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Sensors-Transducers and Actuators
Sensors-Transducers and Actuators
Actuators
Fundamental elements of a measuring instrument
Process or
measurement Environmental
medium effects (noise,
Physical variable temperature etc)
to be measured
Observer
Feedback signal for control
Input
signal
Intermediate Modified
stage signal Controller
Primary stage Manipulation
Detector-transducer
Transduced & Indicator
Sensing & conversion signal transmission
Calibration Recorder Quantity
signal presented
to observer
Calibration signal Final (output )
External
source representing stage
power
known value of
physical variable
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Electronic versus Mechanical
Measuring Instruments
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Definitions
Transducer: a device that converts one form of
energy into another.
Sensor: a device that converts a physical
parameter to an electrical output.
Actuator: a device that converts an electrical
signal to a physical output.
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What to look for in a Sensor?
Dynamic range
Min and max range of the measured physical quantity
Min and max range for electric output
Input/output relation
Sensitivity/Resolution
Smallest change to be detected
Power requirements
Passive vs active
Power consumption/requirements
Band width and frequency response
How to calibrate
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General Sensors
Resistive
Capacitive
Inductive
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Resistive Sensors
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Example Capacitive sensors
Elevators button switches, calculator key pads,
Non linear
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Strain Gauges
Definitions
Stress and Strain
Measuring force and pressure with strain
gauges
Circuits involving strain gauges
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Stress and strain
T
L
Tension: A bar of metal is subjected to a force
(T) that will elongate its dimension along the
D
long axis that is called the axial direction.
Compression: the force acts in opposite
A metal bar direction and shortens the length
A
Stress: the force per unit area
a = T/A (N/m2) L
L+dL L T
dL Bar with tension
T Strain: The fractional change in length
Strain a = dL/L (m/m)
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Stress and strain
Stress Internal resistance to external force
Strain displacement and deformation due to
external force
Stress is linearly related to strain for elastic
materials
a = a /Ey = (T/A)/Ey
Ey : constant, T: external force, A: cross area
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Strain Gages
Mechanical motion Electricity
R, C, L a
R/R = K a
K (gage factor) is ration of relative change in R
to relative change in length=
R
K= R
L
L
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Example: Strain Gage Resistance
A strain gage has a gage factor 2 and exposed
to an axial strain of 300 m/m. The unstrained
resistance is 350 . Find the percentage and
absolute changes in the resistance.
a = 300 m/m = 0.3x10-3;
R/R = Ka = 0.6x10-3
%age change = 0.06%
R = 350x0.6x10-3 = 0.21 .
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Example 2: Strain Gage Resistance
A strain gage has an unstrained resistance of
1000 and gage factor of 80. The change in
the resistance is 1 when it is exposed to a
strain. Find the percentage change in the
resistance, the percentage change in the length
and the external strain (m/m)
R/R (%) = 0.1 %;
L/L (%) = [R/R (%)]/K = 1.25x10-3%,
a = [L/L (%)]/100 = 1.25x10-5 = 12.5 m/m
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Bonded Strain Gage
Res ist ive
Backing
W ires
Beam deformation
Connecting wires
Bonded Strain
Gage change in resistance
proportional to stress and
D irect ion of strain strain
Solid (fixed) platform Change in resistance
change in voltage
Beam Fixing the
Calculate stress and
Strain Gage strain
Gage
T
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Un-Bonded Strain gauge as pressure Sensor
c
R2 R1 Diaphragm
Rx
A
i a b
B
Ry
R3 R4
Armature
d C
D
Variation in impedance R1 R2
R4 R3 R2R4 R1R3
Eb( ) = Eb
R1 + R4 R2 + R3 (R1 + R4)(R2 + R3)
Balanced Bridge R2R4=R1R3 VA-VC=0
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Bridge with a Single Active Element
(Quarter Bridge)
B
S o lid p latfo r m
S train R1 R2
Q
g ag e
Eb
A Ig C
Rg
W
C antile ver R3
R4 = Rx
R2 R4 R1R3 R( R + R) R 2 R
E0 = Eb = Eb = Eb
( R1 + R4 )( R2 + R3 ) ( R + R + R)( R + R) 2(2 R + R)
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Definition of Temperature
An expression for the kinetic energy of vibrating
atoms and molecules of matter.
Can be measured by various secondary phenomena,
e.g.,
change of volume or pressure,
electrical resistance,
electromagnetic force,
electron surface charge, or
emission of electromagnetic radiation.
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Temperature Measurement
Temperature Scale
Celsius, divide the difference between the freezing
and boiling points of water into 100
Fahrenheit which divide the difference between
the freezing and boiling points of water into 180
C = (5 /9) (F - 32), and F = (9 /5) C + 32.
The thermodynamic scale begins at absolute zero,
or 0 Kelvin, the point at which all atoms cease
vibrating and no kinetic energy is dissipated.
0 K = 273.15 C = 459.67 F.
The official Kelvin scale does not carry a degree sign.
The units are expressed in kelvins, not degrees
Kelvin.
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Temperature measuring devices
Temperature can be measured via a diverse
array of sensors. All of them infer
temperature by sensing some change in a
physical characteristic.
In the chemical process industries, the most
commonly used temperature sensors are
thermocouples, resistive devices and
infrared devices.
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Fluid-Expansion Devices Safety bulb
Types: 50
the mercury type: an environmental Capillary tube
hazard, so there are regulations governing
the shipment of devices that contain it. Stem
the organic-liquid type. 0
gas instead of liquid type Temperature
sensing bulb
No electric power, do not pose
explosion hazards, and are stable even
after repeated cycling.
On the other hand,
they do not generate data that are easily
recorded or transmitted, and
they cannot make spot or point
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Thermocouples
Metal A Metal A Two strips or wires made of
different metals and joined at one
Metal B
end.
Changes in temperature at that
junction induce changes in the emf
between the other ends.
Metal A As temperature goes up, this output
+
VAB emf of the thermocouple rises,
-
Metal B
though not necessarily linearly.
VAB = Seebeck voltage
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Peltier effect
If a voltage is applied, then there will be
temperature change at the junction. This is
called the Peltier effect and can be used for
heating and cooling (refrigeration).
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Thomson effect
25 C 100 C 200 C
300 C
2nd effect that generates voltage and it
400 C is the temperature gradient along a
500 C single conductor.
The net e.m.f. due to this effect is
proportional to the difference between
the squares of the absolute junction Ts.
the voltage is actually generated by the
600 C Metal Bath
section of wire that contains a T
gradient, not necessarily by junction.
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Equation of a thermocouple
The output voltage V of a simple thermocouple (with a
reference temperature T0 = 0C = 32F) is:
1 1
V = AT + BT + CT 3
2
volts,
2 3
where T is the temperature of the measuring junction in C, A, B,
and C are constants that depend upon the thermocouple material.
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Characteristics of thermocouples
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E Type of Metals
+ -
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K E Chromel vs Constantan
J J Iron vs Constantan
Millivolts
40 K Chromel vs Alumel
R Platinum vs Platinum
20 T R 13% Rhodium
S S Platinum vs Platinum
10% Rhodium
0 T Copper vs Constantan
500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature, C
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Resistance Temperature
Devices
Resistance temperature devices capitalize on the fact that the
electrical resistance of a material changes as its temperature
changes;
R = R0[1 + (T T0)]
Where R0 is the resistance at T=T0 and is the temperature
coefficient of the device. Ex. Thermistors
Equation of a thermistor
T0 T
( )
R = R0e TT0
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Thermistor Circuit
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Photo-resistor/Photoconductor
Resistance depends on light
Made of cadmium sulfide
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Photodiode
Light current or voltage
Light Photon Electron
Photo-multiplier
Sensitive detectors of light in the
ultraviolet, visible, and near-
infrared ranges of the
electromagnetic spectrum
Multiply the current produced
by incident light by as much as
100 million times
Used in Geiger counters
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Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
Transmit light at different
wavelengths (visible, infra-
red)
Photodiodes with matching
wavelengths are used to detect
the light
Transmitted information can
be decoded through voltage to
pulse width techniques
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Voltage to pulse width coding
Coding is sometimes referred to as modulation
Transmit Receive
Signal Signal
PWM PWM-1
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X-Ray detection
X-Ray detectors convert x-ray photons into
electric current
Electrons generated proportional to photons
Detectors
X-Ray film
Image intensifier (mesh of photo-diodes)
Solid state detectors
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Flow and Speed Measurement
Flow measurement using light
Using Light
Two laser sources along a pipe
Two Photo sensors to detect laser
Sensor 1 picks up the scatter of laser due to flow
Sensor 2 picks up the scatter of laser at a later time
The time difference can be used to measure the
flow
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Flow Measurement using Temperature
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Flow Measurements using Magnetic
flied
Apply Magnetic field along a pipe
The flow of the liquid will act as a variable
resistance
The voltage drop across the pipe will be
proportional to the flow rate
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Ultrasound:Piezoelectric Crystal
A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when
deformed
Used to measure strain, force, or pressure by
converting them to electricity
Also used to generate clocks for computers
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Piezoelectric Crystal
A piezoelectric disk generates a force with a
voltage is applied
Used to generate ultrasound waves
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Doppler Effect
Applied in Ultrasound, laser and Radar applications
Definition:
The change in frequency of a wave for an observer
moving relative to the source of the waves is
proportional to the relative speed between both
objects
Speed detectors, radars, ultrasound imaging, blood
flow in arteries ..etc
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Doppler Frequency
Doppler frequency is calculated according to: fd / fo = u / c,
where
fd = Doppler frequency shift
fo = source frequency
u = target velocity
c = velocity of the sound
fd 2u 2u
Two shifts due to two paths yielding =
f0 c + u c
The approximation is valid since c 1500 m/s and u 1.5 m/s.
We have to take the transmission angle into consideration.
Then the Doppler frequency becomes
2 f 0 u cos
fd =
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Principle Circuits to measure blood
flow
Boost Doppler Detect freq
frequency difference
2 foucos
fd =
c Detect freq
difference
Convert frequency
difference
to voltage
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Summary on Sensors
Temperature, flow, speed, acceleration, angle,
position, pressure, force, light and many
physical quantities can be converted to
electrical signals through different techniques
The resulting electrical signal carries
information contained in the physical quantity
sensed
Signal processing techniques allow us to
understand the environment
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Fundamental elements of a measuring instrument
Process or
measurement Environmental
medium effects (noise,
Physical variable temperature etc)
to be measured
Observer
Feedback signal for control
Input
signal
Intermediate Modified
stage signal Controller
Primary stage Manipulation
Detector-transducer
Transduced & Indicator
Sensing & conversion signal transmission
Calibration Recorder Quantity
signal presented
to observer
Calibration signal Final (output )
External
source representing stage
power
known value of
physical variable
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References
www.analog.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.lionprecision.com
Medical Instrumentation, Application and
Design by John Webster, 3rd edition
Dr Bahattin Karagazuglus notes on sensors
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