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PLAN (/plan-blog/?author=5537bcd5e4b07dc6066fcfb7) September 8, 2015 (/plan-

blog/2015/9/8/the-urban-section-environmental-performance-of-the-public-realm-in-the-new-
 climate)

Det r inte helt vlknt att sjuhundra tusen mnniskor dog i Centraleuropa r 2003,
bland annat som en fljd av extrema vrmebljor. Enligt professor Harrison Fraker r
detta bland annat en fljd av att stder blir allt varmare och att allt fr f tgrder har
riktats mot att arbeta med mikroklimat i arkitektur och stadsbyggnad. Enligt Fraker r
frgsttning, vegetation, vatten, tthet, byggnadsprestanda och material sdana
designelement som direkt pverkar temperaturen i staden och drfr mste vara
genomtnkta ur dessa perspektiv. En sdan inriktning leder inte bara till bttre komfort
och hlsa utan visar ocks vgen fr en ny ekonomisk potential.

Harrison Fraker r professor i arkitektur och urban design vid Berkley University of California,
College of environmental design

DESIGN ATTENTION ON URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECTS (UHI)

The dramatic impacts of climate change can be seen in cities all over the globe. Devastating
floods from severe storms and extreme heat waves and droughts are the new normal, caused
by the increased energy (heat) in the global weather system. Much attention has been paid to
the devastating impact of severe storms on cities and their infrastructure (see B.I.G.s winning
entry for protective infrastructure around Lower Manhattan , red kom: Aktuell plan i detta
nummer). Nonetheless just as threatening to the health and well-being of cities, but not as
well known, are the increased frequency of severe heat waves, and in general, the impact of
increased urban heat island (UHI) effects. Not many people are aware that 700,000 people
died in central Europe as a result of the extreme heat wave in the summer of 2003,
exacerbated by the urban heat island effect. Recognizing this threat, Brian Stone Jr., in his
book: The City in the Coming Climate, argues that, known formally as the urban heat island
effect, landscape change in cities (from urbanization) is emerging to be the principle climate-
related threat to human health. It is generally recognized that design solutions to address
the dual threats of severe storms and heat waves is an interrelated problem; that it will
involve both mitigation of the causes and adaptation to the impacts of climate change to
make our cities more resilient and livable. It is also recognized that this is an integrated,
whole-systems design problem that must engage all forms of urban infrastructure: energy,
water, waste, waste water and all forms of transportation, and including the public space of
cities land use planning and zoning. It is a wicked problem that challenges the very structure
of how we govern, plan, design, build, operate and maintain our cities because it demands
that urban agencies collaborate across strict legal boundaries. Yet, while it is a challenge, it
presents a unique opportunity for urban design to formulate how the public realm can be
reconceived and redesigned to be part of an integrated whole system solution. Increasingly
research and design attention is focusing on how to mitigate and adapt to increases in the
heat island effect and severe heat waves, especially in Asia and the global south. It is a
complex local microclimate design challenge that is both region and site specific for every city
in the world.
DESIGN STRATEGIES AND THE URBAN SECTION

For the purposes of urban design it is important to understand that the urban heat island
(UHI) effect is the difference in temperature caused by urbanization between a city and its
surrounding natural landscape and that it is caused by the following variables:

Reduction in evaporative cooling of ground surfaces - impermeable surfaces

Low surface reflectivity dark surfaces
Reabsorption of solar radiation reflected from building surfaces urban canyons
Waste heat from buildings, transportation and people
Reduced natural cooling from local winds dense urban fabric

The study of urban microclimates and design strategies to mitigate extremes has a long
history going back to the designs of traditional climate responsive cities, employing multiple
forms of shading, material properties like thermal mass, methods of promoting natural
ventilation and evaporative cooling. More recent research has quantified the impact of
reintroducing dense vegetative cover. A study of Atlanta Georgia shows that the UHI will
increase average high temperatures from 32-40 C and extreme temperatures could climb into
the 50 C, threatening human health. On the other hand doubling tree cover will reduce these
extreme temperatures by 7 C, back into a less threatening range. In addition a study by
Lawrence Berkeley National Lab shows that tree planting (11 million) and reflective roofing
(30% white roofs) will lower extreme temperature in Los Angeles by 3 C. Even a small
intervention, a 5% increase in green roofs in Toronto is shown to lower extreme summer
temperatures by 1 C. Shading and changing the reflectivity of cities are well established, cost
effective strategies, yet their potential for transforming the form, experience and
environmental performance of the public realm is underdeveloped in urban design. When the
causes of the urban heat island (UHI) are examined, they call attention to the design of every
surface in the city: the streets, sidewalks, parks, facades, roofs, courtyards and parking areas,
etc., both public and private. While cities are typically studied and analyzed in plan, when
environmental performance (see Figure 1) to reduce the UHI becomes a design driver, the
urban section (see Figure 2) becomes even more important in imagining and exploring design
options. To date, many innovative green design strategies have been implemented that
contribute to the environmental performance of the public realm. In most cases their
performance benefits both the building on which it is applied and its surrounding public
space, acting as a reciprocal climate mediator between inside and outside. However, when all
of the performance impacts are considered, these strategies have many more co-benefits that
are of great value and have yet to be fully recognized or monetized.
 While cities are typically studied and analyzed in plan, when environmental performance to reduce
the UHI becomes a design driver, the urban section becomes even more important in imagining and
exploring design options. To date, many innovative

TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED WHOLE-SYSTEM DESIGN

Most of these strategies have been applied in isolation, as separate projects. What if they
were re-conceived at a larger scale, as a neighborhood or citywide integrated system? Their
multiple performance characteristics and co-benefits would have the advantage of
dramatically improving the microclimates of entire cities, both adapting and mitigating climate
change, creating a much more livable city, while delivering economic and health co-benefits.
Implementing such a neighborhood or citywide system that changes the environmental
performance of public space is not easy. It would require a complicated, public-private
collaboration; yet, several cities have begun the process. A green area ratio - a minimum
vegetative cover requirement from a menu of green options, is being tried in Germany; and
Seattle is implementing a green factor ordinance. Obviously, detailed designs would depend
on the specific climate, urban fabric and economic capacity of each city or neighborhood. But,
interestingly, the designs do not have to be limited to what can be required of buildings. All
these strategies present a new tool kit of urban design options to reshape the public space
and environmental performance of cities, but their systemic design potential needs to be
realized. Just increasing the vegetative cover of cities is not a panacea for responding to
climate change. The design and extent of any green strategies have to take into account
multiple climate factors, especially the impact of local winds. In some climates the green
infrastructure should be designed to block winter winds, in others, to promote the cooling
effects of increased wind speeds in hot conditions. In many hot climates a serious challenge in
mitigating the UHI effect is finding water to irrigate any new tempering, green infrastructure.
In such cases, an integrated whole-system design approach can provide the answer by locally
cleaning and recycling wastewater (sewage), using new technologies, to provide the
necessary water for irrigation.

CREATING NEW FORMS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Both the most promising and yet underdeveloped dimensions of these strategies are their
economic potential. A study in Phoenix showed that changing the urban paving material,
creating extensive tree canopy, adding green facades on the lower floors of buildings, and
adding green or white roofs in a nine-block area would lower temperatures by 5 C. This
change created an oasis in the city, promoting economic activity, increasing sales tax revenue
and the savings in air conditioning costs from the buildings would pay for the improvements in
2 years. The feasibility and economic potential of these strategies is not limited to cities with
developed economies. In fact the benefits may be greater in those cities with developing
economies where the impact of climate change will be the most severe, especially in cities of
the global south. These strategies have the potential to create local, internal economies. They
could be instrumental in creating local urban agriculture production, building material
production, energy fuels, and many other material resources, products and markets,
generating new economic opportunity. The public, institutional, NGO and informal frameworks
to enable these economies are just emerging. They are awaiting further inventions and need
to be encouraged, facilitated and implemented.
There are many examples of design strategies that can be applied directly and independently
to the public space of cities. They can involve creating a light-weight framework for
vegetation or agriculture and the canopy of the public space could have seasonal shading
fabrics deployed, much like decorative lighting in the Christmas season.

A NEW VOCABULARY OF URBAN FORM

Urban design as a means to redesign and transform the environmental performance of urban
space is in its infancy. Many of the strategies are proven, but as isolated projects. Their
systemic performance is under researched, untried and their extraordinary design potential
under explored. Unlocking the creative design potential imbedded in these strategies and
finding innovative applications creates a whole new tool kit, a new vocabulary of urban form.
It has the potential to give new identity and sense of place to our streets, neighborhoods and
urban districts; one that not only adapts and mitigates climate change, but also enhances the
experience and wellbeing in peoples everyday lives.

Harrison Fraker

Tagged: klimatfrndring (/plan-blog/?

tag=klimatf%C3%B6r%C3%A4ndring), katastrofer (/plan-blog/?
tag=katastrofer), mikroklimat (/plan-blog/?tag=mikroklimat),
vrmear (/plan-blog/?tag=v%C3%A4rme%C3%B6ar)

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Liveable Cities: The art of integrating today Klimatflyktningar: Det globala samhllets
what we need tomorrow (/plan- nya utmaning (/plan-
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integrating-today-what-we-need-tomorrow) globala-samhllets-nya-utmaning)
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