connectivity of big data from di erent devices
(sometimes with con icting interests), data processing and visualization, and data protection (privacy
and security). Building owners and product vendors are concerned about sharing building information
and giving building controls to outside parties due to perceived risk, sensitive data, and protection of
intellectual property [161] . Security issues need to be addressed through combinations of robust
security technologies, e ective policies, and easy implementation.
4.3.3. Decentralized energy services
Decentralization of energy generation is also a trend. Through municipalization, 14 cities can
purchase and run their own utility grid. Ongoing high-pro le municipalization e orts such as those in
Boulder, Santa Fe, and Hamburg (Germany) are building awareness about how decentralization can
work. Micro-municipalization is another trend, wherein customers can leave the grid and have their
power come from
14 Municipalization is the process by which a community assumes the control of its electrical generation
(cleanenergyaction.org/learn-more/municipalization/). Most states have municipalization laws that give a municipality
the right to establish or acquire an electric system to serve customers or the residents and businesses within the
municipal corporate limits [161] .
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a local source, such as a hospital or nearby campus. Other trends, such as bifurcation of generation, 15
convergence of electricity and natural gas markets [165] , combined heat and power [163] , and
growing prevalence of rooftop solar [164] are adding complexity to electric grid operations. These
changes and challenges also provide potential opportunity to create new solutions and enhance
system resilience. Despite these movements toward decentralization, it is still unclear how
investments by customers in distributed generation and utilities can best align to increase the
resilience and reliability of the system as a whole. Without a clear solution, opposition by centralized
utilities (e.g., because of an unstable grid, loss of valuable customers, disruption of utility cost
structure) will create a barrier for these decentralization e orts [186] .
4.3.4. Energy storage
Increased renewable generation can produce electricity temporarily in excess of the grid
demand, challenging the existing grid energy storage capability. Utility-scale development of new
electric energy storage technologies has not kept pace with the advent of variable renewable
generation [166] . In contrast, customer-sited, behind-themeter energy storage is on the rise. With
utility incentives and reduced peak demand, an optimally sized behind-the-meter storage system can
o er optimal payback periods of less than 3 years in some cases [167] . Electrical energy storage,
typically in batteries, can provide resilience in the event of grid disruptions, and thermal energy
storage can provide thermal comfort while time-shifting the demand from the grid. Thermal energy
can be stored as cooling capacity in chilled water or ice systems, as thermal mass in the building
structure itself, or in other ways to enhance e ciency as well. For example, in commercial buildings in
swing (or even winter) seasons, heat rejected from the cooling systems in the afternoon can provide
heat for unoccupied heating and morning warm-up [168] . Capturing this waste heat and dispatching it
in coordination with grid needs would reduce the use of fossil fuels and conserve electricity. The
savings may be small for a single building, but the impact increases across multiple buildings or at
grid scale.
4.4. Human factors in buildings
Human factors have always been a critical but challenging component in building development.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change building report points out that in addition to
technologies and architecture, behavior, lifestyle, and culture have a major e ect on buildings energy
use, presently causing 3 5 times di erences in energy use for similar levels of energy services [ 169] ,
p.
6. Building system design traditionally focuses on indoor environmental quality, including thermal
conditions, air quality, and lighting, among others. More studies reveal the importance of occupant
satisfaction, productivity, health, and wellbeing; however, implications from case studies have not
yielded systematic design practice that can generate universally measurable outcomes.
4.4.1. Comfort
Building design for occupants is generally concerned with creating comfortable indoor
environmental quality conditions that support speci c occupant behaviors. A building system
performance metric, such as temperature set-point [170] , ventilation rate [171] , or illuminance level
[172] is mainly used as a proxy for occupant satisfaction or a comfort provision. However, comfort
standards are derived from group-level laboratory data and may not re ect the full range of individual
comfort zones that is typically found in a real-world building.
15 Bifurcation of generation refers to the emerging split of generation between bulk transmission-connected
generation and smaller distribution-connected generation, such as rooftop solar PV, combined heat and power, and
microgrid generation [162] .
N. Wang et al.
4.4.2. Productivity
Many studies have shown that sustainable building practices signi cantly
increase occupant satisfaction and productivity
[173,174] . The productivity bene ts from more e cient and comfortable buildings, and vice versa,
however have not been fully revealed and quanti ed. The challenge is that productivity was not
consistently de ned and measured in case studies. The self-reported occupant bene ts based on
one-o case studies may occur under speci c contexts. Therefore, it is di cult to generalize a
universally applicable approach that can guarantee outcomes with high con dence. Without a
consistent way to measure and track productivity, potential productivity bene ts are not yet generally
considered in conventional economic calculations that drive building design and operation choices [175]
. focused and do not consider the interdependency of energy with these other factors.
4.4.3. Health
Building construction, renovation, and operations not only consume resources (energy, raw
materials, water), but also directly and indirectly produce greenhouse gases, land ll waste, and
pollution (SO 2,
airborne particulates). Health threats include cumulative impacts on vulnerable groups (young, old,
chronically ill, and poor), societal system failures (food, water, power), and emergence of diseases
(shifting ranges, lack of immunity and preparedness) [176] . Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
improving air quality has been shown to improve public health [177] . Safe building materials are an
important aspect of healthy buildings. The Living Future Institute developed a Red List [178] representing
materials, chemicals, and elements known to pose serious risk to human health and the greater
ecosystem and Declare program [179] to create transparency of construction materials and provide a
healthy materials database for building design. The main barrier is economic-based decision making.
Comprehensive estimates of the expected bene ts and costs to society (social net bene ts) have
been included in the federal budgeting process since 1992 [180] . However, evaluation of health bene ts
in building development is still in its infancy. Facility Innovations Towards Wellness Environment
Leadership (FITWEL) [181] and the WELL Building Standard [182] are examples of attempts to
measure features of the built environment that a ect human health and wellbeing.
Because the relationship between occupants and buildings is complex, it is di cult to manage
and measure the processes behind this relationship [183] . Yet, understanding this human-building
interaction is necessary to producing high-performance buildings. The vast majority of buildings don t
work as designed, so only having information about the characteristics as designed tells one little
about what needs attention to improve actual indoor air quality and performance
[184] . Greater capabilities for real-time feedback on the individual occupant level, enabled through
human-in-the-loop approaches as described in Section 4.2 , can reduce the gap between building
design intent and real operational outcomes.
5. Summary
Developing a vision for typical U.S. buildings roughly a century from today requires examining
historical building paradigms as well as current and projected future conditions for climate, population,
energy, and water consumption. Tracing back to the late 19th century, we investigated three distinct
eras and building trends: the Second Industrial Revolution and self-contained community planning,
postwar growth and technology-oriented solutions, and energy crisis and sustainable thinking. We
compared the major social, technical, and environmental challenges in each era to the prevailing
design paradigms and building movements of that era. Study of past visions revealed both positive
and negative gaps between actual and intended outcomes in each era. The positive gaps re ected
how buildings evolve naturally; the negative ones revealed the common pitfalls.
A review of past visions and current trends for built environments is intended to inform the
development of an integrated vision that
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describes not only how energy is generated and consumed in buildings, but how that energy use is
intertwined with water consumption, human health and productivity, resilience, security, and other
factors. It identi es gaps in the existing visions and goals for buildings and discusses the possible
reasons why some visions did not work out as hoped. Current building visions and commitments were
reviewed as they in uence the sense of what is presently needed. The pressing problems in buildings
that need solutions now may become barriers to implementing a long-term vision if not properly
addressed. A successful vision of the future should acknowledge the priorities of the era and support
solutions to current problems, provide unbiased views representing the common bene ts of all
building stakeholders, and be built on the existing knowledge and wisdom and foresee changes and
future evolutions. Existing goals for energy and/or carbon emission reductions tend to be narrowly
As buildings become more complex and connected, building design and operation are involving
more than just the traditional individual decision makers. If buildings are made of many pieces, a
clearer understanding of how those pieces t together will ensure buildings perform better. An
integrated view of the links and hierarchies between the various aspects of buildings will help the
building community create harmonious solutions. A fully integrated vision includes the technical,
economic, societal, and environmental aspects of building design, construction, and operation. It
means that various stakeholders (building owners, occupants, utility operators, nanciers, etc.) will be
able to communicate more e ectively within and outside their groups. It also means that systems
within and across buildings will be able to communicate e ectively, and that buildings will be aware of
their surrounding environment. A fully integrated paradigm would include occupants in the building
vision while also considering the building's place in the community. It would also include an
understanding of how all of these factors t together.
Building design has begun the shift toward a more forward-looking process. The contemporary
green movement is increasingly employing environmentally responsible and resource-e cient
approaches throughout a building's life-cycle. However, the early contemporary
green buildings built in the 1990s are less than 30 years old. Their long-term performance is mostly
unknown yet. In addition, green buildings are only a small portion of the commercial and residential
building stock. A valuable vision for the future building environment must respect the building
evolvement process by acknowledging the known problems and current desires and foreseeing future
conditions and anticipated needs.
Building design or retro t decisions today have been heavily in uenced by the traditional
meaning of building economics, i.e., net present value, return on investment, and payback period.
With energy costs remaining a small fraction of business costs in many regions [185] , the narrow de nition
of costs and bene ts has been a main barrier to scalable solutions. A scalable solution does not just
rely on reduced rst cost or wait for energy prices to rise for a better payback. It calls for new
measures of return (to people, community, and society), measures of wellbeing, and new value
propositions based on complete, reliable building performance data. These data should enable a
comprehensive evaluation of buildings environmental and societal contribution, which then can be
converted into a measurable market value.
The eventual goal of this work is to develop an integrated vision, complete with appropriate
metrics and targets, that accounts for economic, social, health, and productivity factors; equipment
and information technologies; and the utility infrastructure. This vision, which is published in a
separate document [186], is de ned in the context of environmental issues and resource availability. It
relies on knowledge of cutting-edge technologies and trends, incorporates innovative building design
and planning strategies, and uses occupant needs and markets to de ne objective functions and
performance goals.
N. Wang et al.
Disclaimer
Some authors of this report were sponsored by an agency of the United States Government.
Neither the United States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of
their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or
assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe
privately owned rights. Reference herein to any speci c commercial product, process, or service by
trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its
endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency,
contractor or subcontractor thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not
necessarily state or re ect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the Building Technologies O ce of the U.S. Department
of Energy for supporting this vision development. The authors would also like to thank the research
steering committee Jorge Gonzalez (The City College of New York), Gregor Henze (University of
Colorado), Robert Hutchison (Rocky Mountain Institute), Mary Ann Lazarus (MALeco, LLC), Chris
Pyke (U.S. Green Building Council), Kurt Roth (Fraunhofer Center for Sustainable Energy Systems),
David Rouse (American Planning Association), and Steve Selkowitz (Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory) for their guidance throughout this e ort. This research project has bene tted from the
input of many individuals from various organizations. Special thanks go to all of the individuals and
organizations who have actively participated in our discussions, shared their ideas, and provided
constructive suggestions.
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