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    Chapter 2 Automation

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    Automation notes

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    chapter 3 Introduction to Automation CHAPTER CONTENTS 31. Basic Elements of an Automated System 3.1.1 Power to Accomplich the Automated Preces: 31.2 Program ot instructions 31.3. Contrcl System, 32 Advanced Automation Functions 32.1 Safety Monitoring, 3.2.2 Maintenance nnd Repair Disynosties * 323. Error Detection and Recovery 33 Leve's of Automation Automation is the technology by which ® process or procedure is accomplished without human assistacce.1t is implemented using a programt of instructions combined with a con. trol systema that executes the instructions. To automate a process power is required. both to drive the process itself and to operate the program and control system. Although automa- tion can be applied in a wide variety of areas its most closely associaied with the manu- facturing industries. It was in the context of manufacturing that the term wat originally coined by an engineering manager at Ford Motor Company in 1946 10 describe the vari- ety of automatic transfer devices and feed mechanisms that had been installed in Ford's pro- duction plants (Historical Note 3.1). 1tis ironic that nearly all modern applications of automation arc controlled by computer technologies that were not available in 1946. In this pert of the book, we examine technologies that have been developed to au: uufzctuziug operations The position of automation and control technologies in roduction system is shown in Figure 3.1. Ta the present chapter, we provide an tomate mi the larger 81 | Enterprise ] | Aang techno je Vie Fenory | sptems | ae Masutocaring -———}___| sea 1 [aetna i| Figure 31 Automation and control technologies in the production system. Gverview of automation: What ate the elements of an automated system? What are some ofthe advanced features beyond the basic elements? And what are the levels in am enters Prise where automation cah be applied? In the following two chapters, we discuss indus. {eal control systems.and the hardware components of these systems These two chapters serve as.2 foundation for the remaining chapters in our coverage of automation and con, trol technologies These Sechnologies are: (1) numerical control (Chapter 6), (2) industr. al robotics (Chapter 7);20(3) programmatle logic controllers (Chapter 8), Historical Note 3.1 History of automation’ ‘The story of automation can be traced tothe development of basi mechanical deviees such ts the wheel (circa 3200 BC.) lever, winch (ciren 90 BC), cam (crea AD. 1000), orem (A.D 140s) std gear in aicent and medieval times. These basic devices were sefined aed ited to consis the mechacistsin waterwheel, wisdmills (ita AD. 60), and steam copier (A.D.V765)-These machines geeraied the power to operate other machinery of various had uch ws Nour mils (cia 85 B.C) weaviagmnachines (Rying shuttle, 1733), machine took (bor, ing il. :78) eariboats (1787), andsairoxélocomtive (1803). Powe and the capacsy to senerate it and transmit it to operate a process i oae of the thrce basic cements ofan avin mated system, g softer hi ft steam engine in 1765, Jautes Watt end his parte, Matthew Boulton, made [Cigalleproneacots in the design, One ofthe improveracts waste ying all gover (round 1785) which provided feedback to comrol the throttie of he engine: The governor co, ‘9 automated system. ‘The third basic elemen toma = basic element ofan fyttem i forthe actions of the system or ma. be eeed by 0 program of ermctons, Out ofthe fist examples machi so 1 Szute8 o most ofthe dates inthe Hie pI Note: fs ict Note (1) Fat Sana Viol Tm of xr ion agn ca tei Lid 5nd 2) the Poet anemone Basic Elements of an Avomaied System f 3 fming was the Jacquard fom, end a tng cloth from yarn. Vhe re Rare Cho consisted ot a metal pate coe Ke MOWONS OL the loom. wl Tats loom was a machine for weav the Weaving penncrn of the Yield different cloth pate 6 Tsou . son ofa Gn 9 ands NSE Issued oom a pe srokecey me ca Jemtents uf wutomated systems—power source, con Hoe Be eset aatenable maclanes—hal been developed although fe clements were prim derek ioded® standards. 1 ok many vearn ul rere oe many new anventions ard | rilhin these bose elements as wellxcin he eesblingiafcanee eee reakig ne wUenties. before fully automated production sree eee ‘becom: 2 common BFAMTAME CAOrples Of there ‘aventions and devel nts include inierchungeable Parks (Citca L300. Hi ene cmb C913. Hast rogrammable machine the three basx developments, shone peogtams oor a eu by helt hardware cunfigrabon (1924 Helrial Neve 1B Ih eee oor ak sonecal sy es {1930s and W940): and the MARK I electromechamical computer at awvard Unversity (1944) These imeations and dev 1s had all been realized by the cadets developments had all been realized ky qince 1945, mary new iwemions nnd devdopments have contributed signlicanty to + | faeamanon technology. Del Harder enined the word asiomaiion around 1948 eesprérec to 3S uomtic devices that the Ford Motor Company hat developed for in production lines The first electronic digital compotce was Weveloped at University of Penasvivania in 146.The titst numerical control machine tool was Ueveloped and demonstrated in 1952 st - | Masachusets Insutute of Rechnology bused on a corcept proposed by John Parsons and Frank : Stulen (Historical Note 6.1). By the late 1960s and early 1970s, digital computers were being eer age machine tools. In 1954, the fist industriel robot was designed and parented {is- Sued 190!) by George Devol (Historical Notc 7.1) The first commercial robot wasinstalied to unload parts in a die casting operation in 1961. In the late 1940s the first fleribie manufactur ing system in (hte United States was insialled at Ingersoll Rand Company to perfurra raachin- IDE operations on a vanety of parts (Historical Note 16.1}.Around 1969.the first progremmable logic couvrlier way introduced (Hwiongl Nofe 8.1). In 1978, the first commerciel personal Compuier (PC) had been intzoduced by Apple Computer, although a similar product had been 2Mroduced in kat form as early as 1975. Developaients in computer technology were mace possible by advances in electronica. including the transisvor (1948), hand disk for eomapoler memory (1956). integrated cireits (1960), {ise interoprocessor (1971), random access memory (1984). megabyte capacity memory chips {Gites 1990). and the Pentiwm mieroprocessors (1993). Software developments related 10 aU- | tomation have been cyually important including the FORTRAN computer programming lan- guage (1955). the APT programming language for numerical control (NC) machine tools (1961). the UNL operating sysiem (1969), the VAL language for robo: programming (1979). Micnasofi Windows (1985), and the JAVA Programming language (1995). Advances and en- hancemenis in these technologies continuc. LEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM An automated system consists of three basic elements:(1) power to accomplish the process and operate the system. (2) a program of instructions to direct the process, and (3) acon- iral seotvm to actuate the instructions. The relationship amongst these elements is illus. ated in Figure 3.2. All systems that qualify as heing automated include these three basic ‘elements in one form or another. ee 09) ecmiren, | maces, | ure 32. Elements of an automated system: (1) power, (2) pro: Sram of instructions, and (3) control systems. 3.1.1 Powar to Accomplish the Automated Process principal suumce of power in automated systems is electricity. Electric power has many advantages in autgnmeied av wok a5 nonautomat- ed processes: 7 * Electrical power ic wide! industrial infrastructure. * Fictricl power can be readity converted to altemative chery form: mechanical thermal-light, acoustic, hydratilic, and pneumatic. % * Electrical power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such a sigrat transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication * Electrical energy can be stored in long life batteries for use in locations where ai ex: ternal source of electrical powcr is not conveniently available. {erative power sources include fossil fuels, solar energy, water, and wind. Hawevier, ter exclusive use is rare in aulomated systems In many cases when allernative power sources are used to drive the process itself electrical power is used (or the coatrols ihe aa, fomate the operation. For example, ia casting or heat treatment, the furnace may be heat. ‘2 by lows fuels but the control system to regulate termperature and time cyce is electrical, {other cases the energy from these alternative sources is converted 10 electric power ta (Perate both the process and its automation. When volar energy is uied as 4 power source for an automated system. itis generally conreried in this way. Power for the Process. In production, the term process refers to the manufactur pepperation thats performed on & work unt In Table 3.1, Hxtof commen manufacturing Processes is compiled along with the form of power required and the resulting action on re ork unit. Most of the power in manufzcturing plants is consumed by these Kinng ot coer erate The “power form” indicated in the middle coluran of the table refers to the vor crore, sPpbed dretly to the process As indicated above, the power source for cack peration is usually converted from electricity, In audition to driving the manufacturing process itsclf, power is also Fequired for the following material handling functions: * Loading and unloading the work unit. All of the Processes listed in Table 3.1 are ac- “Omplished on discrete parts These parts must be moved into the proper position woneworny oruenanpostul JG teu er See: 3.1 4 Basie Llemonts of an a canna. Therma re pouring into a mold cavity where solidfeaton occu's Pescara oth Flecrncat Metal cerraval s accomplished by 8 series of disctete electrical discharges between electrode {tool and workpiece. The electric discharges cause very Nigh sealed temporatures hat meh te meta Forging Mechaniesi Metal workpart is deformed by opposing dies Workpants are often heated advance of deformation, thus treimal power is alsa required ont treating Therma! Metalic work unit is heeted ta tomperature below melting polat 16 effect microstructural changes. nigction maiging Thermal and Meats used to raise temperature of polymer to highly ‘mechanical ‘ores is used rh into & mold cavity erent ight beam is used to cut matetial by vaporization ond melting Cutting of meta is accomplihed by rolotive mx Catween tool and workplecas” Mechanical power is used 19 shear metal sheets and q Plsshic consistancy, Inject the polymer 'oht andthermai a hightve ase beam cutting ining Mechanical jon hheet merat punching — Mechenical 2nd blanking plates folding Thermal (maybe Most welding processes use heat to cause fusion and. mmechaniesh soalescance of tar (or morel metal parts at their contacting surlaces. Scme welding procossas also a apply mechanical pressure to the auriaces and orientation for the process a be performed,and power is required for this trans- ort and placement function At the conclusion of the process the work unit must sim ilarly be removed. If the process is completely automated, then some form of mechanired power is used. If the process is manually operated or semiautomated, then human power may be used to position and locate the work unit Moterial transport between operations. In addition to loading nod unloading at agivea operation. the work Units must be moved hetween operations. We consider the ma- {crial handling technologies associated with this transport fusetion in Chapter 10. Povier for Automation. Above and beyond the besic power requirements for the manufacturing operation, additional power is tequised for automation. The additional Power is used for the following functions: * Conwolter unit. Modern industrial controtlers are based on digital compaters, which require electrical power 1o read the program of instructions. ake the control calcu,” Jations and execute the instructions by transiitting the proper commands to the ae. tuating devices. *+ Power toacnate the control signals. The commands sent by the controller unit ate car. "ed out by means of electromechanical devices, such as switches and motors, called ‘ctuators (Section $.2).The commands are generally transmitied by means of low. volt ‘xe contol signals To accomplish the commands, the actuators require more poner, MEE SEO Ten 97s W4a.sAg porewo, SE Hn Ue 10 SUDA 9809 1p . Jeg Chap. 3 / Introduetion to Automation and 30 the control signals must be aniplified 1a provide the proper power level for the actuating device Date acquisition and information processing. In most control systems, data must be collected from the process and used as input to the control algorithms In addition, requirement of the process may include keeping records of process performance or product quality. These data acquisition and record keeping functions require power, although in modest amounts. 3.12 Program of Instructions The actions perfurmed by an automated process are defined by a program of instructions. Whether the manufacturing operation involves low, medium, or high production (Section 1.1), each part or product style made in the operation requires one or more processing steps that are uaiquc to that style. These processing steps are performed during a work cycle. A new part is completed during each work eycle (in same mamufacturing operations, more than one part is produced during the work cycle:e-g., plastic injection molding op-* eration may produce multiple parts cach cyde using a multiple cavity mold). The particu- lar processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a work cycle program. Work cycle Programs are called part programs in nume tical control (Chapter 6). Other process control Applications use different names for this type of program. Work Cycle Programs. In the simplest automated processes, the work cycle consists, of essentially one step, which is to maiatain a single process parameter at adefined level, for example, maintain the temperature of a furnace at a designated value for the duration of a heat treatment cycle. (We assume that loading and naloading of the work unils into and from the furnace is performed manually and is therefore not part of the automatic cycle.) In this case, programming simply involves setting the temperature dial on the furnace. 10 change the program, the operator simply changes the temperature setting An extension of this simple case is when the single-step process is defined by more than one process para- meter, for example, a furnace in which both temperature and atmosphere are controlled .« ln'more complicated systems, the process involves & work cycle consisting of multi ple steps that are repeated with no deviation from one cycle to the next. Most discrete part manufacturing operations are in this category A typical sequence of steps (simphiied) is: (1) load the patt into the production machine, (2) perform the process, and (3) unload the Part. During each step, there are one or more activities that involve changes in one or more process parameters. Process paramerers are ipuls to the process. such as temperature sel- fing of a furnace, coordinate axis value in a positioning systema, valve opened or closed in. 3 fiuid flow system, and motor on or off. Process parameters are distinguished from process variables, which are outputs from the process; for example, the actual temperature of the furnace, the actua) position ofthe axis. the actual flow rate of the fluid in the pipe,and the otational speed of the motor, As our list of examples suggests the changes in process pa- Fameter values may be continuous (gradual changes during the processing step: for exams ble, gradually increasing temperature during a heat treaiment eyele) or diserete (stepwise shanges;for example, on/off). Different process Parameters may be involved in each step. EXAMPLE 31 An Aufomoted Turing Operation Consider an automated turnin, generated. Assume the syste andunload the work unit. The 2 operation in which a cone-shaped geometry is m is automated and that a robot is used to Joad ¢ work cycle consists of the following steps: (1 load 1 Basic Elements of an Automated System, or Matting workpicce. (2) position cutting tool prior to turning. (3) tum, (4) repo~ sition toal toa safe locution at end «f turning. and (5) unload finished workpiece Udemiify the activityties) and process parameters) in each step of the Operation. Sotutfons In step (1). the activities contist wf he robot manipulator reaching for the Faw workpart.lifting and positioning the part into the chuck jaws of the lathe,then removing, he unamputais 10 a safe parsithon ts» awaii unloading, The process Parameters for these activities are the as values of the robo! manipulator (hich change ‘contin vously).the gripper valuc (open or closed).and the chuck J value (open or closed). In step (2), the activity involies the movement of the cutting, tool 103 “rewdy" position. The process parameters associated with this activity are the ‘and 7-a%is position of the tool ‘Step (3) is the turning operation. It requires the simultancows contro! of three process parameters: rotational speed of the workpiece (rev/min), feed (rm /rev), and radial distance of the cutting, tool from the axis of rorativa. To cut the conical shape, radial distance must be changed continuously at a constant rate for €8ch revolution of thé workpiece For a consistent finish on the surface, +, +, the rotational speed must be contiouously adjusted to maintiin a constant sur face speed (m/min); and for equal feed marks on the surface, the feed must be sel at a constant value. Depending on the angle of the cone. multiple turning. passes may be required to pradually generate the desired cantour. Each pass rep- resents an additional step in the sequence. eat Steps (4) and (5) involve the reverse activities as steps (2) and (1), re- spectively, and.the process parameters are the same. * Many production operations consist of multiple steps sometimes more cumplicated than our turning example. Examples of these operations include automatic screw machine cycles sheet metal stamping operations, plastic injection molding, and dic casting, Each of these manufacturing processes has been ised for many decades fn earlier versions of these operations the work cycles were contzolled by hardware components such asfithit switch - es. timers, cams. andelectromechanical relays Ineffect, the hardware components and their _, arrangentents served as the program of instructions that directed the sequence of steps in” the processing cycle. Although these devices were quite adequate in performing theirse- quencing function. they suffered from the following disadvantages: (1) They often required considerable time to design and fabricate, thus forcing the production equipntent to be used for batch production only; (2) making even minor changes in the program was diffi- Cult and time consuming: and (3) the program was in a physical form thal isnot readily com. patible with computer data processing and communication. ‘Modern controllers used in automated systems are based on di stead of camns,timers,relays, end other hardware devices, the programs for computer-con- trolled equipment are contained in magnetic tape, diskettes, compact disks (CD-ROMs), compuler memory, and other modern storage technologies. Virtually all new equipment that perform the above mass production operations are designed with some type of com puter controller to execute their reypective processing cycles. The use of digital compute ¢r8 98 the process controller allows improvements and upgrndes to be made in the cor irol programs, such as the addition of control functions not foreseen durin; 1 ig initial equipment Gesign. These kinds of control changes arc often difficult 10 make with the previous} hard. ware devices. ; sital computers. n= ee, PY UE 205 Chap 2 / imtrocuctian iw Auwitiarine The work cycle may include manual sieps. where the opera tivities during the Work cycle. and the antomated system perforrast ample i the loading and unloading of parts by the operator inter and from a numerical jo} machine between machining cycles. where the machine performs the cutting. op» eration under part prograim control. Initiation Of the cutting operation of each cycle #5 tri. gered by iSe operator activating a “start” button after the part has been loaded. F Performs certain ac aL A common ex. Decision-Making in the Programmed Work Cycle. ‘nour previous discussion of automated work cycles the only two features ofthe work cycle ure (1) the number ands quence of processing steps and (2) the process parameter changes in each step. Each work. cycle consists of the same steps and msociated process parameter changes with no vara tion from one cycle to the next.'The program of :nstruclions is repeated each work cycle without deviation, In fact,many automated manufacturing operations require decisions to be made during the programmed work cycle to cope with variations in the cycle. In many ses, the variations are routine elements of the cycle. and the corresponding instructions for dealing with them are incorporited into the regular part program. I hese cases include * Operiiior interaction. Although the program of instructions is intended 10 be carried out without human interaction, the controller unit may require input data from a human operate in rar 10 fnction. For example. in an automated engraving oper ation, the eperator may have (o enter the alphanumeric characters that arc to be ¢9- graved on the work unit (e.g. plaque, trophy, belt buckle). Having eniered tbe characters the engraving operation is aceomplished automatically by the systema. (An cveryday example of operator interaction with an automated system is @ bank cus- tomer using an automated teller machine. The customer must enter the codes indi cating what transaction is to be accomplished by the teller machine.) Different part or product stytes processed by the system. (n this instance, the auto- rated system is programmed.to perform different work cycles on different part or product styles. An example ian industrial robot that performs a seties of spot weld- ing operations on car bodies in 2 final assembly plant. These plants are often de- signed to build different body siyles on the same automated assembly line, such 98- two-door and four-door sedans. As each cur body enters a given welding station on the line,rénsors identify which style it is. and the-robot performs the correct series of welds for that style. + Variaionsin the starting work units. in many Manufacturing operations the staring ‘work units are not consistent. A good example is a sand casting as the starting, work Lunit in o machining operation. The dimensional variations in the raw castings some~ times necessitate an extra machining pass to bring the machined dimension to the specified value. The part program must be coded to allow for the additional pass when necessary. . In all of these examples, the routine variations can be accommodated ia’ the regular work cycle program. The program can be designed to respond to sensor or operator inputs by executing the apprapriate subroutine corresponding to the input. In other cases, the vari- ations in the work cycle are not routine at all. They are infrequent and unexpected, such as the failure of an equipment componcat. [n these instances, the program must include con ingency procedures of modifications in the sequence to cope with Conditions that lie oute ide the normal routine. We discuss these measures later in the chapter in the content of advanced automation functions (Section 3.2). See. 3.1 / Basic Elements of an Automated & TABLE 32 Features of Work Cycle Prog Program Feature Steps in work cycle Pompe , a. + Typical soquance of step: (1) load, (2), process. (3) unload Process parameters inputs) Alternatives taeech stop *One poramnete! versus mutiole pa:ametars thar rnust be changed dy 1ep; for exemple. 8 positioning system whose axes valuas change during the processing step) natives + Manual steps versus no manval steps (completely automated work eycle) a Example: = + Operator toading and unloading pans to and from machine Dperator interaction Alternatives + Operator interaction versus completely automated work cycle Example "3 cs : + Operator entering processinginfaimation for curcert warpath >itferemr part oF prenluct styien Anernatives + dential port or product style each cycle (mass oF batch reduction) vereus different part or product styles each cycle {Mexible automation) ‘erations in starting ork units Bampee. ations in starting dimensions er part features anual stops in werk cycle =. Avariety of production situations and! work cycle programs has been discussed here ‘The features of work cycle programs (part programs) used to direct the operations of an automated system are summarized as in Table 3:2. 3.1.3 Control System a The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The control system causes the process to accomplishits defined function. which for our purpose is to carry out some manufacturing operition. Let us provide a brief introduction to con- {rol systems here. The following chepler describes this important industrial technology in more detail ‘The controls in an automatcd system can be either ciosed loop or open loop. A closed {oop control system also known as.a feedback comirolsstem.is one in which the output van- able is compared with an inpat parameter, and uny difference between the two is used 10 drive the ourput into agrcernent with the input.As shown in Figure 3.3.2 closed loop con- {rol system consists of six basi elements: (1) input parameter, (2) process, (3) output vari- able, (4) feedback sensor. (5) contruiler. and (4) actuator. The input parameter.often referred lo.as the set potal, represents the desired value of the outpat. In a home temperature con- trol system, the set point isthe desired thermostat setting. The process is the operation ar function being cantrolied. i particule itis the owrput variable that is being conteatled in {he loop, In the present discxssion. the process of interes is usually a manlaeturing op- «ration. and the output varishle is some process variable, perhaps 2 critical performance a i) tte let 1 ia | [ot | igure A3_A feedback control system. measure inthe process, such as temperature or force ar flow rate. A sensor is used 10 mea- sure the output variable and close the Joop between input and output, Sensors perform the feedback functiot lis closed loop toutrol system. The cohtrolter compares the ouput ‘with the input and’ makes the required adjustment in the process to reduce the uifference between them, The adjustment isaccomplished using one or more actuators, which are the hardware devices that physically carry aut the control actions,soeh as an electri¢ motor or 1 flow valve. It should be mentioned that our model in Figure 3.3 shows only one loop Most indusirial processes require multiple loaps, one for cach process variabie that must bbe controlled s In contras 16 the closed loop control systems, a0 open Joop contro! system operates ‘without the feedback loop, as in Figure 34. In this case, the controls operate without mea- suring the output variable. so no comparison is made between the actual valuc of the out- pat and the desired input parameter, The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect ofits actuator on the process variable. With an open loop system, there is alvrsys the risk that the actuator will not have the intended effect on the process, and that is the dis- advantage of an open loop system lis advantage is that it generally simpler and fess ex pensive thaa a closed loop system. Open loop systems are usually appropriate when the following conditions apply. (1) The actions performed by the control system are simple, (2) ihe actuating function is very rebabe, and (3) any reaction forces opposing the detua. ‘ion are small enough to have no elfecten the actuation. If these characteristics re not ap- plicable, then a closed toop control system may be more appropriate. Consider the difference between a clased loop and open loap system for the ease of | * 4 positloning system. Positioning systems are common in manufacturing to locate a work. Pam relative loa tool or workhead. Figure 5 iastrates the cac of a closed 1oop pot Ingest { pee] Conner H ele |e Figure 34 An open loop control system. ae Workeable =. (om) Charcoal ema Leadscrew creel Fesdteck spl coausike Figure 35 A (one axis) posit js even by a8) Pesioning system consisting oa leadserew rau 2.) Agvanced Automation Functions n boning system. In operation, the system diréeted to move the worktable (o 2 specified focation asehned by a cooninate waluc in a Cartenan (or other) coordinate system. Most positioning systems have at least two axes (e.g.,an 2 — y positioning fable) with a contol system for each axis but our diagrain only illusitates ane of these axes. A dc servomotor connected tow Jeadserew is a common actuator for cach axis A signal indicating, the cvor dinate valhe (2,4 "-value) 1s sent from the conttoller ta the motor that drives the leadserew. ‘whose ronation is converted into linear motion of the positioning table. As the table moves closer to the desited a-coordinate valve. the difference between the actual «-position and the inpat r-valuc is reduced. The actual x position is measured by a feedback sensor (c.f. an optical encoder). The controller continues to drive the motor until the actual table po- sitwon correspands to the input position value. For the apen loop case, the diagram for the positioning systern would be similar to the preceding. except that no feedhack loop is present and a stepper motor is used in place of the deserromotor.A stepper motor is designed to rotale a precise fruction of a wrn for each pulse received from the controller. Since the motor shaft is connected to the leadscrew, and the leadscrew drives the worktable. each pulse converts into a small constant linear movement of the table. To move the table a desired distance, the ntumber of pulses corre: sponding to tnat distance is sent to the motor. Given the proper application. whose char- acteristics match the preceding list of operating conditions an open loop positioningsystem works with high rehability : ‘We consider the engincering analysis of closed loop and open loop poiitioning sys- {cons in the cuntext of numerical enntrol in a subsequent chapier (Section 6). \OVANCED AUTOMATION FuNNCTIONS {nm addition 10 executing work cycle programs, an automated system may be capable of ex- ecuting advanced funciions that ars no! specific 10 a particular work uni. In’ general, the functions are concemed with enhancing the performance and safety of the equipment. Ad- vanced aetomation functions include the following: (1) safely monitoring, (2) maintenance and repair diagnostics and (3) error detection and recovery. : Advanced automation functions are made possible by special subroutines included in the program of instructions In sume cases. the functions provide information only and do not invelve zay physical actions by the control system. An example of this case includes reporting a list of preventive maintenance tasks that should be accomplished, Any actions taken on the basis of this report are decided by the human operators and managers of the system and not by the system itsell In other cases, the program of instructions must be Physically executed by means of the control system using available actuators A simple ex- ~emple of this case és a Safety monitoring system that sounds an alarm when @ human work- er gets dangesously close tothe automated system. — * 3.2.1 Safety Monitoring One of the significant reasons for automating a manufacturing operation is to remove worker(s) from a hazardous working environment. An automated system is ofien installed 10 perform a potentially dangerous operation that would otherwise be accomplished man- vally by buman workers However,cyen in automated systems. werkers are still needed to service the system, at periodic time intervals f not fulh-tine. According)y.itisimportant that Binsingar ConmttN ALL WINKS a4 J0 Saray 9 Chap 97 imrodecNun te ALteHMALOn, the automated system be designed to operate safely when Workers are in attendance Yn ad- itton, it esyeatial that the automated system carry OUI its process ina way thal t nol eof, Gestructive Thus. there are two reasons for providing an alitomated system with a eatety monitoring capability: 1) to protect human workers i the vicinity of the system and (2) (0 protect the equipment associated with the system. Safety moritoring means more than the conventional safely moxsurrs taken in 9 mar. utactunng operation, such as protective shiek’s around the operation or the kinds of man. ual devicesthat might be utilized by human workers such as emergency stop buttons Safery ‘rromigering in an autornated system involves the Use Of Sensors 10 1niek the system's oper. ation aod identity conditions and events thal are unsafe or potentially unsate.The safety monifenng system is programmed to respond to unsafe conditions in some appropriate « ‘way Fossibte responses 10 various hazards might inelide ox of mote of the following: * complete stoppage of the automated system © sounding an alarm = * reducing the operating speed of the process * taking corrective actions to recover from the safety violation This las response isthe most sophisticted and is suggestive of an intelligent machine pers forming tome acvanced strategy. This kind of response is applicable 10 4 variety of possi- ble mishaps, not necessarily confined to safety issues, and is called error detection and recovery (Section 32.3). ~ Sensors for safety monitoring range from very simple devices to hiyhly sophisticat ed systems. The topic of sensor technology is discussed in Chapter 5 (Section 5.1)."The fol. lowing list siggests some of the possible sensors and their applications fr safety monitoring: * Limit switches to detect proper positioning of a part in a workholdiag device so that the processing cycle can begin. * Photcelectric sentors triggered by the interruption of a light beam; this could be used {o indicate that a partis in the proper position or to detect the presence of a huimen intruder into the work cell. * Temperature sensors to indicate that a metal workpart is hot enough to proceed with a hol forging opecation. If the workpart i not suiciently heated then the metals dive tility may be too tow, and the forging dies might be damaged during the onerainne * Heat or smoke detectors to sense fire hazards, + Pressure-sensitive floor pads to detect Numan intruders into the work cell, = Machine vision systems to supervise the automated system and its surroundings 2 / Aévanced Automation Functions n fication of the source of potent modes of oper: | oF sctual malfunctions and failures of the system. Three_ ton are typical of a modern maintenance and repair diagnoses subsystem, 1. Status monitoring. In the status monitoring mode, the diagnostic subsystem moni tors ans records the status of Key sensors and parameters of the system during nor- ra. operation. On request, the disgnostics subsysizm can display any of these values nc provide an interpretation of current system status, pethaps warning of an immi = nert failure. 2. Failure diagnostics. The failure diagnostics mode is invoked when a malfunction ot faiture occurs Its purpose 1s t0 interpret the current values of the monitored varis ables and to analyze the recorded values preceding the failure-so that the cause of the failure can be identified. Recommendation of repair procedure In the third mode of operation the subsystem provides a recommeniled procedure to the repair crew as tothe steps that should be taken to effect repairs Methods for developing the recommendations are sometimes based on the wse-of expert systemeso-which the cellective judgments of many repair experts are pooled nd incorporated into a computer program that uses artificial in- *telligence techniques. 5 Status monitoring serves (wo important functions in mackine. diagnostics: (1) pro viding information for diagnosing a current failure and (2) providing data to predict a fu- ture malfunction or failure. First, when a failure of the equipment has occurred, i's usually difficult for the repair crew to determine the reasba for the failure and what steps should be taken tomake repairs 11 is often belpful to reconstruct the events leading up to the fail- ure. The compter is programmed 10 monitor and record the variables and to draw logi- cal inferences from their Values about the reason for the malfunction. Thhis diagnosis helps the repatr personnel make the necestary repairs and replace the appropriate components. Thisis especially helpful in electronic repairs where itis often difficult to determine on the basis of visual inspection which components have failed. ‘The second function of status monitoring is to identify signs of an impending failure, ~ so that the affected components can be replaced before failure actually causes the system.- to go down, These past replacements can be made during the night shift or other time hen the process és not operating. withthe result thatthe system experiences no joss cf teg- ular operation. ae 3 : 3.2.3 Error Detection and Recovery |n the operation of any automated system, there are hardware malfunctions and unex- Pected events that occur during operation. These events can resol in costly delays and loss 6f production untl the problem has been corrected and regular operation is restored. Trac ditionally. equipment malfunctions are corrected by human workers, perhaps with the aid of a maintenance and repair diagnostics subroutine. With the increased use of computer con- wo] for manufacturing processes there isa trend toward using the controt computer not only Lo diagnose the malfunctions but also to autorantically take the necessary i to cesiore the system to normal operation, The torn. pore etee! when the computer performs these {unctions, MOV Ee 20g Ch00. 3 4 Intraduction ve Awromation Error Detection. Asindicated by the term erroe detection und Focovery consitts of Soames. Sait Getection and (2) erv0e racoverg The erwar dhnacalnn ses See the Nar eeg Ratem’s available sensor systems to determine when a deviation o wallunciney cree deere esti interpret tae sensor signal(s), and classify the eiver Design of the error Setccioa subsystem must bef with a classification of the postible errorrubet eon Cea ane System Operation The errors i x manufactaring puncese cad ta be very ape plication specific. They must be anticipated in advance m order 10 select sensors tha enable thei detection Inanalyzing a ‘one of three general Bien production operation, the possible errors can be classified into sategeries:(1) random errors, (2) systematic errors and (3) aberrations Rendom errors oscut 45 8 result of the normal stochiste nature of the process These er sore ccour when the process isin statistical control (Section 21.1). Large variations in part Gagasons even when the production proces is ia statistical control. can cause problems in downstream operations By detecting thes: deviations on a par'-by-part basis corrective action caa be taken ia subsequent operations Systematic errors are those that resalt from some assignable cause such as a change in raw material properties or a drift in an CQuig~ mentsettiog. Thesc exrors esuatly cause the product to deviate from specifications $0 as to be unacceptable in quality terrps Finally. the third type of error. aberrations results {rom cithcr an equipment failure gir a human mistake. Examples of equipment fares include ‘fracture of a mechanical shear pin;bursts in a hydraulic kine, rupture of a pressure vesse!, and sudden failure of a cutting tool. Examples of human mistakes include errors in the control program, improper fintwre setups. and substitution of the wrong raw materials ‘The two main design problems in errordetection are: (1) to anticipate all of the pos- sible errors that can orcurina given process and @)to,pecify the appropriate Sensor 5)3- fem and associaled interpretive software so that the system is capable of recognizing each error Solving the first problem requires a systematic evaluation of the possibilities under each of the three error clasifications. If the error has not been anticipated, then the error detection subsystem cannot correctly detect and identify it EXAMPLE 32 Error Detection in an Automated Machining Cell Consider an automated cell consisting of 2 CNC machine tool, a parts storage unit, and a robot for loading and ualosding the paris between the machine and dre storage unit. Possible errors that might affect this system can be divided ‘ato the following categories (1) machiés ad process (2) cutting tools (3) work holding fixture (4) part storage unit, ant (5) josd/unioad robot. Develop a list ‘of possible errors (deviations and malfunctions) that might be included in each of these five categories : oe ‘Solution: A list of possibte errors in the machining cell is presented in Table 3.3. Error Recovery. Error recovery is concerned with applying te necessary correc- tive action to overcome the ertor and bring the

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