103 Chapter 6 Settlement 6.1 Types of Foundation Settlement Foundation settlement under load can be classified according to two major types mediate settlement of immediate, or elastic, settlement, S., and consolidation settlement, S.. Im a foundation ta ing or immediately after the construction of the structure sion of the place Consolidation settlement is time dep jent and takes place as the result of es pore water from the void spaces of saturated clayey soils. The total settlement of a foundation is the st.n of the elastic settlement and the consolidation settk nent. Consolidation settlement comprises two phases: primary consolidation settlement and secondary consolidation settlement. Primary consolidation settlement is more significant than secondary settlement in inorganic clays and silty clay soils. However. in organic soils, secondary consolidation settlement is more significant. .2 Immediate Settlement \ Figure 6.1 shows a shallow foundation su’ jected\to a net force per unit area equal to qo. Let the Poisson's ratio and the Young's mod:ilus of the soil supporting it be 1, and Ey, respectively, Theoretically, it Dy = 0, H = a , and the foundation is perfectly flexible, the settlement can be expressed as follows. settlement settlement Jf (go Pets valle Young models Figure 6.1 Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid of foundations Fae a-2 i (comer of the flexible foundation)42) cc (comer of the flexible foundation) eee eae 1 Vein? —m} BAL. B = width of foundation L ength of foundation The values uf « for various length-to-width (L/B) rations. The average immediate settlement for a flexible foundation can also be expressed as Bi Ss. ea -u2)a@y (average for flexible foundation ) However, if the foundation shown in Figure 6.1 is 1 be modified and can be expressed as \ id, the immediate settlement will \S, = Fea -2)a, (tigid foundatio: ) The values of «i, for various types of foundation ~re given in Figure 6.2. 20 88 a | +=] 2.0] — e [—T 3 | —{ 7 e —] es Eo 10) | 05 a a rr a ! Figure 6.2 Values of 0, ow, and o 6.2.1 Immediate Settlement of Foundations on Saturated Clay Janbu, Bjerrum, and kjaernsli (1956) proposed an. equation for evaluation of the average settlement of flexible foundation on saturated clay soil (Poisson's ratio, j= 0.5.) S.=AiAz a where A, is a function of H/B and L/B, A? is a function of Dj/B. . Christian and Carrier (1978) have modified the values of A; and A? to some extent, and these are presented in Figure 6.3. The values of the coefficients Ay and A? being obtained from105 Figure 6.3. The principle of superposition can be used in cases of a number of soil layers each having different values of Es. A, 09 ~ p——_| | os ° 3 10 5. 20 De Fig re 6.3\ Values of A; and Ap for elastic settlement calct ‘ation \ 20. rom i E L/B= 2 4 E 1/B=10 r | ; FE [<<] c Square__-} E cae os ue : ‘0 nia on n/a Figure 6.3 ( Continued ) Example 6.1. A foundation 4m x 2m carries a uniform pressure of 200 kN/m? at a depth of Im ina layer of saturated clay 11m depth and underlain by a hard stratum. If E; for the clay is 45 MNin’, determine the average value of immediate settlement under the foundation. Solution . HB LB Dr/B106 From Figure, A; = 0.82, A2 = 0.9 The immediate settlement Example 6.2 A foundation 4m x 2m carrying a of Im in a layer of ch thick for which the value of E, is 40 MN/m?. This layer overlies a second clay layer 8m thick for which the values of E, is 75 MN/m?. A hard stratum lies below the second layer. Determine the average immediate settlement under the foundation. niform pressure of 150 kKNém? i located at a depth Solution DyB = 0.5, From Figuze 6.3 = Ay = 0.94 (1) Considering the upper cley layer, with E, = 40 MN/m? "p= 4/2 =2, Yn =2, Ai =a \ Bq, _ _).6x0.94x150x s 40 (2) Considering the two le yer combined, with E, = 7SMN/m? "Wp = 12/2= 6, Ip =2, Ar = 0.85 0.85 x 0.94 x150x2 .2 mm \ 75 \ (3) Considering the upper layer, with E, = 75 MN/m? "Wp=2,p=2 Ay =0.6 Se= 0.86 x. x150%2 93 mm 75 Using the principle of superposition S.=A,A, =4.2 mm Se= Se = Seay + Seay - Seay =4.24+3.2-23 =5.1 mm: 6.3 Consolidation Settlement A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads compresses soil layers. The compression is caused by (a) deformation of soil particles, () relocations of soil particles, and (c) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. In general, the soil settlement caused by load may be divided into three broad categories: 1. Immediate settlement, which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture content. Immediate settlement calculations are generally based on equations derived ftom the theory of elasticity.107 2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive soi because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces. suliduion settlement, which is obscived in saturated cohesive soils Secondden'y ev and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fubries, {t follows the primary consolidation settlement with a constant effective stress. 6.3.1 One-Dimensional Consolidation ‘The one-dimensional consolidat referred to as an odometer), The schematic diagram sf a consolidometer is shown in Figure. 6.4. The soil specimen is placed inside metal ring with two porous stones, one at the top of the specimen and another at the bottom. The specimens are usually 2% in. (63.5mm) in diameter and 1 in. (25.4 mm) thick. The load on the specimen is applied through a lever arm, and compression is measured by a miciometer dial gauge. The specimen is kept under water during the test. Each load is usually kept for 24 hours. After that, the load is usually doubled, thus doubling the pressure on the specimen, and the compression measurement is continued. At n test is performed in a consolidometer (sometimes the end of the test, the dry weight of the 2st specimen is determined. The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against time for a given load increment is shown in Figure 6.5. From the plot, it can be observed that there are three distinct stages, which may be described as follows: Dist gouge Losd Porous stone MJ Spocimea eT Porous : stone MA Figure 6.4 Consolidometer Stage I Initial compression, which is mostly caused by preloading, Stage ll: Primary consolidation, during which excess pore water pressure is gradually ” transferred into effective stress because of the expulsion of pore water.108 Stage Il: Secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the excess pore water pressure, when some deformation of the specimen takes place because of the plastic readjustment af soil fe : : . Figure 6.5 Time-deformation plot during consolidation for a given load increment. a \ 6.3.2 Void Ratio-Pressure Plots ‘ After the time-deformation plots for various loadings are obtained in the laboratory, itis necessary to study the change in the void ratio of the specimen with pressure. Following is a step-by-step procedure for doing that: 1. Calculate the height of solids, H,, in the soil specimen (Figure 6.6) AG j where 7, = dty weight of the specimen A =area of the specimen G, = specific gravity of soil solids Yu = unit weight of water, 2. Calculate the initial height of voids, Hy: H,=H-H, where ‘al height of the specimen. 3. Calculate the initial void ratio, ¢o, of the specimen:109 _H,A_H, esas 5 V. HOA Hy Figure 6.6 Change of height of specimen in one-dimensional consolidation test. 4. For the first incremental loading p, (total load/unit aree of sample), which causes a deformation Aff, calculate the change in the void ratio Ae \ \ \ AH, Ae, =a FH, 4H, is obtained from the initial and the final dial readings for the loading. Figure 6.7 Typical plot of e against log p.0 5. Calculate the new void ratio, ¢1, after consolidation caused by the pressure increment p: ‘The total pressures (p) ana the corresponding void ratios (¢) at the end of consolidation are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper. The typical shape of such a plot is shown in Figure 67. Example 6.3 Following ar? the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soi! spe from the field: dry nass of specimen = 116.74 g, height of specimen at b ginning of test = 1 en obtained in., Gs = 2.72, and ciameter of specimen = 2.5 in. Pressure, p | Firal height of specimen at (ton/ft*) enc of consolidation (in.) 0 ooh 0’ 0.9917 1.0 0.9844 2.0 0.9562 4.0 0.9141 8.0 0.8686. Perform the necessary calculations and draw an e-log p curve. Solution i Ww, 116.74g AG. [Zes25"] (2.72) (1 g/cm?) y= = 1,356 cm = 0.539 in. Now the following table can be prepared: Height at end Hy = H-Hy e=H,/Hy Pressure, p of consolidation, H (in) (ton/ft?) (in) 0 1.000 0.461 0.855 0.5 0.9917 0.4527 0.840ut Figure 6.8 " 6.3.3 Normally Consolidated And Overconsolidated Clays; A soil in the field at some depth has been subjected toa certain maximum effective past pressure in its geologic history. This maximum effective past pressure may be equal to or less than the existing overburden pressure at the time of sampling. The reduction of pressure in the field may be caused by natural geologic processes or human processes. During the soil sampling, the existing overburden pressure is also released, resulting in some expansion . When this specimen is subjected to a consolidation test, asmall amount of compression (that is, a small change in void ratio) will occur when the total pressure applied is less than the maximum effective overburden pressure in the filed to which the soil has been subjected in the past. When the total applied pressure on the specimen is greater than the maximum effective past pressure, the change in the void ratio is much larger, and the e- log p relationship is practically linear with a steeper slope. The e - log p plot shown in Figure 6.9 in which cd represents unloading and dfg represent the reloading process. The leads us to the two basic definitions of clay based on stress history: 1, Normally consolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is the maximum . Pressure that the soil has subjected to in the past.112 Figure 6.10 Graphic procedure for determining preconsolidation pressure 2. Overconsolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is less than that which the soil has experienced in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is call the preconsolidation pressure. Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple graphic construction to determine the preconsolidation pressure, P, from the laboratory e- log p plot. The procedure is as ” follows ; 1. By visual observation, establish point "a" at which the e- log has a minimum radius. of curvature.113 2. Draw a horizontal line ab. 3. Draw the line ae tangent at a. 4. Draw the line ad which is the bisector of gle bac 5. Project the straight-line portion gh of the e-log p plot back to intersect ad at f, The abscissa of point f is the preconsolidation pressure, P. The © ation rutin ( OCR) for # soil can now be de where P= preconsolidation pressure of a specimen P = present effective vertical pressure 6.3.4 Calculation Of Settlement From One- Dimensional Primary Consolidation From the analysis of consolidation test results, the probable settlement caused by primary consolidation in the field, assuming one-dimensional consolidation. Let up consider a satiated clay layer of thickness H and crosi-sectipnal area A under an existing averaye effective overburden pressure Po. Because of an ‘increase of pressure, Ap, let the primary settlement be S. Thus, the change in volu.aecan be given by; AV =Vy -V, = HA-(H -S)A=SA Where Vy and V, are the initial and final voluries, respectively . However the change in the total volume is equal to the change in the volume of voids, AV, Thus, AV =SA=V,,.-Vy, = Cross-sectional aea=A | Volume ‘i Ke Figure 6.11 Settlement caused by one-dimensional consolidation where Vyp and Vy are the initial and final void volumes, respectively. From the definition of void ratio, AV, =LeV, _ where Ae = change of void ratio. But V, __AH “Tre, 1+e,4 at volume V,. Thus, For normally conrolidate A2=C,[loz(p, + dp) -l0g p,] where C, = slope of the e-log p plot and is defined as the compression index. \ Fora thicker clay layer, it is more accurate if the layer i, divided into a number of sub layers aid calculations for settlement are made separately for each sublayer. Thus, the total settlement for the entire layer can be given as say) Cte Hp Ponta Puy \ eet Pay 1 where H; = thickness of sub layer i initial average effective overburden pressure for sublayer i Pociy APay = increase of vertical pressure for sublayer i In overeonsoldated clays, for Pot AP S Pe Ae = Cy log(Po+ AP)- log Po] where C; = Swell index s - Hin 22) l+e, Po If po+AP> Pe, thenus 6.3.5 Compression Index (C.) sion index for the calculation of filed settlement caused by The compres: consolidation can t ined by graphic construction ning laboratory alts for void r jo and: pressure For undisturbed clays: Ce 0.009% LL-10) For remolded clay = 0,007(LL-10) where LL = liquid limit, in percent. Based on observations on several natural clays, Rendon-Herrer> (1983) gave the relationship for the compression index in the from 2 Fl naroe(*) * : ri C. Nagaraj and Murty (1985) expressed the compression index as . c, = 0.2343] 2204 |g. 100 6.3.6 Swell Index (C,) The swell incex is appreciably smaller in magnitude than the compression index and can generally be dete:mined from laboratory tests. In most cases, tote, 3 10 The swell index was expressed by Nagaraj and Murty (1985) as C, = 0.9463 [Ae c, 100 ‘s Example 6.4 \ Refer to the e-log p curve obtained in Example 6.3 a. Determine the preconsolidation pressure, pe . b. Find the compression index, Ce. Solution a. The e-log p plot shown in Figure 6.8 has been replotted in Figure 6.12. Using the procedure shown in Figure 6.10, we determine the preconsolidation pressure. from the plot, p. = 1.6 ton/ft?, -b. From the e-log p plot, Po =8 tow/fi? @ = 0.612 pi = 4 ton/f? €, = 0.6966 Figure 6.12 ee, _ 0.696 0.612) = 0.279 So, C,=—t2. log(p,/p.) to Example 6.5 A soil profile is shown in Figure 6.13, If a uniformly distributed load Ap is applied at the ground surface, what will be the settlement of the clay caused by primary consolidation? Given that pe for the clay is 2600 lb/ft? and C,= ; cm ‘4p = 1000 t/t? Figure 6.1317 Solution The average effective stress at the middle of the clay layer is BoP Syarusui © (23-8) [Yetesuety — Yo F725) [ysanetayy - Yo or = (8)(105) + (15)(120-62.4) + (8.5)(122.4 - 62.4) 14 Ibe? 2600 Ib/ti? > 2214 IbAt? = 2214+ 1000 = 32/4 Ib/f? > p.. 2 H = I 7ftand e, = 0.9 C. = 0.009 (LL — 10) = 0.009 (50-10) Cs = (1/6) Ce = 0.36 / 6 = 0.06 Thus, \ 17 2600 2214 +1000 \ = —“_| 0.06 log] —— ] + 0.3610 of == s mec ool 2) + o { 2600 } = 0.334 ft 4 in.