Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis CS. Surana R. Agrawal Narosa Publishing House New Delhi Madras Bombay Calcutta LondonGrillage Analogy in Bridge Deck AnalysisCS, Summa Departnent of Civil Engineering Indian Insite of Technology, Delhi New Delti-110 O16, India BR. Agrawal Department of Civil Engineering Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University ‘Varanasi, India| Copyright © 1998 Narosa Publishing House NAROSA PUBLISHING HOUSE 6 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017 35.36 Greams Road, Thousand Lights, Madeas 600 006 306 Shiv Centre, D.B.C. Sectot 17, KU. Bazar P.O., New Bombay 400 705 2F-2G Shivam Chambers, 53 Syed Amir Ali Aveaue, Calcot 700 019 3 Hentiewa Stet, Covent Garden, London WCZE SLU, UK All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be ‘reproduced, sored in a reteval system, or transmitted in any form or by any metas, electronic, mechanical, Photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the pubishee [All export rights fortis book vest exclusively with the publisher. Unauthorised export isa violation of Copyright Law and is subject wo legal ation. ISBN 81-7319-183-0 Published by NAK. Mehra for Narosa Publishing House, 6 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, typeset at Innovative Procesors, New Delhi-110 002 and printed at Rajkamal Hlectic Press, Dethi 110 033 (Indi) To Our Parents for having shown us the way Our Families for their constant supportPreface Bridge design and construction all over the world has undergone remark- able changes in the past two decades. The increased demand for complex roadway alignments, advances in construction technology and availability of computing power for bridge design, are some of the factors for these developments. Over the years, a number of methods of analysis of highway bridge decks have been evolved. The methods range from the simplified hand ‘method like Courbon’s or graphical methods like Hendry-Jaeger and Morice & Little etc. to highly sophisticated methods like finite element, finite strip etc. The former are conservative and the latter which require fairly complex computer programs and larger computational facilities, are ‘Prone to errors of idealization and interpretation of results, Grillage analogy method, which is well-established and computer- oriented, bridges the gap between the two. The present book describes bridge deck analysis by grillage analogy. The method is versatile in nature and can be applied to a variety of bridge decks having both simple as well as complex configurations with ease and confidence. Analysis of bridge decks employing grillage analogy is possible oa commonly available PCs while retaining the accuracy and versatility of other refined methods that ‘usually require larger computational facilities. A considerable saving in time in the analysis of the bridge is achieved and the method also provides a ‘feel’ of the bridge behaviour to the designer. Although, the accuracy of any method of analysis for a particular structure is difficult to predict, the ‘method of grillage analogy is found to be fairly accurate when compared to methods like FEM. ‘The book is mainly intended for professionals and students, Consultants and researchers who are confronted with the problem of analysis for bridge design and those who wish to specialize in the subject, will also find it useful.vii Preface ‘The designer and consultant handling a variety of structural problems faces difficulties when confronted with the task of analysis of a bridge deck, whether simple or complex. Ordinarily, one would like to seek solu- tions in the least possible time and, as far as possible, would like to avoid the cumbersome mathematics involved, without compromising on accuracy. ‘This objective is not easily realised. One may either have to develop his ‘own program or to modify available programs to suit the specific require- ‘ments. For this, considerable time, thorough understanding and a lot of confidence is essential. A ready to use computer program of analysis based ‘on grillage analogy has been made available in the book. A discussion on the evolving of the program including the basic assumptions and applica- tions of the concepts used in grillage analogy has also been provided for the discerning user. This endeavour will go a long way towards computerizing the analysis of bridges, in this country and elsewhere, ‘The book begins with an introduction of the recent developments in the area of bridge analysis, design and construction. Specifications for bridge loadings recommended by Indian Roads Congress (IRC) and adopted in India, are described. The loading standards of some other countries are Compared with Indian Standard Loadings. ‘A brief review of the important methods of analysis of bridges including grillage analogy is undertaken and the applicability of each method to ‘Various types of bridges having different plan geometry and support condi- tions are discussed in Chapter 2. The merits and shortcomings of each method is also dealt with. ‘The procedure for formulation and assembly of matrices using direct Stiffness method which is more suitable for mathematical modeling of plane sgrillage, is illustrated, followed by a simple but generalized computer pro- gram in Chapter 3. The listing of this program is given in Appendix I. Chapter 4 idealizes the actual bridge deck into a suitable mathematical ‘model of a grillage. The equivalent elastic properties are evaluated and assigned to the members of the grillage. Analysis of the idealized grillage for loading is described in Chapter 5. The interpretation of results obtained ‘and the local effects to be included i the final design are also outlined, Chapter 6 discusses a more elaborate computer program written in FORTRAN based on grillage analogy applied to bridge decks. The Program Manual and Users’ Manual are provided. These are explained so that any designer, not willing to go through the previous sections of the book and with litte exposure to the structural behaviour of bridges, can still prepare the input data and analyze a bridge for different IRC loadings. The program Preface ix is so designed that loads other than Indian standard loadings, can also be easily incorporated. The listing of the program is given in Appendix Il A number of worked out examples of different types of slab, T:beam and box-girder bridges are given in Chapter 7 to explain the use of the program. ‘The example are chosen from actual life-size bridges and the solutions are obtained for IRC loadings and also for user’s specified loadings. Input and selected output modules are given for the convenience of the user. Exhaustive and relevant references are included after each chapter for the benefit of the readers. A diskewe containing two programs of the Appendices (in a ready to use form) can be ordered from the authors through the publisher. The diskette also contains the input data and exhaustive force responses/output of all the worked out examples given in the book. Although the general methods and concepts postulated by Lightfoot, West, Hambly, Jaeger, Bakht and others are further developed and subsequently expanded, we are deeply indebted to them and to many others whose ‘wnitings, teachings or personal help have shaped our thinking and approach to the subject mauer, ‘The financial assistance and other help rendered by the Curriculum Development Cell of 1.1.7. Delhi towards writing the book is gratefully acknowledged. The sabbatical leaves granted to the authors by LIT. Delhi and I.T. BHU, Varanasi,respectively for this joint venture are also thank- fully acknowledged. We are indebted to our research scholars who helped in developing and checking the computer programs and to our numerous students for assistance in worked examples and proof checking. The works of preparing drawings and typing of the manuscript was done by different persons at different times. We acknowledge their help, Any suggestions for further improvement from the readers would be very ‘much appreciated. CS. Scrana, Rasor AGRAWALContents Preface 1 Introduction 11 General 1 1.2 Recent Trends in Analysis and Design of Bridges 2 121° Structural Systems 2 122 Computer-Aided Methods of Analysis 3 123° Design Methodology 4 1.24 Modem Construction Techniques 4 13° Swuctaral Forms of Bridge Decks 5 1.4 Foam of Constraction 6 141 Slab Bridge 6 142 Slab-on-Ginders Bridge 9 143 Box-Ginker Bridge 12 15 Plan Geometry or Planforms 15 1.6 Support Configurations 16 17 Beidge Loadings 16 171 Loading Requirements 18 132 Dead Louds 18 173° Live Loads 18 174 Impact Loads 25 LTS Footway, Keb, Railing and Parapet Live Loads 26 1.8 Comments on Loading Standards 28 1.9 Organisation of the Text 30 References 33 Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 38 +21 Introduction 35 2.2 Methods of Analysis and their Applicability 35 2.3 Courbon’s Method 36sil Contents 24 25 26 27 28 29 Onthotropic Plate Theory 38 Finite Difference Method 40 ‘Method of Hanmonic Analysis 42 Gaillage and Space Frame Analogy 45 Folded Plate Analysis 47 Finite Element Method 48 2.10 Finite Strip Method 50 References 52 3. Stiffness Method Applied to Grillage Analysis 55 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Introduction 55 Matrix Method of Structural Analysis 55 Degrees of Freedom and Sign Convention 56 Member Stiffness Matrix 58 Assembly of Structure Stiffness Matix 63 Solution of Simultaneous Equations 65 Computer Program 66 Example 69 References 73 ‘4. Transformation of Bridge Deck into Equivalent Grillage 74 41 42 43 Introduction 74 Tdealization of Physical Deck into Equivalent Grillage 75 42.1 Wealizaton of Deck Structure 75 422° General Guidelines for Grillage Layout. 78 423, Grillage Idealzation of Slab Bridge 79 424° Grillage Ideaization of Slab-on-Ginders Bridge 90 425 Gellage Idealization of Box-Ginder Bridge 92 Evaluation of Equivalent Elastic Properties 94 43.1 Flexural Moment of Inertia, I 96 432 Torsional Inertia, 196 43:3 Flevaral and Torsional Inertias of Grille Members: ‘Slab Deck 99 434° Fleural and Torsional Inertias of Grillage Members: Slab-on-Girdess Deck 107 43.5 Fletural and Torsional Inertias of Grilage Members: ‘Bor-Girder and Celiular Deck 103 References 109 Contents xiti 5. Application of Loads, Analysis, Force Responses 6. and their Interpretations M1 $1 Inmoduction 111 5.2. Evaluation and Application of Loads 111 $3. Identification of Panels in the Grillage 115 54 Teansfer of Loads to the Nodes 117 S41 Transfer of Dead Lowds 118 542 Transfer of Live Loads 118 55 Gaillage Analysis and Force Responses 131 55. Analysis of Grillage 132 55.2 Force Responses 134 S53 Design Envelopes 138 5.6 Interpretation of Results 139 S61 Sb Bridges 139 52 Slab-on-Girders Bridges 143 563 Box-Ginder Bridges 143 References 145 Compater Program 146 6.1 Inmroduction 146 62 Important Features of the Program ‘GABS' 146 63° Program Manual for ‘GABS’ 147 63.1 Variables 147 632 Sign Conventions 150 633 Main Program and Flow Chars 150 63.4 Description of Subroutines 151 64° User Manual for ‘GABS’ 165 641 Data Input Module 165 64.2 Result Output Module 167 65 Limitations and Scope 169 References 169 lustrative Examples im 7.1 Tnwroduction 171 72 Mustrative Examples 172 721 Example 1: Right Slab Bridge 172 722 Example 2: Skew Slab Bridge 179 723 Example 3: Voided Slab Bridge 183 724 Example 4: Right T-Bean Bridge 187xiv Contents 725° Bsample 5: Skew T:Beam Bridge 133 7.26 Example 6: BoxGinder Bridge 199 References 203 Appendix I: Listing of Program GRID Appendix II: Listing of Program GABS Index 205 215 251 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 GENERAL Bridge construction has been one of the important engagements of mankind from the earliest days. Bridges are one of the most challenging of all civil engineering works. It has always fired the imagination of people as they seem to lead to hitherto uncharted territory. Bridge construction today has achieved a world-wide level of impor- tance. The numbers and sizes of bridges have continuously increased in the last fifty years. Man's increasing mobility through railway and motorised transport has caused such complex forms of bridges to be built, which had seemed unrealistic earlier. To cope-up with this demand, tremendous efforts all over the world in the form of active research in analysis, design and construction of bridges is continuing, (Over the years, a number of methods of analysis of bridge superstruc- tures have been evolved and are being used. Courbon’s method, Hendry- Jaeger method and Morice and Little method are some of the methods which have been in use since long, and, are still popular, as they are found to be easy, amenable to design graphs and also reasonably accurate for bridge decks of simple configurations. But these methods are being gradu- ally replaced where computer facilities are available or more accurate analysis is desired or the cross-section and/or layouts of the bridge decks are complex. Following the advent of digital computers, computer-aided methods like Finite Element, Finite Difference, Finite Strip have been developed and are in use to analyse intricate forms of skew, curved, bifurcated and arbitrary shapes of bridges having usual support vonditiuus and cross-sections. But these methods are highly numerical and always carry a heavy cost-penalty. Grillage Analogy is probably one of the most popular computer-aided methods for analysing bridge decks. The method consists of representing the actual decking system of the bridge by an equivalent grillage of beams. ‘The dispersed bending and torsional stiffnesses of the decking system are assumed, for the purpose of analysis, tbe concentrated in these beams. The2 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis distributed and eventually taken to the supports. Une book essentially deals with the Grilage Analogy method and its applications to varity of bridge decks—both simple and complex, Butt also thought relevant to introduce in bref other existing methods of analysis to the readers (Chapter 2), Roads Congress (IRC) loadings are compared with the standard loadings adopted by some other developed countries. 12 RECENT TRENDS IN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BRIDGES ridges form vill links in the communication system and the need to build bridges across wide rivers with alluvial and scourable beds, deep gorges, Structural engineering and construction technology have undergone a sea change in the last three decades and these have had a great impact sq modem bridge engineering. Significant new developments in types of struc {oral system, computer-aided analysis, design methods and modern con, Siruction techniques have taken place in recent times. These trends and they Scope are briefly outlined in the following sections, 1.2.1 Structural Systems fo al ferent developments of medium- and long-span concrete bridge COperacton, prestressing has played a central role and most bridges bust ‘oday are made of stuetural concrete using prestessng. This technology is Introduction 3 now over fifty years old and has proven its superiority, reliability and economy. The technology of prestressing has undergone a lot of change and. the technique of extemal prestressing was ‘reinvented! after more than forty years. External prestressing has a number of advantages like ease of con. Struction and better quality and in the case of corroded or broken tendons, these can be exchanged. Cable stayed bridges present a special case of extemal prestressing as the stay cables also introduce prestressing force in the girders of the bridge. In addition w extemal prestressing, there has been a trend to reduce the dead load of the superstructure leading to new types of bridge systems known as Alternate Web Systems. Alternate Web System consists of weB trusses made of concrete with folded plate webs of corrugated steel sheets. ‘An example of such an innovative design is the bridge at Maupre in France om. The introduction of partial prestressing, which covers the range from zero prestressing to full prestessing, allows a much wider application of prestressing. In bridge design, partial prestressing leads to a simpler disti- bution of presuessing cables in the longitudinal direction. Local highly stressed zones are covered by ordinary reinforcement. In the transverse direction, partial prestressing is the only alternative to ordinary reinforce. ‘ment because the stresses due to traffic can easily exceed those due to dead load. Furthermore, imposed deformations resulting from temperature, creep, settlement etc. can cause tensile suesses in fully prestressed bridges resulting in cracks of large widths. It can be expected that partial prestress- ing eventually will gain universal acceptance with full prestressing and reinforced concrete, as the two limiting cases, It appears that prestressing will remain the driving force behind new developments in bridge engineering in the near future. 1.22 Computer-Aided Methods of Analysis The introduction and application of computers in planning, design, analysis, construction management and safety control of bridges led to 2 ‘evOlution in bridge construction. In the sixties, the problem of indeterminacy Posed serious difficulties to bridge engineers. Today, mast engineers and esign_offces have easy access to personal computers and also special Purpose structural software packages have been developed mainly based on Computer-aided methods like finite element, finite difference, finite strip, folded plate and grillage analogy. These packages are selectively used depending-upon the complexity of the problem, both for linear and non-linear analyses. However, the user friendliness of most application4 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis softwares need substantial improvements. The major impact, we can experi- ence today, however, comes from the use of software with enhanced graph- ics capabilites and CAD/CAM systems. ‘With improved analysis capabilites, structural optimization becomes a reality Which in the past had just been a subject of interest to academicians, Expert ‘Systems will be the next step towards efficient structural optimization. 1.2.3 Design Methodology In the field of reinforced concrete design, the Limit State Concept is gaining increasing acceptance and this has improved the performance characteristics of structures to be built. Two types of limit states, namely collapse limit state corresponding to maximum load bearing capacity (e.g. bending, shear, torsion, buckling, fatigue etc.) and the serviceability limit state which is related to the criteria governing normal use of the structure (@g, crack width, deflection, vibration, durability tc.) have been incorporated into codes of practice and specifications for bridges of many countries. In India, while concept of limit states have already been introduced for build- ing works, the relevant specifications for bridges are not yet available. Different design formats have been proposed for structural codes in order {o account for uncertainties both in the relevant load combinations at the ultimate state and in the strength of structural members or systems. Both simple as well as more refined methods like partial safety factor method, ‘companion action factor method, load-reduction factor method etc. are being used. Given the wide range of design situations, it is evident that great precision of the load combinations can not be expected in the near future. ‘The design of bridges for earthquake and accidental actions, which are capable of producing forces exceeding elastic limit of structural members, is gaining importance. Therefore, in order to. protect bridges from these actions, it is necessary to absorb the energy at suitable locations by provid- ing plastic hinges. The inelastic deformations of such hinges are characterised by the ductility ratio. Accordingly, the design for accidental actions calls for both strength of members as weil as ductility of joints and members and needs careful consideration. 1.24 Modern Construction Techniques In the last thirty years, construction methods have experienced a rapid development. The method of construction influences the cost of the bridge ‘o a significant extent. It is prudent to conceive the method of construction at the time of selecting the type of bridge for the site and keep this in mind while designing the bridge. Introducton § Concrete bridges are usually constructed on stationary falsework only in the case of a small number of spans and also when the superstructare is located not at a large height above the ground. For other situations, highly mechanised construction methods are used involving repetitive constrection operations. Long span bridges are usually constructed using either launching girders (mechanical formwork) or segmental cantilever construction. Mediumspan bridges are constructed adopting the incremental push launching method, classical balanced cantilever method or cantilever method with launching gantry i.e. segmental construction. The importance of the concept of prefabricating entire cross-sectional blocks and combining these with a span-by-span gantry system is increas- ing. Prefabrication is very economical for short span bridges. However, Jarge number of bearings and joints have a negative effect on durability and user comfort. Improvements are possible by connecting the girder elements at the support to form a continuous beam using post-tensioning. ‘The objectives of a good construction method should be, to build a bridge at a minimum cost and with a maximum margin of safety during the con- struction phase. The pre-requisite for efficient construction, especially ia the case of long span bridges, is therefore an optimum combination of design and construction methods. How some of the major developments affecting analysis, design and construction of concrete bridges, discussed briefly above, will influence the bridge engineering in future, depends upon the designer, contractor, client, authorities and last, but not the least, oa the freedom given by Bridge Codes. 1.3 STRUCTURAL FORMS OF BRIDGE DECKS A bridge may be classified in many ways depending upon its funcion, material of construction, form or type of superstructure, plan geometry, support conditions or span. It is neither intended to discuss here the choice of a particular type of bridge for a specific situation nor to present a detiled routine bridge classification, which may be available in any textbook on bridge engineering. The present book is concerned essentially with the analysis of highway bridge decks and hence the main factors which govern and influence the choice of analytical techniques, to be discussed, ate vuly identified. They are: 1. Form of construction or type of deck 2. Plan-geometry or planform and 3. Support conditions6 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis Each of the above parameters is discussed and illustrated. The description will be limited to only those types of bridges which can be gainfully handled by employing the method of grillage analogy. The decks of rein forced concrete, prestressed concrete and composite construction shall form the basis of our discussion in the following sections, 14 FORM OF CONSTRUCTION The principal forms of bridge deck construction have been reviewed and categorised in this section. Broadly, the forms of construction can be divided into slabs (solid, voided and pseudo-slabs), slab-on-girders (T-beam and Team) and box-girders (single, multi-cell and multi-spine). Arch, rigid ‘frame, truss, suspension and cable-stayed bridges are not included in our discussions as these are not amenable to Grillage Analogy. 14.1 Slab Bridge Slab bridges are easiest to construct and are frequently used for compara- tively smaller spans. The form is very efficient at distributing point loads because of its two-way spanning ability and high torsional strength. It is relatively easy to construct and this is reflected in its construction cost. The principal disadvantage is its high self-weight which can be counteracted to Some extent, by providing suitable. variation in thickness or by providing voids. It may be of reinforced concrete or of prestressed concrete, Solid reinforced concrete slab of constant depth is normally used for spans upto 10 m (Fig. 11a). For larger spans, say upto 15 m, haunching or variable depth is adopted to reduce dead load (Fig. 1.1b). A solid slab of uniform depth is preferred in highly skewed crossings, particularly if sig- nificant curvature and variation in width of the deck is involved. Continuous construction can be used with advantage if the possibility of uplift at abut- ments is expected. Voided slab bridges (Fig. 1.1c) are adopted to reduce the self weight of the bridge. The voids are usually circular or rectangular. The depth of voids is generally restricted to sixty per cent of the depth of the slab so that the slab continues to behave like a single plate. If this limit of void-depth is exceeded, the slab may behave more like a cellular deck (discussed later) The voids may either run for the full span length or, alternatively, these may be provided in the central span length only so that solid section is available near the supports where shear is large. Voided R.C. slabs with depth upto 100 cm may be adopted for span range of 8 to 15 m. However, for spans between 15 and 30 m, voided pre- Ineroduction 7 —) a) Solid Stab b) Solid Stab OO000 ¢) Voided Slab Figure 1.1 Slab Bridges eal stressed concrete slabs of depth upto 1.2 m are cheaper. For moderate skew crossings having spans of 15 to 25 m, this type of deck with longitudinal prestressing i useful but for highly skewed crossings, reinforced concrete decks are preferred for ease of construction. If the voided section is found inadequate in shear, it should be kept solid near supports (refer voided slab example of Chapter 7), In RC. slab bridges, span-depth ratio of 15 for simple spans and 20 to 25 for continuous spans are usually adopted for both solid and voided slabs. For cast-in-sim, prestressed concrete voided slab bridges, this ratio is nearly 30. In precast prestressed voided slabs, the ratio ranges between 25 and 30. ‘The deck slab overhang, designated as ‘a’ in Figs. 1.1b and 1.lc may be provided to produce the desirable aesthetic effect and also to reduce the dead load and the width of sub-structure. Jn many countries, standard precast prestressed beams are employed for short- and medium-span bridges. These standard beams are closely positioned across the width of the bridge and in-situ concrete is poured to give transverse connection in order to create a slab-type deck. This form of deck is described as Pseudo-slabs. Such type of two-stage casting is also referred to as Contiguous Construction and the standard beams are termed as Contiguous Beams.8. Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis Many forms of prestressed, precast beams are used in pseudo-slab decks. The Prestressed Concrete Development Group (PCDG) in U:K. pro- duced a series of inverted T-beams, I-beams and box-beams for various spans (Fig. 1.2). The beams are placed side by side and the gaps are filled &) Inverted T-Beams Shear key b) Box-Beams Figure 12 PCDG Standard Precast Pretensioned Bridge Beams with in-sita concrete to form an integral slab. Transverse bond rods are rovided just above the bottom flange passing through pre-formed holes in the precast beams. This type of construction can be used upto 20 m span, Another standard group of beams, known as M-Beams have been developed by Cement and Concrete Association (C&CA), U.K, in collaboration with the Ministry of Transport, U.K. (Fig. 1.3) for short- and medium-span bridges. Pre-tensioned cast-in-situ Pscudo-slabs are usually adopted when the erection of formwork presents no difficulty. The advantage of this form of onstruction is thatthe structure is monolithic and the stress-distibution in the slab can easily be evaluated. On the other hand, the precast girders with in-situ conerete filled up, are preferred when there is difficulty in supporting Figure13 C.& CA, U.K, Standard M-Beams the formwork. However, in general, the prestressing of slab, is uneconomi- cal and the formwork is often heavy. The concept of Pseudo-slab bridge construction using pre-tensioned pre- ‘cast beam elements is relatively new to India. 142 Slab-on-Girders Bridge Slab-on-ginders bridges are by far the most commonly adopted type in the span range of 10 to 50 m. The majority of beam and slab decks have number of beams spanning longitudinally between abutments with a thin slab spanning transversely across the top. T-beam bridges are one of the ‘most common examples under this category and are very popular because of their simple geometry, low-fabrication cost, easy erection or casting and smaller dead loads (Fig. 1.4). Usually F-section or T-section is used for the beam but T-section is found to be more efficient. T-beams are economical where depth of section is not controlling factor from headroom considerations. The T-beam bridge su- Perstructure may consist of either girders and slab or girders, slab and diaphragms at the supports or girders, slab, intermediate cross-beams and40 Unilage Anaiogy in Bridge Deck Analysis nd diaphragms. However, T-beam bridge with coss-beams extending inte and cast monolithically with the deck slab is found to be more efficient and Xs commended for adoption. Simply supported R.C. T-beam is normally adopted for spans upto 25 m. Span-depth ratio is generally kept as 10 for Services Precast detachable footpath slab igure 14 T-Beam Bridge fimple spans and 12 to 15 for continuous spans. Higher ratios are possible, but riding qualities are affected by creep characristics of concrete. The Birder spacing ‘h’ (Fig. 1.4) may vary as justified by comparing the cost of Corresponding slab thickness. The usual range of spacing ‘his between 2 {o 3 m for these bridges. The stem-width ‘bis sbout 300 mm. This stem width is increased to “B’ at the bottom, forming a bulb to accommodate large number of reinforcement bars there. This ‘B” may be kept between 500 ‘© 600 mun. The stem width ‘bis increased to “Bin the end-region, to take care of large shears occuring there, Slab-on girders bridge also includes prestressed conerte bridges. Major- ity of prestressed concrete bridges, construced in India are of post. tensioned type. The bridge decks, with post-tensioned girders suitable for simply supported construction, may have either fully castin-situ slab and Birders or deck slab with precast prestressed girdess alongwith cross-beams, assembled together and transversely prestressed (Fig. 1.5a,b). Such types of ‘ui is usually kept as 20 for simple spans and 25 for continuous spans for Prestressed concrete girder bridges. The girder spacing “h’ (Fig. 1.Ss) is Rormally kept between 2.0 and 4.5 m. The stem with °’ should preferably be a minimum of 300 mm to facilitate presuessing of tendons. The deck slab oveitiang ‘a" should be provided as required t0 produce the desirable aesthetic effect and to reduce transverse moments. Decks with composite construction are also popular for short- to ‘medium-span bridges. Composite construction refers tothe use of structural clements made of two materials in combination in sch a way that they act Introduction V1 ©) Cast-in- Situ Prestressed Concrete Girder Deck 25mm gap between precastgirders Precast girder Precast cross- beam ») Tronsversely Precast Prestressed Girder Deck Figure 1.5 Bridge Decks with Post-Tensioned Girders together. Though, normally, this is understood to refer to the use of rolled steel sections with in-situ concrete slab but it also covers precast prestressed Concrete girders with cast-in-situ R.C. slabs and made to act as T:beams. The girders and the floor slabs are connected using shear-connectors by which they work together. ‘The precast prestressed concrete girders and cast-in-place R.C. deck slab Fig. |.6a) is suited for medium spans i.e. spans between 30 and 60 m. For such bridges the span-depth ratio of about 18 in case of simple spans and say 20 for continuous spans, are recommended. The composite construction with steel girder (Fig. 1.66) is economical in the short span range of 8 to 15 m. The construction has the advantage of speedy erection and reduced cost of formwork. The flexural stiffness of a Composite beam is about 2 to 4 times that of the corresponding steel beam and this property results in reduced deflections and vibrations. The transition from pseudo-slab to slab-on-girders deck is difficult to define with complete precision. Pseudo-slab is associated with multiple longitudinal beams (five or more for a two-lane bridge) at close spacings Whereas the beams and slab bridges fall in the category of decks with smaller number of longitudinal beams under similar situation,12 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis a) Precast Prestressed Concrete Girders with In- situ Slab In-situ R.C. slab [+ Steel girder b) Rolled Steel Girder Sections with Cast- in- situ R.C. Slab Figure 1.6 Decks with Composite Constructi 143 Box-Girder Bridge In recent years, single or multi-cell reinforced and prestressed concrete box-girder bridges have been widely used as economic and aesthetic solu- tions for overcrossing, undercrossing, separation structures and viaducts, found in today's modem highway systems. The main advantage of these type of bridges lies in the high torsional rigidity available because of the closed box-section and convenience in varying the depth along the span. High torsional stiffness gives them better stability and load distribution characteristics and also makes this form particularly suited for Grade Sepa- rations, where the alignment of bridges are normally curved in plan. Also, the hollow section may be used to accommodate services such as water ‘mains, telephones, electric cables, sewage pipes etc. and the section has an added advantage of being light. Introduction 13 The cross-section of a concrete box-girder bridge consists of top and bottom slabs connected monolithically with vertical webs to form a cellular structure. The box-girder may be composed of single cell or multiple cells, with or without side cantilevers. The cells can be either rectangular or trapezoidal, latter being used increasingly in prestressed concrete elevated roadways. Some of the commonly adopted cross sections are shown in Fig. 1.7. A multi-cell deck is distinguished from a voided stab in analysis. In mult-cell decks, the transverse beading of top slab between webs is also considered. Also, the void depth in a mult-cell deck may be larger than the limiting values given earlier for the voided slab, leading to cell-distortions. (c) Single-Cell Trapezoidal Box-Girder Figure 1.7 Box-Girder Bridges Malti-cell box-girder bridges are constructed with or without transverse diaphragms. If diaphragms are provided only at the supports, shear defor- mations in the transverse direction leading to shear-lag and cell-distortions have to be considered in the analysis. But if additional intermediate dia- phragms are also provided between the supports, the shear deformations and cell-distortions are usually small and may be ignored.14. Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis In the span range of 20 to 30 m, cast-in-situ multi-cell reinforced con- crete box-girder bridges are widely used. For longer spans, say upto 60 m, Post-tensioned prestressed, cast-in-situ multi-cell box-girders have been employed. Two-cell box-girders have been used for span ranging from 30 to 40 m, while single cell trapezoidal box-girders are built with 30 to 50 m span. Post-tensioned precast box-girders prove to be economical for larger spans say upto 100 m. For spans above 60 m and upto 200 m, segmentally erected prestressed conerete box-girder bridges with one, two or more cells, spaced apart, may be adopted. This form of construction is commonly used in viaducts and is sometimes known as Spine, Spread or Spaced Box-girders (Fig. 1.8). Spine beam bridges, as built in practice, may be defined as structural members ‘whose breadth and depth are small in relation to their length and are therefore subjected mainly to longitudinal bending, transverse shear and torsion. Trans- verse diaphragms are normally provided only over the supports. The bridges are generally prestressed longitudinally and reinforced transversely unless they are exceptionally wide and in such a situation they may be prestressed transversely also. These may be continuous or simply supported. d : WO at hash blip —h nb 4 Figure 1.8 Multi-Cell Spine Box-Girders ‘The span-depth ratio for R.C. box-girder bridges are generally adopted as 16 for simple spans and 18 for continuous spans. For prestressed cast-in-situ onerete box girders, this ratio ranges from 20 to 25 depending upon support Conditions. In case of precast prestressed box-girder bridges, the span-depth ratio is taken between 18 and 20 whereas for spine or spaced box-girders, the ratio lies usually between 18 and 22. In precast, prestressed multi-cell box-beams, the ratio can be as high as 25 to 30 [9]. The spacing ‘A’ of box-gitders usually lies between 2.0 and 3.5 m. The Web of box-girder superstructure should have a minimum thickness *b,’ of 200 mm. It is often usetul to increase the thickness of webs near supports to provide adequate concrete section for shear resistance. Precast box-beams ordinarily have a width ‘b' of 1.0 to 1.2 m and height ‘s' in the range of 0.6 to 1.2 m (Figs. 1.7 and 1.8). The bottom slab thickness “d,” is kept Insroduction 15 approximately 1/20 of clear span between webs but it should not be less than 150 mm and may be increased near continuous supports. 15 PLAN GEOMETRY OR PLANFORMS The horizontal and vertical alignments of a bridge are governed by the geometrics of the highway, roadway or channel it erosses. A bridge may either be right or skew, straight or curved or any combination thereof. Typical geometrical planforms of bridge decks are illustrated in Fig. 1.9. L_| £7 (a) Right Deck (b) Skew Deck cL (c) Symmetrical Curved (4) Unsymmetrigal Curved Deck Deck f LZ (e) Arbitrary Shaped Decks (#) Bifurcated Deck ver Supported edge —Free edge Figure 19 Plan Shapes of Bridge Decks16 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis ‘The simplest form is the right deck but the demand for skew bridges is increasing because of non-availability of space for trafic schemes. The skew effect becomes more important in design when the skew angle exceeds 15°, The construction of horizontally curved bridges has increased considerably. in recent years for highway bridges. The need for smoother dissemination of congested traffic and the limitation of right-of-way alongwith economic and environmental considerations dictate that the bridge alignments meet the overall requirements of the highway system. Also, the current emphasis On aesthetic considerations has motivated increased development in designs which utilizes curved configurations, either symmetrical or asymmetrical, Due to the geometric complexities, curved girders are subjected to not only flexural stresses but also to very significant torsional stresses. The deflec- tions and stresses in such decks are markedly different from those of right bridge decks. ‘There is a large range of arbitrary planforms where the free edges of the bridge are non-parallel, support lines are non-parallel or suppor are randomly distributed. Bifurcated decks are needed at motor-way exit or entry and may have an arbitrary geometry. 16 SUPPORT CONFIGURATIONS Figure 1.10 shows some of the support configurations normally used in highway bridges. The simple supports are common with slab bridges or with slab-on-girders bridges of smaller spans. Cantilever and Balanced cantilever bridges are constructed for span range of 35 to 60 m having T:-beam or box-girder as their cross-section. Fully continuous bridges are advantageous for spans over 35 m and are suitable with prestressed concrete girders. Further, the bridge may be placed on rigid supports or flexible (yielding) supports. The conventional plate, rocker or rocker-cum-roller bearings pro- vide rigid supports. However, the recent trend is to favour elastomeric bearings. This provides yielding supports. These are preferred because of their low height and low cost and require practically no maintenance. Also, they are easy to replace. These bearings can cope up with complex defor. mations of skew and curved geometry. 1.7 BRIDGE LOADINGS The loading has profound effect upon the design, construction and eventu- ally upon the cost of any bridge of a given span. Besides carrying their own weight, the bridge decks are designed for certain loadings imposed partly by the vehicles and the users and partly by Inwroduction 17 {a) Simply Supported Arrangement (b) Cantilever Arrangement sechor (Cantilever ‘Susperded span (c) Balanced Cantilever Arrangement (d) Continuous Arrangement Figure 1.10 Support Configurations of Bridge Decks nature. In order to maintain uniformity in design, loading standards have been laid down for the guidance of engineers. Different countries, including India, have their own loading standards. In India, these standards for Railway bridges are formulated by the Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) of the Indian Railways [17]. For highway bridges, Indian Roads Congress (IRC), a statutory body formed by the Government of India under the Ministry of Surface Trans- Port prepares the Codes of Practices. These codes are complied faithfully in the design of bridges (18, 19, 20]. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), a body responsible for the “Standardization” in the country, also brings out specifications for bridges (21]. But the specifications laid down by IRC supercede those of the BIS, wherever at variance.18 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis 1.7.1 Loading Requirements ‘The deck ofthe highway bridge has to support moving loads in the form Of Nehicles, men and materials and transmit their effects to the foundation to what is known as impact loading, The details of some other loads and forces such as earthquake, wind ete. hich also become important in some cases could be referred from the Codes of Practice (18, 19]. Only the important loads to be used in the analysis of decks are briefly described here. 1.7.2. Dead Loads reference [19] may be adopted. Dead loads invariably form a relatively large loading component and ‘esult in significant design forces and deformations. It is, however, never a problem to ether estimate these loadings accurately or compute their effecte on the structure, 1.73 Live Loads The main loading on highway bridges is due to the vehicles moving on ‘s which are transient and hence difficult to estimate accurately. In order to analyse the bridge for these moving loads, IRC Code [19] recommends fartain standard hypothetical loading systems. The bridge is then designed for the maximum response values under these standard loads, ‘The live loads usually consist of a set of wheel loads which are patch [pads due to tyre contact area. These patch loads may be treated as point loads acting at the centre of the contact area. This simplication is found to be acceptable in the analysis. According to Indian Roads Congress classification, the main live loads for road bridges can be put into the following four types (19): 9) IRC Class A Loading—Single Lane and Two Lanes Single lane Class A loading isa tain load of eight axles of two wheels cach thus having sixteen wheels in total, The total load of the train is 55.4 tonnes. The nose to tail length of the train is 20.3 m and the distance between the frst and the last axe is 18.8 m. The minimum clear longi. Introduction 19 inal distance between two successive trains is 18.5 m. The minimum centre line distance of the wheel-line from the edge of the Kerb works out to 400 min. The configuration of the load as well as the position of each whee! is given in Figs. 1.11(a) and 1.11(b). 200 1200 #200 —+ 4800 21800 fet oh 3200-+ "L300 ~f 3000 -3000-- 3000-| Eos LL odd fo yeast SS 22 3 8 8 Qowsa 22.33 5 3 3 Sass (a) Class A and Class 8 Train of Vehicles ial tH ee oe bk Gg T Direction of Motion 1800 a a ee a Cott West x Front Wheel “ABp 320-48 }- a200 -}-2000-4-2000-4 2000-4 (b) Plan 7 009 (c) Section on xx (All Dimension are in mm) Figure 1.11 (3) IRC Class A and Class B Loadings Class A-two lanes loading consists of two class A-single lane trains Placed side by side at specified minimum clearance, Class A loading is20 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis }-—— Clear Roadway ———~} we (d) Cross-Section Max. w = $00 for Class A Max. w= 380 for Class 8 Carriage | Minimum clearances way width “g? a 5500 } Uniformly increasing 150 10.7500 | from 400 to 1200 >7500 1200 150 (All Dimensions are in mm) Figure 1.11 (b) IRC Class A and Class B Loadings adopted on all permanent bridges and culverts wo be constructed on State and National Highways. i) IRC Class B Loading The Class B loading is identical to Class A loading as far as positions of axles are concemed but the magnitude of axle loads is 60% of the corre- sponding loads in Class A vehicle (Figs. 1.11a, b). This loading is intended for temporary structures, timber bridges and bridges in specified areas, i) IRC Class AA Loading This loading is an alternate loading and one train of Class AA vehicle is to be considered for every twu lanes of Class A loading. It consists of either a tracked vehicle of 70 tonnes or a two axle wheeled vehicle of 40 tonnes. Detailed dimensions, kerb distances etc. are given in Figs. 1.12 (a) and 1.12 (b). Bridges designed for Class AA loading should also be checked for equivalent lanes of Class A loading since under certain conditions, heavier stresses are obtained under such equivalent Class A loading. The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles is specified as 90 m. Introduction 21 (i) Elevation eee Suggested Equivalent | Concentrated teadings Lett Most 7 Front Whee peace erage b-9@ 360-3240 (20toads @ 3.5¢ =70¢ on Two Tracks) Gi) Plan 1200. 35t ‘35t -- 2300 —4 (iii) Cross-Section (All Dimensions are in mm) Figure 1.12 (a) IRC Class AA Tracked Vehicle in) IRC Class 70R Loading This is the revised version of Class AA loading and consists of tracked and wheel loadings. The: loading is detailed in Appendix I of IRC Code [19]. ‘The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of the track or wheel is same as for Class AA loading. The spacing between successive vehicles is 30 m. This spacing is measured from the rear ‘most point of ground contact of the leading vehicle to the forward most Point of ground contact of the following vehicle.22, Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis A300 F +41 3001-700 -+ 300} +4300}. Et | | + t i 375t 625t 6251 3758 (i) Cross Section Lett Most + + he a Front Wheel BS 8 + + + + L +600 -+- 1000 + 600 4 -—— 2200 —_—__+} (ii) Plan Carriage Way Minimum width Value of ¢ Single Lane Bridges 3800 and 300 above Multi Lane Bridges < 5500 600 > 5500 1200 | All Dimensions are in mm Figure 1.12 (b) IRC Class AA Wheeled Vehicle TOR wack loading, as before, weighs 70 tonnes (Fig. 1.13). The track dimensions are slightly different than those of Class AA track loading. For design purposes, wherever required, each strip leading could be idealised into a suitable number of point loads say 8 oF 10, TOR wheel loading is of two types: (1) TOR Bogie loading weighing 40 tonnes through two axles each weighing 20 tonnes (Fig. 1.14a) and (2) 70R train loading weighing 100 tonnes through seven axles, one axle of 8 tonnes, ‘wo axles of 12 tonnes each and four axles of 17 tonnes each (Fig. I.14b). Introduction 23 +————_ 1920 —___} (a) Elevation Atte ttt ed Kvggested Emvivalent Concentrated Loadings: & ZA ttetereeed Lett Most 7 f° 9@487 = 4113—+{ Front Wheel (20loads @3.5t=70t on Two Tracks) (b) Plan 13800. BO» 1220- 38T ast -— 2900 —4 (c) Cross-Section Clearance ‘C’ same as tor Class AA Loading {AIL Dimensions are inmm) Figure 1.13 IRC Class 70R Track Loading ‘An axle may have four or eight wheels on it. There are two, four wheel arrangements and one, eight wheel arrangement leading to thiee alternate ‘wheel arrangements termed as Col. ‘I, Col. ‘m’ and Col. ‘n’ arrangements [19]. All axles will have the same arrangement of wheels at a time and all wheels on an axle will have equal loads. The two alternate four wheel arrangements namely Col. ‘l’ and Col. ‘m’ are given in Figs. 1.14(a, b). The eight wheel arrangement namely Col. ‘n’ is not found critical and is not given here. However, if required, details of Col. ‘n’ arrangement could be obained from IRC Code [19].2A. Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis -——— 4880 ——___ . 1220 _ 20t 20t (i) Elevation + +> | + + i. ——_ 08 + + af | Lett Most“ oe Front Wheel (ii) Plan "eee ea pb hay (iii) Cross-section Note: (i) Min.‘c" same os for Class A A Loading (i) Max. ‘w? = 410 i) Either a=450 & b=1480 (Col.‘I’) or a=795 & b=790 (Col-‘m’); 50 that (2asb) = 2380 Figure 1.14 (a) IRC Class 70R Bogie Loading IRC Code {19} also gives in Appendix I certain other types of track and wheeled loadings. These are lighter than Class 70R tracked and wheeled loadings discussed above. These are to be adopted if a user specifies these for the bridge _ For detailed loading Standards and their specifications, the reader is ad- vised to consult the relevant IRC Codes of Practice mentioned under refer ences (18, 19]. ‘The above IRC loads are placed on the bridge deck and moved longitu- Ginally as well as transversely in small increments to cover the entire bridge Insroduction 28 (i) Elevation + + + + + + + + + + + + + + bate bh od b#— 2380 —41 A ke ee (emer Ge elae Front Wheel Note : Cross-Section and distances are as for Bogie Loading shown in Fig. 1.14(a) (All dimension are in mm) Figure 1.14 (0) IRC Class 70R Wheel Loading deck. One Class A or Class B loading can be put on every lane of the roadway of a bridge. For mult-lane bridges, one lane of Class AA or Class. 70 R per two lanes of the carriageway is allowed as an alternate to Class A loading. 1.7.4 Impact Loads Another major loading on the bridge superstructure is due to the vibra- tions caused when the vehicle is moving over the bridge. The theoretical estimation of this load is quite complex as it depends upon a variety of factors such as roughness of the surface, spring system of the vehicle, con- dition of expansion joints at the entry to bridge etc. The IRC Code [19], however, recommends definite values of impact factors for the vehicles for simplifying the analysis. The value of impact load is expressed as a percentage of the live load, depending upon the ‘material used in the construction of deck of the bridge, type of loading and26 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis the bridge span. This percentage can be calculated using suitable formulae [19] oF could be directly read from Figs. 1.15 (ab) for both steel and Concrete bridges for different types of IRC loadings. 55545 & 5 es yo so Impact factor (percent) 8 Ss T of 10 15 20 2% 30 35 4 48 50 Span (m) Class A and Class B Loadings Figure 1.15 (a) Impact Percentage Curves 1.7.5 Footway, Kerb, Railing and Parapet Live Loads ‘The following provisions have been made for footpath, ker, railing and Parapet live loadings in IRC:6-1987 [19]. (For all parts of bridge floors accessible only to pedestrians and ani- Gi) mals and for all footways, the loading shall be taken as 400 kg/m? ‘Where crowd loads are likely to occur, such as on bridges located near ‘owns, which are either centres of pilgrimage or where large congre ational fairs are held seasonally, the intensity of footway loading be increased from 400 kg/m? to 500 kg/m? Kerbs, 0.6 m or more in width, shall be designed for the above loads and for a local lateral force of 750 kg per metre, aprtied horizontally at the top of the kerb. If the kerb width is less than 0.6 m, no live load Rg TRE ii) Introduction 27 Esp 325 & ~ 20 £ B15 $10 2 =o 3 0 18 20 2 30 39 40 4S Span (m) : (0) Class AA and Class 70R Wheeled Loading 330) $ ash zs a L= Span in m S20 4 Concrete & Steet 25h $ 2 3") TONES 3 Lop pe E°0 8 0% 2 % 30 35 00 WO Span (m) ; (b) Class AA and Class 70R Tracked Loading Figure 1.15 (b) Impact Percentage Curves, Imay be necessary in addition tothe lateral load specified above. The horizontal force need not be considered in the design of the main structural members of the bridge. In bridges designed for IRC vehicular loadings, the members support- ing the footways shall be designed for the following live load per square metre of footway area, the loaded length of footway taken in each case being such as to produce the worst effects on, the member under consideration: a) For effective span of 7.5 m or less, 400 kg/m? or 500 kg/m? as the case may be as per (i) above. b) For effective spans of over 7.5 m but not exceeding 30 m, the intensity of load shall be determined according to the equation:2 Grilage Analogy in Bridge Deck Anais P =» (8) ©) For effective spans of over 30 m, the intensity of load shall be determined according to the equation P (P-20 Fi where P’ = 400 kg/m* or 500 kg/m? as the case may be based on (i) above. P = the live load in kg/m* (iv) Each part of the footway shall be capable of carrying a wheel load of 4 tonnes, which shall be deemed to include impact, distributed over a Contact area, 300 mm in diameter; the permissible working stresses shall be increased by 25 per cent to meet this provision. (¥)_ The railings or parapets shall be designed to resist a lateral horizontal force and a vertical force each of 150 kg/m applied simultaneously at the top of the railing or parapet. These forces need not be considered in the design of the main structural members if footpaths are provided, In cases where footpaths are not provided, the effect of these forces Shall be considered in the design of the structural system supporting the railings and the footpath upto the face of the footpath kerb only. 1.8 COMMENTS ON LOADING STANDARDS Bridge Design Codes of most of the countries prescribe some or the other form of standard live loading to be used in the design. It is observed that there is large variation amongst these live loadings and itis difficult to imagine that the traffic pattern would be differing so widely especially amongst the developed countries. A comparative study of highway bridge loadings of different countries over a span of 100 m for two lane bridges was made by ‘Thomas (12]. His graphs for maximum bending moments and shear forces are reproduced in Fig. 1.16. Tt will be seen dhat the American loading (AASHO loading) gives lowest design values and German loading gives the highest design values over almost the entire span range considered. ‘The existing IRC loadings are complicated in their application, espe- Cially if various types of live loadings are to be considered alternately in the Introduction 29 & $58 2b nding momentxrd(tm) 8 16 0 20 40 60 80 100 Span(m) (0) Maximum bending moment tor two lanes 730 Legend ses-New zealand 120 Shear force (t) g sob | ——BS (HA group) Lexasre FINDA | sweden soyF 0 20 40 60 80 100 ‘Span(m) {b) Maximum shear force for two lanes Figure 1.16 Comparison of Highway Bridge Lot design to determine the severest effects. Class 70R loading is a newly30° Griligge Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis introduced live loading and can be taken as a replacement of IRC Class AA loading. But this loading is also not simple. ‘The basis for IRC provisions regarding impact is aot clear. No systematic study has been made to derive realistic impact facto for road bridges in our country. The impact effect need not be considered for the full length of the {oad but needs only be applied to the heaviest axle or the pair of adjacent wheels causing the maximum bending moment or shear ‘The task of the designers will be simplified if some concerted efforts are made to introduce some degree of uniformity into national loading specif. cations with respect to international loading specifications. Newly formed {nemational Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has taken up the responsibility of producing a Standard Loading Code and considerable Drogress has been made in this direction. It is hoped that common interna. tionally acceptable Bridge Specifications including Loading Standards will emerge in the near furure. 19 ORGANISATION OF THE TEXT Over the years, a number of methods of analysis of highway bridges have been evolved. The method of grllage analogy which is a well-established and computer oriented method, bridges the gap between overly simplified hand computation methods and sophisticated fnite element and finite stip methods. To Iay the foundation of the book, the present Introductory Chapter is ceveted to discuss some of the recent developments in the area of bridge analysis, design and construction that have taken place. Various forms of bighway bridge construction, their planforms and support configurations are outlined. Loading standards recommended by Indian Roads Congress (IRC) and adopted in India for highway bridges, are described. The details of some of the important loadings for which the analysis of bridge decks are carried Out, are also given. The Loading Standards of some of the advanced coun- tries are compared with Indian Standard Loadings. Critical comments on Indian loadings are given and the scope and need for a unified loading is emphasised. In order to make the reader appreciate the relative usefulness and poten- Lalities of grllage analogy, itis considered prudent to discuss various other methods of analysis of bridge decks also. A brief review of the important ‘methods of analysis of highway bridges inciuding grilage analogy is under- taken in Chapter 2, These methods are described in relaion to their historical Inaroduction 31 background, methodology, applicability, merits and limitations. Further, the applicability of these methods to various types of bridges having different lan geometry and support conditions is also presented in a tabular form. tis assumed that the readers have sufficient exposure to matrix methods of structural analysis on which the method of grillage analogy is based. But to maintain 2 continuity of discussion when the reader is to deal with a Computer program in the succeeding chapter of the book using direct stiff- hess method, a brief outline of the stiffness method and the formulation and assembly of stiffness matrix for skeletal structures are presented in Chapter 3. Gauss-Elimination Procedure and Cholesky’s Factorisation method to solve the large number of resulting simultaneous equations are also dis- cussed. A simple but a general computer program in FORTRAN illustrating different steps involved in matrix formulation of skeletal grid having any Planform under externally applied nodal loads, is included and is given in Appendix I. This will provide a background to understand the comprehen- sive software developed and later presented in Chapter 6. Also, the designer will be able to make changes easily in the program, if needed, as per his requirements. A skew grid is analysed using the program for hypothetical concentrated foad at nodes, as an illustration. Chapter 4 idealises the actual bridge structure into a suitable equivalent ‘mathematical model of a grillage consisting of longitudinal and transverse arid lines. The general guidelines for choosing suitable grid layout are given and also illustrated through typical examples of slab, slab-on-girders and box-girder bridges. The procedure for the evaluation of equivalent elastic Droperties ie. flexural moment of inertia ‘I’ and torsional inertia ‘I’ are also discussed for the above types of bridge decks. The longitedinal and transverse members of the idealised grillage form a mesh having 2 number of nodes. Grillage analysis requires that the dead, live and impact loads actually acting on bridge decks, are transformed into equivalent loads acting on nodes of the mesh. Chapter 5 discusses different types of loads and identifies the panels in which the wheel loads of a vehicular live ioading fall. The transfer of loads to nodes of grillage in the form of equivalent nodal loads is also given. The analysis of grillage is then cansied out and resulting torce responses and design envelopes are dis- cussed. The interpretation of results so obtained and the local effects to be included in the design, are also outlined. Slab, slab-on-girders and box-airder decks, both of right and skew configuration, are dealt with.32. Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis Chapter 6 presents a computer program based on grillage analogy devel- oped in FORTRAN for the elastic analysis of bridge decks, covering right and skew layouts. The important features of the program are highlighted. ‘The Program Manual consisting of listing of variables, sign conventions, descriptions of subroutines, flow charts and the Users Manual comprising data input and output formats for the force responses, are thoroughly dis- cussed and explained with illustrations. The designer, not willling to go ‘through the previous sections of the book and with litle exposure to the structural behaviour of the bridge, can prepare the imput data and can stil ‘analyse the bridge for different IRC loadings. The program is designed in such a way that any loading standard other than Indian Joadings can be easily incorporated without involving much changes in the program. The program developed can deal with solid, voided and pseudo-slabs, T-beam and I-beam bridges with or without cross-beams, single and multi-cell box-girder bridges and composite bridges. The bridges supported on neo- rene bearings (yielding supports) can also be handled. The complete listing of the program is given in Appendix II. The limitations and scope of the rogram are discussed. ‘Theoretical discussion only does not convince a designer of the versatil- ity of a technique unless it is supplemented by its application on a variety of actual problems. To achieve this objective, number of worked out examples of different types of slab, T-beam, and box-girder bridges are included in (Chapter 7. The examples chosen are the life size bridges and some of them have already been constructed in India. The bridges are analysed for Indian ‘Standard Loadings and for users’ specified loadings also in some cases. To enhance the usefulness of the book, some of the important parameters encountered in practice e.g. yielding of supports, effects of variation in ‘numbers and spacings of longitudinal and transverse grid lines etc. are highlighted through the above worked out examples. Relevant references are added after the end of each chapter to enable the reader to consult further for more details, The book also contains two appendices. Appendix I pertains to the listing of the general program ‘GRID’ as discussed in Chapter 3 and Appendix Il consists of listing of computer program-‘GABS’. Dickette with executable files of these programs, compatible to IBM PC, alongwith inpuvourput ‘modules for the worked examples, illustrated in Chapter 7, has been pre- pared and can be ordered from the authors through the publishers. Inaroduction 33 REFERENCES 1. Baxi, B. and Jascen, L.G., “Bridge Analysis Simplified", McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 1985. 2 Cousens, AR and Paws, RP, "Bridge Deck Analysis", John Wiley and Sons, 1975. 3. Hawa, EC., “Bridge Deck Behaviour”, Chapman and Hall, London, 1976, 4. Hasvey, Dan I. "Recent Trends in Short and Medium Span Highway Bridges in the United Kingdom’, Proc. In Conf. on Short and Medium Span Bridges, Vol. 1, 1982. 5. Kuea, F and Lin, TLY., “Comparative Studies of Medium Span Box-Girder Bridges with Other Precast Systems”, Proc. Intl. Conf. on Short and Medium Span Bridges, Vol. 1, 1982. 6. Lee, D.J_ “Progress in Bridge Engineering”, Developments in Structural Engi- ‘neering, Proc. Fourth Rail Bridge Centenary Conference, Vol. 1, 1990. 7. Manuivar. JE, “Recent Developments in Prestressed Concrete Bridges”, FIP Notes, 1988, 8. Poxwuswasr, S., “Bridge Engineering”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Lid, New Delhi. 1986, 9. Raina, VK, “Concrete Bridge Practice Construction, Maintenance and Rehabili- tation”, Ta McGraw-Hill Publishing Co, Lid., New Delhi, 1988, 10. Rowe, RE. and Somenvne, G., “Research on Slab Type and Spine Beam Bridge”, Proc. Int. Conf. on Developments in Bridge Design and Construction Crosby Lackwood & Son Lid., 1971. 11, Srenwax. DB. and Warsow, S.R., “Bridges and their Builders", Dover Publica- tions, New York, 1957, 12, ‘Twomas, PK.. “A Comparative Study of Highway Bridge Loadings in Different Countries”. U.K. Transport and Road Research Laboratory—Supplementary Re- port 135 UC, 1975, 13. Vicror, DJ., “Essentials of Bridge Engineering”, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Dethi. 1980. 14, Wretawo, M., "Modem Bridge Engineering in Structural Concrete", Proc. of Asia-Pacific Conference on Road, Highway and Bridge Maintenance and Reha- bilitaion, Bangkok, 1987. 15, Wirrrowr, H., “Building Bridges", Bentan Veriog GmbH, Germany, 1984 16. “Specificaions for Highway Bridges", PL. I and Pt Ill, Japan Road Association, 1984, 17. “Bridge Rules Specifying the Loads for Designing the Super and Sub-structaes of Bridges and for Assessing the Strength of Existing Bridges", Govt. of India Publication. Ministry of Railways, New Delhi, 1977. 18. IRC:5-1985, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section I~General Features of Design”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 1996,34. Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis 19. IRC:6-1987, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Bridges, Section Loads and Stresses", Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 1990, 20. IRC:18-1985, “Design Criteria for Prestressed Concrete Road Bridges (Post-tensioned Concrete)", Indian Roads Congress. New Delhi, 1990 21, 18:1343-1981, “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Presuressed Concrete”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1981. | Chapter 2 Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 2.1 INTRODUCTION Extensive research into the behaviour of bridge decks under loading had been carried out over the past five decades and a number of methods of bridge deck analysis were evolved from time to time. Prior to the general Use of the computer-aided analysis, hand computation methods and chars based on some approximations and idealizations, provided convenient ‘methods of load distribution. These were reasonably accurate for design Purposes. However, with the advent of digital computers, many Computer-aided methods have been developed and are in use although some of these methods are highly numerical and expensive. The present chapter aims at giving a broad idea about the various impor- fant methods of bridge deck analysis. The applicability of the different ‘methods in relation to bridge type, plan geometry and support conditions is also presented in a tabular form. 2.2. METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND THEIR APPLICABILITY Different techniques commonly in use for the analysis of bridge decks of various types and configurations are: 1. Courbon’s Method Orthotropic Plate Theory Finite Difference Method Method of Harmonic Analysis Grillage and Space Frame Analogy Folded Plate Analysis ite Element Method and Finite Strip Method36 Griligge Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 37 Each of the above techniques is more suited to a particular type or types of bridge decks depending upon the closeness of the actual structure with the assumptions of the method. The applicability of the methods to various types of bridges is illustrated in Table 2.1. It may be evident that one particular type of bridge deck can be analysed by more than one method and in such cases, the choice rests with the designer depending upon the facility, time available, economy and of course his familiarity with the method. ‘The above methods will be discussed briefly in relation to their historical background, applicability, merits and limitations in succeeding sections. For more details, the references given at the end of the chapter may be useful. Continuous Arbitrary ‘Simply Supported 23 COURBON’S METHOD Courbon presented the method [10] at the time when other sophisticated and ‘more accurate techniques for bridge deck analysis were not commonly available. The method makes simplifying assumptions, restricting its appli- cability to a certain extent but the method has been very popular because of its simplicity. The method is applicable to inter-connected T-beam bridges and is still in vogue in India and is recommended by Indian Roads Congress for live load distribution strictly within its limitations. ‘The method is recommended to be used when the following conditions are satisfied : i) The ratio of span to width is greater than 2, i) The longitudinal girders are inter-connected by about five symmetri- cally spaced cross-beams, and fii) The cross-beams extend to a depth of at least three-fourth of the depth of the longitudinal girders. These conditions are not difficult to satisfy in majority of actual T-beam bridges. According to Courbon’s method, the load R, on any girder i of a bridge consisting of multiple parallel girders (Fig. 2.1) is computed assum- ing a linear variation of deflection in the transverse direction. The deflection Curved Arbitrary Plan Geometry >is Right Skew Skew < 15° “Techn Tipe of Dock Box- Beam Girder and Slab Pseudo T- Slab of Inertia. Tar aid . a! iP i thod 2 3 < wl of Method of Harmonie Analysis Finite Strip Vethod Orthotropie Plate Gillage Analogy Folded Plate Method Theory Finite Blement ‘Courbion’'s Me Method. Analysis Ma Figure 21 Deflection Profile in Courbea's Method38 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis will be maximum in the exterior girder on the side of the eccentric load (or ©.g. of loads, if there is a system of concentrated loads) and minimum on the other exterior girder. The load R, is given by or, ay where J, = moment of inertia of ith longitudinal girder P = total live load € = eccentricity of live load (or in case of multiple loads, distance of cg. of loads from centroid of moment of inertias) 4, = distance of ith girder from centroid of moment of inertia For a N-girder bridge with all girders having same moment of inertia, the above formula reduces to It xed) 2) The above load on the girder is used to determine the bending moment in the girders. For evaluating shear force in the girders, the same load disti- bution is valid for loads lying beyond 5.5 m from either supports. For loads lying at or within 5.5 m of either support, the reactions on the longitudinal ‘girders shall be greater of the results obtained by (i) assuming the deck slab simply supported or continuous, as the case may be, with the supports being taken as unyielding and (ii) following Courbon’s method {51]. The Courbon's method under-estimates the load on interior girders and generally overestimates the load on the exterior girders. However, these inaccuracies shall be significantly reduced if the cross-beams are deeper and more in num- bers. With the availability of more accurate methods, this procedure may be used for preliminary design of girder-sections only. 24 ORTHOTROPIC PLATE THEORY The use of orthotropic plate theory for the approximate analysis of simply supported right concrete bridge decks was pioneered by Guyon [16] and Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 39 Massonnet [30]. Design curves were prepared by Morice, Little and Rowe {(32] and a summary of the design technique using these curves had been presented by Rowe [39]. Later Bares and Massonnet [2] and Cusens & Pama [11] further developed the method. ‘The design curves are based on the distribution of deflection due to the first harmonic load. The maximum ‘calculated longitudinal moments and stresses are increased by 10 per cent to account for dropping the higher harmonic loading terms in the analysis. This approximation is reasonable for longitudinal moments but the transverse moments are highly dependent fon the local distribution of harmonic loads and hence superimposition of higher harmonic components becomes essential. ‘The bridge deck is replaced by an equivalent plate with bending and torsional rigidities in two orthogonal directions and the following well-known partial differential equation, governing the behaviour of the equivalent system, is obtained, d‘w d‘w d‘w De OM as te = Pleo) 23) where 2H = (D, + D,, + D, + D,) D, and D, are the equivalent flexural rigidities and D, and D, are the juivalent torsional rigidities per unit width in longitudinal and iransverse directions respectively. D, and D, are the coupling rigidities per unit width arising due to Poisson's ratio effects. The flexural and torsional rigidities have significant influence on the load distribution. Their effect is considered through two dimensionless characterising parameters namely flexural parameter @ and torsional para- ‘meter @ as given below ; 6(D, y* {2 24 2(2] cS) » and « ee 23) 2f@,0) where, 2a and 2b represent span and width of the equivalent plate respec- tively. The coupling rigidities D, and D, are small and can be neglected without introducing any significant error. ‘The dimensionless distribution coefficients, which are given for nine stan- dard reference points and load positions across the bridge width, are plotted40 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis ‘oF tabulated against values of @. The charts or tables are given for two values of o namely a= 0 and a= 1. Values of the coefficient K, for any interme- diate value of @ are obtained by the following interpolation function, K,= K, + (K,- Ka 26) where K, and K, afe the corresponding coefficients for @ = 0 and a = 1.0 respectively. For analysis by this method, the applied loads are converted into equivalent ‘concentrated loads at the standard locations. The responses corresponding to ‘each load at these locations are then added to account for the total effect. ‘Cusens and Pama [11] have improved the distribution coefficient approach by taking seven terms of the harmonic series and by extending the range of a upto 2.0. Another set of curves are available for transverse moment coefficients ‘y’ for different values of @ and for standard load eccentric ities at various pre- fixed standard stations with reference to the centre line of the bridge deck. ‘The Poisson's ratio is found to effect the transverse ‘moment coefficients and is assumed as 0.15. The flexural rigidities D, and D, of a given slab, T, box or composite section are computed as usual and pose no problem. The torsional rigidity ‘of the section is evaluated based on St. Venant’s method by taking the summation of the torsional rigidity of the components forming the section and from this torsional rigidities D,, and dD, of the section are computed. However, the orthotropic plate idealization does not always represent the physical behaviour of the bridge decks. In bridge with few girders, say 3, the bending moments obtained are subject to errors, especially if the bridge is wide and load occupies only a fraction of the width. Also, the transverse moments which are complex combination of bending between girders and bending due to non-uniform girder deflections, can not be accurately obtained. Also, the method suffers from the drawback of having to assume the deck {o be uniform throughout and also the design curves involve a certain degree ‘of approximation in use. As only the first harmonic component is used in load distribution, the method is not recommended to be used: to estimate. shear. Further, the method can not handle skew bridges. 25 FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD ‘When more complex boundary conditions are encountered in practice, the method of orthotropic plate, discussed earlier, becomes cumbersome and Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 41 difficult to apply. The finite difference method is the answer for such com- plex boundary conditions. The method is versatile in nature and has wide applications. The finite difference technique had been used to advantage, first by Neilsen [34], later by Westergaard [49] and applied to bridge decks by Naruoka and Ohmura (33), Heins and Hails [17], Robinson [38] and many others. In this method of analysis, the deck is notionally divided into grids of arbitrary mesh size and the deflection values at the grid points are treated as unknown quantities. The usual governing differential equation of an ‘orthotropic plate is considered in the finite difference method. The differen- tial equation and accompanying boundary conditions are expressed in terms of these unknown deflections. The resulting sets of linear simultaneous equations are then solved for these unknown deflections. Finally, moments and shear forces are determined from the known deflection pattem. The curved deflection profile of the deck is approximated by a series of straight lines and, naturally, accurate results can be expected only if fine grids are used. Finite difference equations for various boundary conditions like simple, fixed, free or a combination of free and simple supports can be written down for each case. However, a fixed edge condition is not treated very accurately by this method except when very fine grids are used. The simul- taneous equations formulated from these grid poinis are solved on digital computers which have matrix packages specially designed for these type of problems. ‘The presence of interconnecting beams below the slab, present a special boundary situation. A better representation of slab and beam interaction can be found by treating the two as separate structural elements which are made compatible by satisfying a set of boundary conditions. The interaction of beams and the top deck is based on the assumptions that beam and deck slab have identical deflections, the beams have no torsional rigidity and there is no horizontal force between the beams and the slab. The simplicity of the trigonometric solution for simply supported right bridge decks tends to be lost when extended to the problem of skew decks. However, the finite difference method has been used extensively for skew bridges also where the grid may be taken along the orthogonal coordinates as shown by Jensen [22], Robinson [38] or along skew coordinates as sug- gested by Naruoka and Ohmura (33}. Most of the solutions and published values of deflections and moments for skew decks refer only to isotropic plates; the mesh is coarse and accu-‘Roy 5 doubtful. Naruoka and Ohmura [33] neglected Poisson's rai, They Teak with torsonless plate (H = 0) as well as isomopic plate (H =D. = Dy. ‘They had difficulty in seting up satisfactory interpolation equations between these two limiting cases, Javour (21] produced influence surfaces for deflections and moments for 8 Wide range of skew orthotropic slabs for both uniform and concentrated (oads making various over-simplifying assumptions. Schleicher. and Wegener (41) published tables of deflections and stresses for continuene {sotropic skew slabs under uniform loading. Ghali {13] used finite difference boundary conditions. The number of parameters involved in skew bridges Wee uch that the preparation of design curves to cover a realistic range of loadings, skew angles and degree of omthotopy, does not appear to be a practical proposition. ‘The finite difference method has also been extended to bridge decks cured in plan by Heins and Hails [17] based oa governing equation of orthotropic plate in polar coordinates, neglecting Poisson's ratio. However, the efforts needed to analyse a curved deck by this method is cumbersome and is generally not recommended. 2.6 METHOD OF HARMONIC ANALYSIS In harmonic analysis, the applied load is broken into a number of harmonic components, each consisting of a distributed load Parallel to the longitudinal axis of the structure and with intensity varying as pure sine-wave ae shown as aes Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 43 ay % S % f ag a nal m2 ns nh : Berra a Figure 2.2 Representation of Load by Harmonic Series Under the action of each sine-wave load component, every longitudinal strip of the structure deflects and twists in a pure sine-wave form. Since differential of sine function is a cosine function and vice-versa, the equilib- ‘um equations, which can be thought of as differentials of deflections, can also be expressed as a number of sine or cosine functions. These resulting equilibrium equations can be solved as conventional simultaneous equa- tions. The general theory of Harmonic Analysis is described in detail in many books of mathematics including Kreyszig [24]. ‘The concege of harmonics method, applied to bridges, was established by Hendry and Jaeger [18] and their method is referred as Hendry-laeger method. In this approach, the actual transverse medium is replaced by a uniform continuous medium of the same total transverse moment of inertia. For torsionally weak bridges, the load distribution defined through distri bution coefficient ‘p" is shown to depend upon dimensionless flexural pa- ameter @, which is defined as 5 12(LY Ely i(L) Ely (2.8) a(3) El ) where L = span of the bridge, h = distance between adjacent longitudinals, £1 = flexural rigidity of a longitudinal girder and El, = total flexural rigidity of transverse medium. Hendry-Jaeger produced design graphs between at and p for T-beam right bridges having 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 girders (18). To cater for a bridge having ‘more than six girders, the bridge is suggested to be converted into an equivalent 6-girder bridge. Also, for slab bridges, it is recommended that the deck should be converted into an equivalent 6-girder bridge. To take into account the transverse positions of loads, a versus p plotting is done for loads placed on various girders. In order to account for higher harmonics, the method suggests modifications in the value of a itself using the same44 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis - p plot. As the method can consider higher harmonic components, it can estimate shear also fairly accurately. Hendry Jaeger had also given analysis for torsionally stiff girder bridges. The torsional rigidity, CJ of the girder is considered through a dimensionless parameter f which is defined as, Ph Cl beet 29) ‘The extreme value of f for torsionally stiff bridges has been assumed as infinity. Design graphs between a and p for B= « have also been plotted similar to graphs for torsionally weak bridges namely, B = 0. Coefficients for any intermediate value of B may be obtained by using following inter- polation function; Py =Po+0.- 2) (24 2.10) where p, and p_ are the distribution coefficients corresponding to = 0 and B= « respectively and p, isthe distribution coefficient for the desired value of B Hendry-Jacger suggested method to analyse torsionally weak (B = 0) three and four girder skew bridges. Only the first harmonic components of the loading and deflection were considered. For more accurate analysis of 3-girder torsionally weak skew bridges, Jaeger, Bakht and Surana [19] extended the method by incorporating second harmonic term also in the analysis. Design graphs were also prepared. Surana [45] developed a general mathematical model for the analysis of skew girder bridges of finite torsional rigidity incorporating first three har- ‘monic components for displacement functions and first two harmonic com- ponents for rotation function. To take into account the effect of skew angle 4, an additional dimensionless skew parameter K = (h/L) tan A, was intro- duced. The analysis of right bridge could be obtained by putting A = 0. Agrawal (1) and Prasad [37] extended the above method further and gave design tables and charts for use in design offices for three and four girder bridges. Harmonic method has advantage in its inherent capability to completely identify a girder. bridge by a certain combination of non-dimensional structural parameters. These parameters help in visualising the structural — Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 45 behaviour due to change in bridge dimensions which in tum help in decision-making about the trial sections. The method is best suited for the analysis of beams and slab right and skew decks with 3 and 4 girders. But for a bridge with more girders, the number bf coefficients to be handled for a reasonably accurate result, become rather large. 27 GRILLAGE AND SPACE FRAME ANALOGY For any given deck, there will invariably be-a choice amongst a number of methods of analysis which will give acceptable results. When the complete field of slab, pseudo-slab and slab-on-girders decks are considered, grillage analogy seems to be completely universal with the exception of Finite Element and Finite Strip methods which will always cary a heavy cost penalty for a structure as simple as a slab bridge. Further, the rigorous ‘methods of analysis like Finite Element Method, even today, are considered too complex by some bridge designers. The grillage analogy method can be applied to the bridge decks exhib- iting complicated features such as heavy skew, edge stiffening, deep haunches over supports, continuous and isolated supports etc., with ease. ‘The method is versatile, in that, the contributions of kerb beams and foot- paths and the effect of differential sinking of girder ends over yielding supports (such as neoprene bearings) can be taken into account. Further, it is easy for an engineer to visualise and prepare the data for a grillage. Also, the grillage analysis programs are more generally available and can be run om personal computers. The method has proved to be reliably accurate for a wide variety of bridge decks. This method of analysis, based on stiffness matrix approach, was made amenable to computer programming by Lightfoot and Sawko [25]. West (47, 48] made recommendations backed by carefully conducted experiments on the use of grillage analogy. He made suggestions towards geometrical layout of grillage beams to simulate a variety of concrete slab and seudo-slab bridge decks, with illustrations. Gibb [14] developed a general ‘computer program for grillage analysis of bridge decks using direct stiffness approach that takes into account the shear deformation also. Martin (28], then followed by Sawko [40] derived stiffness matrix for curved beams and Prociaimed a computer program for a rilage for the analysis of decks, curved in plan. The grillage analogy has also been used by Jaeger and Bakht [20] for a variety of bridges. ‘The method consists of converting the structure into a network of skeletal members rigidly connected to each other at nodes. The load-deformation telationship at the two ends of a skeletal element with reference to the46 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis ‘member axis is expressed in terms ofits stiffuess propery. This relationship which is expressed with reference to the member coordinate axis, is then transferred to the structure or global axis using transformation matrix, so that the equilibrium condition that exists at each aode in the structure can be satisfied. ‘The bridge structure is very stiff in the horizontal plane due to the Presence of decking slab. The translational displacements along the two horizontal axes and rotation about the vertical axis will be negligible and may be ignored in the analysis. Thus a skeletal structure will have three degrees of freedom at each node i.e. freedom of vertical displacement and freedom of rotations about two mutually perpendicular axes in the horizon- tal plane. In general, a grilage with “n’ nodes will have 3n degrees of freedom. All span loadings are converted into equivalent nodal loads by computing the fixed end forces and transferring them to global axes. A set of simulta. ‘neous equations are obtained in the process and their solutions result in the ‘evaluation of the nodal displacements in the strucure. The member forces can then be determined by back substitution, Bridges are frequently designed with their decks skew to the supports, tapered or curved in plan. The behaviour and rigorous analysis are signifi. cantly complicated by the shapes and support conditions but their effects on Brllage analysis are of inconvenience rather than theoretical complexity. Space Frame idealisation of bridge decks has also found favour with bridge designers. This idealisation is particularly useful for a box-girder Structure with variable width or depth where the finite strip and folded plate techniques are inappropriate. However, Scordelis [42] concluded certain disadvantages of space frame analysis to the extent that the computer-ime involved is excessive while the solution is still approximate “Most road bridges of beams and slab construction can be analysed as three dimensional structure by a space frame analysis which is an extension of frillage analogy. The mesh of the space frame in plan is identical to the arillage, but various transverse and longitudinal members are placed coincident with the line of the centroids of the downstand or upstand members they represent. For this reason, the space frame is sometimes referred to as “Downstand Grillage” [11]. The longimdinal and transverse members are joined by vertical members, which, being short, ae very stiff in bending. The downstand grillage behaves in a similar fashion as the plane grillage lunder actions of transverse and longitudinal torsion and bending in a vertical Plane and consequently, sectional properties of these are calculated in the same way. Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 47 Space frame programs have been used in the analysis of box-girder bridge decks. However, the simulation of boxes by space frames is not capable of predicting local effects and the method has proved expensive in use. 2.8 FOLDED PLATE ANALYSIS A folded plate is a prismatic shell formed by a series of adjoining thin plane slabs rigidly connected along their common edges. A box-girder bridge deck may be regarded as a special type of folded plate structure in thatthe plates ‘are arranged so as to form a closed section. Method of analysis originally developed by Goldberg and Leve [15] for folded plate had been adopted for the analysis of box-girders, Scordelis (42} initially applied the method of folded plate to simply supported box-girder bridges and later on extended it to continuous decks [43] also. An approximate method, known as Finite ‘Segment method, was also used by Scordelis [42] and Johnson and Lee [23] in analysing box-girder bridges. The strucuue consists of a number of rectangular plates connected at longitudinal joints. Each plate is initially assumed to be fixed at the longi- tudinal joints. Edge forces due to surface loads are determined by plate theory and, for loads in the plane of the plate, by plane stress theory. The stiffness matrix for each plate is then expressed in terms of the harmonics of a half-range Fourier series. Each joint has four degrees of freedom ic. displacement longitudinally tangential to the joint, rotation about an axis tangential to the joint and vertical and horizontal displacements. The direct stifiness metbod is used to analyse the complete structure. The method is applied to simply supported structures with support diaphragms. The dia- phragms are assumed to be infinitely rigid in their own plane but perfectly flexible in a direction normal to their own plane. The analysis can be ex- tended to include intermediate diaphragms. Harmonic analysis is used to represent applied loads. Folded Plate method is quite suitable for analysis of box-girder bridge having a few oumber of cells. The method offers a logical approach in the sense that it analyses the structure in its correct form without replacing it by an equivalent structural system. Thus, the field of application of the method is restricted to the right cellular bridge decks of uniform cross-sections having intermediate diaphragms but which must be simply supported at the extreme ends with rigid diaphragms positioned over the supports. However, within its field of application, the method is efficient in terms of computer time, is accurate and yields complete information about the elastic stresses in the structure,48 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis 29 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD During the past two decades, the Finite Element Method (FEM) of analysis has rapidly become a very popular technique for the computer solution of complex problems in engineering and the method is now well-known and established. Its early application to problems of plate flexure led to its adoption as a convenient tool in the solution of many bridge decks where its generality gave it a considerable edge over many other specialised tech- niques. The method is able to tackle complex planforms, irregularly posi- tioned supports, holes in the deck and other anisowopic features. Thus, the Finite Element Method may seem to be very general in application and indeed, for difficult bridge deck problems, it is sometimes the only valid form of analysis. ‘The technique was pioneered for two dimensional elastic structures by Tumer et al {46} and Clough {9] in the latter half of fifty’s. Since then, ‘considerable developments have been made in theory and execution of FEM and it got further impetus due to availability of faster and larger digital computers. The method was further developed by Zienkiewicz [50], Martin and Carey [29], Desai and Abel [12] etc. and was applied to bridge decks by Scordelis [44], Meyer [31], and many others. The current state-of-the-art (on the theory of FEM and its application to bridge structure, is available in reference 27, The FEM consists of solving the mathematical model which is obtained by idealising a structure as an assembly of various discrete two or three dimensional elements connected to each other at their nodal points, possess- ing an appropriate number of degrees of freedom. The solution by FEM essentially involves four basic steps: 1, Discretisation of the structure into finite elements, 2. Evaluation of element properties, 3. Matrix formulation for element assemblage and its solution, and 4, Interpretation of results. ‘The most important step in the finite element method of analysis is the formulation of a mathematical model of the actual structure which is repre- sented as an assemblage of discrete parts, known as elements. Each element of the model has finite dimensions and properties and in order to perform subsequent analysis, it is necessary to establish the fo.ce-lisplacement relationships of each element. ‘The bridge deck is represented as an elastic continuum and the division of the structure in ‘elements’ can be cartied out in many different ways, For Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 49 example, in a slab deck; the elements may be taken as triangular or quadrilat- eral plate elements. The representation may be coarse with a small number of elements or fine using a relatively large number of elements. The actual choice will depend upon the geometry of the structure, on the importance of local features and also on the convergence properties of the element. ‘The usual direct stiffness or displacement method of analysis is applied while assembling the elements and solving the bridge deck for sess responses. Equilibrium of the internally and extemally applied forces at each node of ‘an element and the compatibility of element deformations are both satisfied. Also, the intemal force-displacement relationships must be established with each element as governed by the existing geometry and material propery characteristics. The interpretation of stress resultants for design is a cumber- some process and the job becomes still difficult if large number of elements ‘ae involved and the support conditions and loading systems are complex. ‘The main advantage of the method over other analytical techniques, is its generality. Normally, as was pointed out, it seems possible, by using many elements, to virwally approximate any continuum with complex boundary and loading conditions to such a degree that an accurate analysis can be expected. In practice, however, engineering limitations arise, the most important being the cost of the analysis. As the number of elements increases, the manpower required to prepare the data and interpret the results increases and also a larger amount of computer time is needed for the analysis. Further- ‘more, the non-availability of the softwares and large computers may prevent the use of a large number of finite elements to idealise the deck. The method invariably requires a high speed computer and back up storage for solving any real bridge problem. Also, the round-off and truncation errors occuring in the analysis because of finite precision arithmatic are further impedi- ‘ments. It is, therefore, desirable to use only efficient finite element programs which in tum essentially depend upon the use of efficient finite elements, Programming methods and the use of appropriate numerical techniques. The application of FEM to bridge problems will need a thorough under- standing and knowledge of almost all the facets of advanced structural mechanics and numerical techniques which many a times a design engineer ay not have. Also, the softwares based on FEM are not so easily available and also the understanding of its use for the bridge deck analysis is difficult Versatile as it may be in application, the method can be shown to be ‘uneconomical in analysing bridge decks of regular shape specially right structures with simple end supports. Thus, the method should be reserved for bridge decks which are inca- Pable of solution by any of the simpler and more economical methods.50° Grilege Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis 2.10 FINITE STRIP METHOD ‘The finite strip approach when first ionic function (in the span-wise direction). The harmonic functions ag chosen to satisty the end support conditions. In effect, the Gite strip spans between two opposite end supports, In this method, the structu Of strips. Each strip has constant thickness; from strip to strip. The strip stiffness matrix of a strip with pre-set en re is assumed to be discretised into a number however, the thickness can vary is weated as a beam shown in Fig. 2.3. The 1d conditions is formulated. The loading can be point load, patch load or line load. Auxiliary Nodal Line m y Simply Supported edge Hepeeeys TET 1 ' i TRL stipe Wy Here falt ett I ACHE were LE Nodal Lines Figure2.3. Nodal and Auxiliary Nodal Lines in Finite Strips [The continuum is divided ino strips by fictitious lines called Nodal Lines and these strips are assumed number of nodal lines which '9 be connected to one another along discrete coincide with longitudinal boundaries of the Published by Cheung (5] in 1968.69, Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis $1 Strips. A displacement function in terms of the nodal displacement para- meter is chosen and then strain and stress fields within each element are obtained. Based on the chosen displacement function, itis possible to obtain stiffness and load matrices which are then assembled to form a set of overall stiffness equations. Since the band-width and the size of the matrix is usu- ally small, the equations can be solved easily by any standard band matrix solution technique to yield the nodal displacement parameters. For more refined solutions of general applicability to both for slab and cellular decks of uniform cross-sections, the concept of Auxiliary Nodal Lines (ANL) between the normal: strip boundaries was introduced by Loo and Cusens [26]. In the solution of the basic force-displacement equation, the unknown amplitudes at auxiliary nodal lines may be written in terms of the unknowns at the boundaries before the matrix equations are assembled from individual strips. This is a useful property of the ANL technique as it Permits higher order functions to be incorporated into the finite stip formu- lation without affecting the band-width of the overall matrix equation. The resulting compute time for an individual problem is only marginally higher than for the analysis based on the conventional technique using a third order Polynomial function and nodal lines at the boundaries of each strip. ‘The accuracy of a finite strip analysis depends mainly upon the number of finite strips used in representing the actual structure and upon the number of terms retained for the Fourier series functions. The finite strip procedure for rectangular slab-type bridge decks had been first suggested by Powell and Ogden [36] and later on, the method was adopted by Scordelis {43] and his collaborators in the University of Califor. nia at Berkeley, co deal with right and curved box-structures. Research work by Cheung [6] and his co-workers in applying the strip method for the analysis of slab type bridge decks with intermediate column supports [4] and simple curved slab and box-bridges [7] gave further impetus to the methodology. Other studies by Cheung on the analysis of rectangular slabs ‘with end boundary conditions other than'simple supports and with variable ‘cross-sections in the span-wise direction (8], however, have not been convinc- ingly efficient when compared with methods such as finite element analysis. The same criterion applies to the finite strip analysis of skew slab bridges Suggested by Brown and Ghali [3]. Loo and Cusens (26] had also been constantly working on the method'and its applications to bridge problems. ‘The method of finite strip, within its field of applications, is well suited for computer use. Any form of loading, including pressing forces, may be conveniently handled,52 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis However, the method suffers from the drawback that it i ideally suitable ‘o only prismatic structures with simply supported ends. Apparently, it seems that the method has not been applied to skew girder bridges with diaphragms and only right or circularly curved bridges can be analysed. Further, each finite strip is assumed to have constant geometry and material properties in longitudinal direction, AAs can be seen from the discussions of various important methods of bridge deck analysis, practically every method has its merits and limitations and some of them even have limited applicability. However, grillage analogy ‘method seems to be a general, simple, sufficiently accurate, easy to compre- hend and convenient to work even on easily available Personal Computers. Therefore, the remaining part of the book deals with different aspects of Grillage Analogy method in detail. REFERENCES 1. Acuwat, R “Analysis and Design of Interconnected Skew Girder Bridges”, PhD. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology. New Delhi, 1975, 2. Bases, R. and Massowver, C., “Analysis of Beams and Grids and Orthotropic Plates by the Guyon-Massonnet-Bares Method’, Crossby Lockwood, London, 1968, 3. Brown, TG. and Gna, A., “Finite Strip Analysis of Skew Slabs", Proc. McGill- EIC Conference in Finite Element Method in Civil Engineering, 1972 4. Cin, MS., Cuunc, YK. and Guats, A., “Analysis of Slab and Girder Bridges by the Finite Strip Method”, Building Science, Vol 5, 1970 5. Cuno, ¥.K., “The Finite Stip Method in the Analysis of Elastic Plates with Two ‘Simply Supported Ends", Proc. ICE, 40, 1968. 6 Crane, ¥.K,, “Analysis of Box-Girder Bridges by Finite Strip Method, Proc. 2nd Intl. Symposium on Conerete Bridge Design Chicago, ACI Publications, SP 26, 1968. 7. Cama, ¥.K., and Citunc, MS. “Analysis of Carved Box-Girder Bridge by Finite Sip Method,” Publication, IABSE Vol. 31/1. 1971 8. Cusunc, Y.K., “Finite Strip Method in Structural Analysis", Pergamon Press, ‘Oxford, England, 1976, 9. Clout, R.W. “The Finite Element in Plane Stress Analysis", Proc. 2nd ASCE Conf. on Electronic Computation, Pitsburg, Pa.. 1960. 10. Coumoow, J., “Application de la Resistance des Maeriaux aut Calculdes Ponts”, Dunod, Paris, 1950, 11, Cues, AR. and Pama, RP. “Bridge Deck Analysis”, John Wiley, London, 1975, 12, Desus,C:S. and Ana. LF. “Introduction to Finite Element Method”, Von Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1972, Methods of Bridge Deck Analysis 53 15, Gnats, A. “Designs of Simply Supported Skew Concrete Girder Bridges”, Proc In, Symrosium on Concrete Bridge Design, SP 26 Toronto, 1969. 14. Gio. A. “Grillage Analysis, Notes for Course on Bridge Deck Analysis", Civil Engg. Dest. University of Dundee, 1972 1S. Govnnrae. 1E. and Lave. H.L.. “Theory of Prismatic Folded Plate Structures” Publication [ABSE, Vol. 17, 1957 16. Guvos. Y. “Calcul des Ponts Larges a Poutres Multiples Solidarisees Par des Enurtoises”. Annales des Ponts et Chausees, No. 24, 1946. 17. Hews, CP and Haus, RL. "Behaviour of Stiffened Curve Plate Model”. J Struct. Dex. ASCE, Vol. 95, STI, 1969. 18. Hewory, AW. and Jasoen, LG. “The Analysis of Grid Frameworks and Retated Structures”, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Chatto é& Windus, London, 1958, 19. Iascen, LG.. Bara, B., and Surana, C.S., “Application and Analysis of Three- Ginder Skew Bridges’, Proc. Second Ind. Colloquium on Concrete in Developing Countries. Bombay, 1988, 20, Inscen, LG. and Bana, B., “The Grillage Analogy in Bridge Analysis", Cana- dian Jourzal of Civil Engineering, 9(2), 1982. 21. Javour, J. “Skew Slabs and Gridwork Bridges”, Bratislava Ceechostovakia: Slovenske Uydavataletsvo Technickij Litratury, 1967. 22, se, VP. “Analyses of Skew Slabs", Bulletin Series No, 332 University of Miinois, Minos, 1941. 23. Jonson. CD. and Let, T., “Long Non-prismatic Folded Plate Structures”, J. Struct. Dis. ASCE, Vol. 94, 1968. 24, Kaeysac, E. “Advanced Engineering Mathematics”, John Wiley New York, 1962. 25. Locirrocr and Saweo, F, “Structural Frame Analysis by Electronic Computer Grid Frameworks Resolved by Generalised Slope Deflection.” Engineering, 187, 1959, 26. Loo, ¥.C. and Cusens, AR, “The Finite Strip Method in Bridge Engineering ‘Viewpoint Publication, Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1978. 27. Mase., BL. “Review of Literature Related to the Analysis and Design of Thin Walled Beams", Technical Report 42:440, Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1970. 28. Mars, H.C, “Introduction to Matrix Method of Structural Analys Hall Book Co., New York, 1966, 29. Manx, H.C. and Caney, G., “Introduction to Finite Element Analysis”, McGraw-Hill. New York, 1973. 30. Moscow. C., “Methee de Calcul des Ponts a Poutres Multiples Tenant Compte ‘de Leur Resistance a la Torsion”, Publication, IABSE, No. 10, 1950. 31. Mover, C., “Analysis and Design of Curved Box-Girder Bridges”, Report SESM 10-22, University of California at Berkeley, 1970, 32. “Monee, PB. Lame, G. and Rowe, RE. “Design Curves for the Effects of Con- centrated Loads on Concrete Bridge Decks", Publication DBI la, Cement and Concrete Associaton, London, 1956. McGraw.33. 34 3s, 36, 37, 38, 39. 4 2. 49. 50, 1 Naswoxa, M, and Ouwuma, H,. “On the Analysis of a Skew Gitder Bridge by the ‘Theory of Onhotropic Parallelogram Plates”, Proc. ISBSE. No. 19, 1959, Neuse, NJ., “Bestemmelese of Spaedinger i Piader Ved Anvendelse of Ditferenslgninger”. Doctoral Dissertation, College of Engincering, Copenhagen, 1918, Pareasoy, D.K,W., "Load Distribution in Skew Orthotopic Plates", Ph.D. Thesis, University of Dundee, 1970, Powe, G.H and Ocoes, D.W., “Analysis of Orthotopic Stee! Plate Bridge Decks", Proc. Struct. Div., ASCE, STS, V.95, 1969, Prasao, I. “Modified Hormonics Method for Analysis and Design of Skew Girder Bridges", Ph.D. Thesis. Indian Institute of Technology. New Delhi, 1982. Rosnsox, KE, “Behaviour of Simply Supported Skew Slabs Under Concentrated Loads", Research Report No 8, Cement and Conerete Association, London, 1959, Rowe, RE., “Concrete Bridge Design”, C.R. Books Lid., London, 1962. Saar, F, “Computer Analysis of Grilleges, Curved in Plan’, Publication, [ABSE, 1967. Sommerer, C. and Wecewer, B., “Continous Skew Slabs: Tables for Statical “Analysis”, Verlog far Bauwesen, Berlin, 1968. Sconpeus, A.C, “Analysis of Simply Supported Box-Ginder Bridges”, Report ‘SESM 66-17, Dept. of Civil Engg., University of California at Berkeley, 1966, Sconoaus, A.C. “Analysis of Continous Box-Girder Bridges”, Report SESM 67- 25, University of California at Berkeley. 1967. Sconpeuss, A.C., “Analytical Solutions for Box-Girder Bridges”, Poe. Ind. Cont. (n Developments in Bridge Design and Construction, Crosby Lockwood, London, 1971, Semana, CS. “Interconnected Skew Bridge Girders”, Ph.D-Thesis, University of Edinburgh, UK, 1968. Tower, M4, CLovat, R.W., Marry, H.C, and Tarr, LJ, “Stiffness and Deflec- tion Analysis of Complex Structures", J, Aero Sei., 23, 1956. Wesr, R., “The Use of a Grillage Analogy for the Analysis of Slab and Pseudo- Slab Bridge Decks”, Research Report 21, Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1973, West, R. “Recommendations on the Use of Grillage Analysis for Slab and Pseudo-Slab Bridge Decks”, CRCA/CIRIA, Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1973, Wesrencaaso, HLM. “Formulas for the Design of Rectangular Floor Slabs‘and Supporting Girders", Proc. ACI, 22, 1926. Zrewxsewicz, O.C., “The Finite Element Method in Engineering Science”, McGraw-Hill, London. 1971 IRC:21-1987, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridge: Section I—Cement Concrete (Plain and Reinforced)", Indian Roads Congress, «New Delhi, 1991 ORE aS Chapter 3 Stiffness Method Applied to Grillage Analysis 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The bridge deck structure may be considered as an assembly of structural ‘members connected together at discrete nodes forming a grid. The deforma- tions and forces at nodes are inter-related by corresponding stiffnesses. In Order to satisfy the equilibrium and compatibility conditions at each node, 4 large number of simultaneous equations will result and the manual solu tions of these may be prohibitive. But using the matrix method of structural analysis as a primary approach, it becomes possible to obtain the computer-oriented solution. tis assumed that readers have sufficient exposure to matrix methods of structural analysis. But to maintain the continuity of discussion in succeed- ing chapters, a brief presentation of stiffness method and its formulation for bridge deck analysis by Grillage Analogy is included. A simple but geaeral Computer program, illustrating different steps involved in matrix formulation needed, is also presented, A sample grid is analysed as an example, 32 MATRIX METHOD OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS For an elastic structure, the actions P (forces and moments) and displace- ‘ments D (translations and rotations) are direcily related as {D} = [F] (P} G1) ‘where (F] is known as Flexibility Matrix of the structure and is defined as the displacement produced by @ unit value of action P. Similarly, another way of relating P and D is {P} = [K] (D) G2) Where [X] is the Stiffness Matrix and is defined as the action required to produce a unit displacement.56 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis ‘The above two matrix approaches, namely Flexibility Method and Stiff- ness Method, are commonly employed in the analysis of skeletal structures. In the flexibility method, also known as Force Method, the redundant structure 's converted into a ‘released’ or statically determinate structure by the removal of sulficient internal or external actions. The solution of the problem con- sists in finding the values of those actions which will restore compatibility Of the displacemenis at the joints and supports of the structure. The unknowns are, therefore, static unknowns. In the stiffness method, also known as Displacement Method, the redun- ‘lant structure is converted into a ‘locked up’ or fall restrained structure by locking of every joint and support. The solution of the problem then consists in finding the values of the displacements which must be applied to all joints and suppor to restore equilibrium conditions at the joints. The unknowns are, therefore, kinematic unknowns. ‘Thus it can be seen that the above two methods approach the problem om two diferent angle and this represen the esential difference between It is generally agreed that the stiffness method is more suitable for the analysis of structures than the flexibility method. One of its advantages over ihe flexibility method is that it is conducive to computer programing. Once the analytical model of a structure has been defined, no further engi Gecisions are required in the stiffness method in order t0 carry out the analysis. In flexibility approach, the reduced structure is to be solved a ‘umber of times as the choice of redundamts is not unique. The stiffness method will be used in the analysis of bridge decks by erillage analogy. The method is based on certain assumptions. The important among these are; (a) Hooke’s law applies—leading to the principle of superi sition, (b) small deformation theory holds true and (c) shear deformations ccan be ignored. The assembly process in stiffness matrix in its original form is Computationaly inefficient needing more computer time and storage. This inefficiency has been overcome in its improved version called Direct Stiff, ness Method which is readily programmable on digital computer. Various steps in direct stiffness method are discussed in the following sections. 33 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND SIGN CONVENTION Before we discuss the formulation of stiffness matrix for a member, the ‘concept of Degrees of Freedom (D.0.F) for a structure is essential. The degrees of freedom for a structure are the independent deformations which Te ‘Stiffess Method Applied to Grillage Analysis ST define the deformed shape of the structure completely. In general, any struc- ture has six degrees of freedom at a node e.g. three components of trans- lation along three orthogonal axes and three components of rotation about them. These degrees of freedom can be written in the form of a vector, known as displacement vector. This vector is generally partitioned into two sub-veetors, namely active displacement vector containing the degrees of freedom along which free displacement is possible and passive or support displacement vector which corresponds to the restrained degrees of freedom at supports. Depending upon the significance of a deformation, in a particular type of structure form, some of the above degrees of freedom can be ignored, being insignificant. Then the total number of degrees of freedom get re- duced. For example, in a grid structure, the two translations in the plane of grid and a rotation about the axis perpendicular to the plane of grid are insignificant and may be neglected. Thus, the degrees of freedom in the case of grid are reduced to only three at each node. These are translation perpendicular to the plane of grid and rotations about two orthogonal axes lying in the plane of the grid, as shown in Fig, 3.1(a) for a member of the grid in X-Y plane, These are called Global or Structural Degrees of Free- dom. For a member, the degrees of freedom are six in number, three at each end of the member (Fig. 3.1b). 7 4 (b) Figure 3.1 Global Axes and Degrees of Freedom Figure 3.2 depicts « member ‘f in conjunction with a set of member axes X,, Y, and Z,. Member axis (X,) makes an angle y with the global X-axis and the member axis (Z, ) is parallel to global Z-axis. The possible displace- ments of the ends of the member ‘' in the directions of member axes are known as Local or Member Degrees of Freedom.Uraage anaiogy in Brage Deck Analysis Figure 32 Local Axes and Degrees of Freedom In the above figure, the single headed arrows denote translations and the Gouble headed arrows represent rotations and are taken as positive in the directions shown following right hand screw rules. 34 MEMBER STIFFNESS MATRIX Consider a grid member (Fig. 33) that is fully resrained at ends j and k Member siffnesses consist of reactions exerted at the member ends by the ‘estrints when unit deformations (one translation and two rotations) are imposed at each end of the member in turn. It is assumed that the shear Gente and the centroid of the member coincide so tha ewisting and bending of the member occur independent of one another. Ym fs E1,c Xm Ay cs 1, z, " @ EL Figure33 Grid Element with End Displacements ‘The unit displacements are considered to be induced one at a time while all other end displacements are zero. ‘The member stffnesses corresponding to six possible types of end dis- Placements as shown in Fig. 3.3, are summarized pictorally in Figs. 3.4 (a) and 3.4 (b). Forces are represented by single headed arrows and moments by double headed arrows following right hand screw rule as mentioned Stifness Method Applied to Grillage Analysis 59 men o (i) Unit Translation Along Zm at End j (i) Unit Rotation About Xm at End } Yn 2eL sa ‘: . b on me a m7 v i) Unit Rotation About Ym at End j Figure 3.4 (a) Determination of Member Stiffnesses Corresponding to Degrees of Freedom at Endj earlier, All vecwors are drawn in positive senses, but in cases where the restraint actions are actually negative, a minus sign precedes the expression for the stiffness coefficient. In general, it is possible for the member to undergo any one or more of the six displacements shown in Fig. 3.4, All the member stifinesses shown in the figures are derived by determin- ing the values of restraint actions required to hold the distorted member in equilibrium. The stiffness matrix [K] for a grid member as above, therefore, is of the order 6 x 6 and each column in the matrix represents the actions caused by corresponding unit displacement. The member stiffness ‘matrix thus obtained is symmetric and is shown in equation 3.3.60 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis _— ‘ae 2 (iv) Unit Translation Along Zm at End k 2 (vi) Unit Rotation About Ym at End k Figure 3.4 (b) Determination of Member Stiffaesses Corresponding to Degrees of Freedom at End k The stiffness matrix developed above for a grid member is in terms of local degrees of freedom, which is different for different members meeting at a joint. Since the equilibrium at a joint is to be satisfied, taking into account the end actions of all members meeting at that joint together with the extemal forces if any, a common reference is essential. This is provided by global degrees of freedom and a relationship between local and global degrees of freedoms is needed. This relationship is obtained in terms of a ‘matrix Known as ‘Transformation or Rotation Matrix. Consider a grid member 1-2 in Fig. 35 with member axes X, and Y,, The relation between the deformations at node | in the original ditection and in the direction of global axes X and Y is shown. These deformations are related (Eq. 3.4) with the help of a 3x3 rotation matrix [4] in terms of direction cosines. ‘Stiffress Method Applied to Grillage Analysis 61 JET OE VE 6ET BD 8-0 HS ic L v v 0 & 9g o -& L L " o «48 SEL gt obs fe 33) o «(SE Bey SET L a vc 2 o 0 # 4 r EI L 4ET 2EI 6 oT EF 8 Figare 3.5 Transformation of Stiffness Matrix 1 0 0 0 cosy siny G4) 0 ~siny cosy a) Now, local member deformations can be related to global member deforma-62 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis tions as given in equation 3.5. Wat o | Wa Bn Ona Os | 8x ns [0 cosy siny | 10',, ns [0 -siny cosy] [@'n5 or (a) 65) where (d,} and {d°} are local and global member deformation vectors respectively and [7] is a 6 x 6 transformation matrix derived from the rota. tion matrix [4] such that a 0 m i tl 3.6) (P,.) = (71 (Py) Bn (P,) and (P.) are the member end action vectors in local and global degrees of freedom respectively. Since transformation matrix [7] is an orthogonal matrix, its inverse and transpose should be same. Therefore, we can write, {P.) = UF (Pj G8) ‘We may write for actions and displacements referred to local axes X. and ¥, as * Similarly, {Pq} = [K,] (4, G9) and referred to the global axes X and Y as (PA) = (KI) {a} G.10) Substituting for (P.) in equation 3.8 above from equation 39, we get, {PL} = (TF [K} (4,} or {P= OF (KIT (a1) (from equation 3.5) ‘Thus from equation 3.10 above, (kK) = (F (kK) (7) GA) ‘Stiffess Method Applied to Grillage Analysis. 63 Thus, the member stiffness matrix in terms of the global axes is found by operating on the local member stiffness matrix [K,] given by equation 3.3 earlier, wsing the transformation matrix. This takes into account the material constitutive laws and orientation of the member. For a grid mem- ber, the final global member stiffness matrix is shown in equation 3.12. where in yc = cosy 3.5 ASSEMBLY OF STRUCTURE STIFFNESS MATRIX The member stiffness, developed in previous sections, gives the relation between actions anid deformations of a single member and satisfies member constitutive laws. But to satisfy equilibrium condition at any joint, we have to consider assemblage of all the members say ‘n’, meeting at that joint. The structure stiffness matrix element satisfying the joint equilibrium can be obtained by an assembly of ‘n’ member stiffness matrix elements. Symboli- cally, this assembly process can be represented as (K} > ra 3.13) im where [K] is the assembled structure stiffness matrix corresponding to jth degree of freedom and [K’0] is the corresponding term of ith member stiffness matrix. This assembled matrix is nothing but the addition of all internal forces which will be subsequently equated to the externally applied forces along the same degree of freedom. Generally this assembled structure stiffness matrix [K,] is quite large in size and hence some technique is to be adopted so that this matrix occupiesthe minimum possible storage space in the computer. One of the basic Properties of this matrix is its symmetry and banded nature, advantage of which is taken to reduce the storage memory (RAM) required. The mati is having non-zero terms only in a restricted region which can be bounded by two lines parallel to the leading diagonal as shown in Fig. 3.6. This is called band of stiffness matrix and maximum number of non-zero elements in a row is called band-width of the matrix. The aumber of elements to be 1+-—Halt-Band —+ Val line kn] © | kt] © [kip] © 0 0 “k22 kal © |K2s Yea] © ° Symmetric. Roo Figure 3.6 Half-Band and Skyline of a Matrix Stored are further reduced by the fact that the lower triangle part of the fratrix can be obtained from the upper triangle part and vice-versa. So only half band of the matrix need be stored and rest of the elements can be deduced from this, whenever required. The half band-width of stiffness matrix of a structure can be oblained as Half Band-Width = (Degrees of freedom per node) x (maximum differ. fence of numbers of connected uudes + 1) Storage requirements can be further reduced by using Skyline Technique for assembly, As shown in Fig. 3.6, Skyline is an envelope drawn in matrix neglecting those zero elements which do not have any non-zero elements ‘Stifness Method Applied to Grillage Analysis 65 above them. So the Skyline always remains below the half band boundary line and thus contains smaller number of elements to be stored. The stability of the structure is now considered by introducing the boundary conditions. There are two procedures available to take into account the boundary conditions. In one, the supports are idealised by a lumped stiffness which can be thought of by providing stiff springs along the sup- ort. This is achieved by adding a high stiffness term corresponding to the Passive degree of freedom. The reactions in that case can be obtained by ‘multiplying the spring stiffness by the corresponding displacement. Another approach is based upon the condition that the displacement along the reswicted degrees of freedom ic. the passive displacement vector, is a null vector. Considering this, structure stiffness matrix is partitioned into four submatrices as given in equation 3.14. }- 0 Where [Kp]. [Ky] etc. are partitioned submatrices and (D,} and (D,) are free and restrained displacement vectors respectively. {P] is the extemal load vector and (R) is the reaction vector. From above, we can write (Kol (Dp) + (Kyl (Dy) = (P} and G5) [Kp (Dy) + (Kgl (Dy) = (RP G.16) In case of rigid supports,{D,} = 0 and the equation 3.15 reduces to (Kyl {D,) = (P} G7) The solution of the above equation will determine the deformation vector {D,}. This value of {D,} is substituted in the equation 3.16 to get the reaction, ie, (Kya? (D,} = (Rb (3.18) The first metbod can handle flexible as well as rigid supports, while the second method is applicable to rigid supports only. 3.6 SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS A large number of simultaneous equations will result depending upon the size of the grid chosen. They are to be solved in an efficient manner utilising the minimum computer time. In early days, iterative procedures were used and Gauss-Seidel Method was one of the most popular techniques to00 Gnilage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis solve the simultaneous equations. But the method suffers from the disad- Wantage thatthe time taken by computer to solve the equations achieving a Pantcular degree of accuracy can be predicted only approximately, Now-a-days, Gauss-Elimination Procedure and Cholesky's Factorization Method (5] are commonly used to solve the simultaneous equations, The Gauss-Elimination Procedure consists of making all the terms of stiffness Inatrix K, for j EG. The recommended limiting condition here may be L sin A > B/2 (Fig. 4.76). The above two cases will decide the orientation uf iongitudinals with tespect to supports In case (a), the main spanning will follow the direction normal to support and the longitudinal grid lines will be taken normal to Support lines and wansverse grid lines will be perpendicular to them as. shown in Fig. 4.8 (a). As against this, in case (b), the main spanning will follow skew direction and hence longitudinal grid lines will be taken parallel to bridge axis and84 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis Right Region) (a) Small Skew Region (L sin AS B/2) Right, Region {b) Large Skew Region (L sin A >B/2) Figure 4.7 Cases of Small and Large Skew Regions transverse grid lines will be perpendicular to these as shown in Fig. 4.8(b). ‘The spacing and number of grid lines in both longitudinal and transverse directions in case (a) and case (b) are discussed below: Case (a) ‘The spacing of longitudinal grid lines may be different in skew region and right region. The spacing of these longitudinal grid lines is to be neither greater than the spacing of transverse grid lines nor greater than three times the thickness of slab. In the right region, one longitudinal line each is taken along ED and GF and one or more between ED and GF. In skew region, Transformation of Bridge Deck into Equivalent Grillage 85 {a) Longitudinal Grid Lines Normal to Supports ‘Transversals Longitudinals (b) Longitudinal Grid Lines Parallel to Bridge Axis, Figure 48. Grid Lines in Skew Slab Decks the longitudinal grid lines may originate from the nodes where the trans- verse lines meet the longitudinal grid lines. However, if the number of longitudinals in skew region become too many, alternate or even lesser longitudinal lines may suffice. As far as possible, the longitudinal grid lines should be equidistant in skew region and right region each, Seven transverse grid lines for skew decks of span upto 10 m and nine aFid lines for spans above 10 m may be used. Out of these transverse grid lines, one line each be located at ends of the span joining the centre line of bearings on each abutment and one at the centre of span. The remaining lines can be set in between these. As far as possible, the grid lines be kept equidistant.86 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis ‘Case (b) The lay-out of longitudinal grid lines will be similar to as in the case of right bridge discussed earlier. The actual numbers of transverse grid lines will be decided so that the spacing of these lines is not greater than 1.5 to 2 times the spacing of longitudinal grid lines. Referring to Fig. 4.8(b), one Bid line each is set along GQ and DR and one at midway between GQ and DR. Others may be set between these if necessary. In tiangular portions AGQ and DCR, transverse grid lines may be taken from the end of each longitudinal. However, if the number of transversals in this region becomes too large then alternate or even lesser transverse lines may also suffice. ‘Again, in this case also, the transverse grid lines be placed equidistant, as far as possible. In skew slab deck with foot path, one extra longitudinal grid line is taken for the footpath at its centre at each end of the deck width as in the case of right deck. Sometimes a thick slab deck with thin cantilever and connecting slabs, as shown in Fig. 4.9 is also encountered in practice. The thin cantilever slab atthe edge, supports the kerb, parapet etc. and the middle slab is meant for toad divider or verge. The longitudinal grid lines can be placed as in Case (a) or as in Case (b). Location of the longitudinal grid lines as shown, assign the sectional properties of the transverse grid members better between 3 and 4 in Fig. 4.9(a) or between 4 and 6 in Fig. 4.9(b). It may be also noted that in Fig. 4.9(b) longitudinal grid lines through 1, 5 and 9 will not have zero end deflections. PrP bay bo rt Figure 49 Thick Slab Deck with Thin Cantilever and Connecting Slab Transformation of Bridge Deck into Equivalent Grillage 87 2. Voided Slab Bridge For a voided slab deck as shown in Fig. 4.10, the longitudinal and trans- verse grid lines are set in a similar fashion as in solid slab except that one longitudinal grid tine is adopted covering one or more voids, depending ‘upon their closeness. The grid lines may preferably be taken at the cemtre of solid portion between voids as shown in Fig. 4.10(b). The edge grid lines ‘may be taken suitably to represent the edge strips of slab. The number of longitudinal lines may be odd or even depending upon the void position and the width of the bridge. + D TT (a) Section of a Voided Slab (b) Longitudinal Grid Lines Figure 4.10 Longitudinal Grid Lines for Voided Slab ‘The number of transverse Lines may be located as in solid slab, depending ‘upon span-width ratio and the spacing of longitudinal grid lines. Sometimes, the voids do not run throughout the length of the span but are provided only for about two-third middle segment of the span. In such ‘cases, the longitudinal grid lines run through the entire span as usual but with different inertias for voided and solid end portions. In transverse direction, arid lines are also located at the sections where voided section changes to solid section. 3. Pseudo-Slab Bridge As discussed in Chapter 1, contiguous beams spaced closely with in-situ Concrete comes under the category of pseudo-slabs. Usually standard pre- cast beam sections are used in the construction. In such a situation, the umber of closely spaced beams are large. A grillage arrangement with longitudinal grid lines coincident with every physical beam will lead to ‘many grid lines which would be expensive and unmanageable. Therefore, it {is proper to represent more than one physical beam by a longitudinal grid line.88 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis Sufficient transverse grid lines are to be provided for detailed analysis. Their precise positions are chosen so that they intersect support beams at the same points as longitudinal grid lines. For other details regarding the layout of longitudinal and transverse grid lines, recommendations given in Section 4.23 can be followed. Figure 4.11 shows the details of a bridge deck having inverted T-beams and in-situ concrete slab forming a Pseudo-slab system. The span and width SS ee (a) Cross~ Section ae ,o20t Wenn nye en nn porn 4 (©) Plan Figure 4.11 Grillage Geometry of Inverted T-Beam with in-situ Concrete Slab- Pseudo Slab Bridge i i | Transformation of Bridge Deck into Equivalent Grllage 89 of the deck are taken as 15 m and 9 m respectively, giving span-width ratio as 1.67. Nine precast beams at 1 m spacing are assumed. Five longitudinal grid lines, along the centres of altemate webs of physi- cal beams are chosen. The edge longitudinal grid line is taken along the centre of edge physical beam as shown. Thus each grid line represents more than one physical beam, Seven transverse grid lines are chosen at the spac- ing of 2.5 m to represent the transverse medium. If the number of physical beams are in even number, say 10 in the above example, the longitudinal grid lines are taken at the centre of in-situ concrete between the beams as shown in Fig. 4.12. Serer eet) Figure 4.12 Longitudinal Grid Lines at the Centre of in-situ Concrete Slab-Pseudo Slab Bridge Another form of pseudo-slab construction consists of standard precast box-beams as shown in Fig. 4.13. In such cases, the longitudinal grid lines are taken along the centre lines of voids. Again, one grid line represents ‘more than one box-beam. The edge grid line may be taken along the centre line of first box-beam. The number of transverse beams are chosen depending ‘upon the span-width ratio and the mesh size. If diaphragms are provided, the transverse lines may be located at each diaphragm first and if necessary, ‘more grid lines may be chosen in between these. 7 Do ooAyolalo) (a) Box~Beam Deck (b) Longitudinal Grid Line Figure 413 Longitudinal Grid Lines in Pseudo-Slab (Box-Type)424° Grillage Idealization of Slab-on-Girders Bridge Senttted by top slab, with or without transverse cross-beams. Usually. the diaphragms connecting the longitudinal girders, are provided at the sup- ports. ‘The logical choice of longitudinal grid lines for -beam or I-beam decks when make them coincident with the centre lines of physical girders and these longitudinal members are given the properties of the girders plus jseociated portions of the slab, which they represent. Additional grid lines longitudinal grid tine along the centre-line of each footpath slab is alva Provided. The above procedure for choosing longimdinal grid lines is appli- cable to both right and skew decks, When no intermediate diaphragms are provided. the transverse medium ie, deck slab is conceptually broken into a number of transverse strips and ach stp is replaced by grid line. The spacing of transverse grid lines is somewhat arbitrary but about 1/8 of effective span is generally convenient (AS Guideline, iti recommended thatthe ratio of spaciny of tansverce and {oneitudinal grid tines be kept between 1 and 2 and the toll number of lines be Odd, This spacing ratio may aso reflect the span-wdth ratio ofthe devk Therefore, for square and wider decks, the ratio can be Kept ss | and for long and narrow decks it can approach to 2. Transformation of Bridge Deck into Equivalent Grillage 91 colo toocn (c) Cross-Section (a) Plan ee eee ome] (b) Longitudinal Section (d) Grillage Lay-out Figure 4.14 T-Beam Bridge and Grillage Lay-out is ining the centres The transverse grid lines are also placed at abutments joining of bearings. A minimum of seven transverse grid lines are reeommende including end grid lines. It is advisable to align the transverse grid = ‘normal to the longitudinal lines wherever cross-girders do not exit. It shoul also be noted that the transverse grid lines are extended upto the extreme longitudinal grid lines. it say less than 15° and with no In skew bridges with small skew angle say intermediate diaphragms, the transverse grid lines are kept parallel to the support lines as shown in Fig. 4.15(a). Additional transverse grid lines are provided in between these support lines in such a way that their spacing does not exceed twice the spacing of longitudinal lines, as in the case of right bridges, discussed above92 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis In skew bridges with higher skew angle, the transverse grid lines are set along abutments PQ and WV and also along PR, ST and UV initially as shown in Fig. 4.15(b). Then extra grid lines are inserted in between PR and UY. When the span-width ratio and the skew angle are such that the skew region QR is larger than the spacing of transverse grid lines in right region VR, additional transverse members parallel to interior transverse grid lines starting from the interior nodes are to be placed. ee Rang Xe (a) Deck with Small Skew — (b) Deck with Large Skew asi” ADs? Figure 4.15. Grillage Arrangement in Skew T-Beam Bridge without Cross Girders Sometimes, precast I-sections with in-situ reinforced concrete slab form the deck. In such cases, the grillage is laid out in the same way as the ‘Tbeam monolithic deck. The ratio of moduli of elasticity of slab and pre- cast beam materials are to be properly accounted for in the analysis, and will be discussed later in the chapter. This is referred to as a two-stage construc- tion. 4.2.5 Grillage Idealization of Box-Girder Bridge Idealization of box-girder bridge is in many ways similar to that of slab-on-girders construction but there is a behavioural difference between them. The analysis of box-girder bridge is associated with special problems of shear deformations (shear lag) due to usually wide flanges of the deck and distortions of the cells, if sufficient number of intermediate transverse diaphragms are not provided. Although, other rigorous analytical techniques ate available for the analysis of box-girder bridges, the grillage analogy as also proved to be sufficiently accurate and can be recommended in many cases. The grillage analogy in this case has the added advantage of being relatively inexpensive in computer time and simple to comprehend. Transformation of Bridge Deck ino Equivalent Grillage 93 ‘The method is to be adopted where the effects of shear deformations and cell-distortions are negligible and could be ignored. The method is most appropriate for multi-cell rectangular box-girder decks (Fig. 4.16). How- ever, it can also be used for decks with one or two cells only. The outer webs may be vertical or inclined, as shown in Fig. 4.17. : + + Tt i t i i (a) Deck Section (b) Longitudinal Grid Lines Figure 4.16 Grid Lines for Multi-Cell Box-Girder Deck “a (a) Deck Section (b) Longitudinal Grid Lines Figure 4.17 Grid Lines for Box-Girder Decks with Inclined Webs Longitudinal grid lines are usually placed coincident with webs of the actual structure (Fig. 4.16). Ifthe deck has sloping end webs (Fig. 4.17), the agrillage simulation is not so precise and engineering judgement must be used to position longitudinal members. However, one grid line may be taken at the junction of the inclined web with slab as shown. Normally, additional longitudinal grid lines are located along the edges of the side cantilevers ‘with nominal stifinesses for the convenience of analysis. Additional longi- tudinal grid lines are wo be adopted for bridges with footpaths at their centres as done in the case of slab and T-beam bridges, discussed earlier. The transverse medium consisting of top and bottom slabs only (with no diaphragms), is represented by equally spaced transverse grid lines along94 Grillage Analogy in Bridge Deck Analysis the span. The spacing and number of grid lines are similar to as adopted for slab-on-girders bridge. Ifthe deck is having diaphragms, the transverse grid lines are placed along each diaphragm including at supports. Additional grid lines representing the top and botiom slabs are placed in between the dia- Phragms, if needed, to meet the minimum requirements of transverse grid lines. A closer spacing of transverse grid lines will result in more continuous structural behaviour and will provide greater details of forces etc For skew box-girder bridges, the procedure to be followed regarding the setting of longitudinal and transverse grid lines will be the same as in the case of slab-on-girders bridge, discussed earlier. Spaced box-girders, also referred to as Spine box-girders, connected by {op slab only, form a distinct class of decks requiring a special approach Figure 4.18 represents a four-cell spaced box-girder bridge In deciding the grillage layout for this type of deck, the main problem lies in defining the stiffness in the wansverse direction. In the transverse direc- tion, the deck is altemately very stiff over the box-beams and very flexible between the box-beams. It is not possible to replace the transverse media by arillage beams of uniform stiffness, as is usually possible with other types Of decks. In this type of deck, each physical beam is replaced by grid lines Positioned at the webs as shown in Fig. 4.18(b). This takes into account the effect of abrupt change of transverse section more correctly. The other de- {ails of layout of transverse grid ines are similar to those of slab-on-girders bridge. The plan of the arrangement of grid lines is shown in Fig. 4.18(c), Sometimes, the width of the cell is small in comparison with their spac- ing and walls are relatively thick preventing distortion of the cell (Fig, 4.19). For such sections of bridges, the longitudinal grid lines are better placed coincident with centre lines of boxes with additioaal nominal grid lines running in between the boxes as shown in Fig. 4.19 (b). In the transverse direction, the grid lines will have uniform stiffness corresponding to the deck slab and other details of layout will be similar to those of slab-on-girders bridge, discussed earlier. 43 EVALUATION OF EQUIVALENT ELASTIC PROPERTIES ‘Afier the actual bridge structure is simulated into equivalent grillage, con- sisting of longitudinal and transverse grid lines meeting at discrete nodes, the second important step in grillage analogy method is to assign appropriate ¢lastic properties ie. flexural and torsional stffnesses to each member of the agrillage so idealised. This needs the computation of equivalent flexural moment of inertia / and torsional inertia J for the members of the grillage Transformation of Bridge Deck into Equivalent Grillage 95 XW] gddu (a) Section of Spaced Box-Girder Deck nbanfet behem-ded-—-d (6) Plan of Grillage Arrangement Figure 4.18 Grillage Arrangement in Spaced Box-Girder Deck mesh. This is accomplished by considering isolated sections of the deck as if they are individual beams and the inertas are calculated for each section and allotted to the corresponding grillage beams representing that section The principles involved and the methodology adopted for evaluating the various flexural and torsional inertia, are discussed first. Later on specific bridge decks are considered.