calculus essentials

krista king
integralcalc.com
Contents

1 foundations 2
vertical line test 3
2 limits and continuity 5
what is a limit? 6
when does a limit exist? 7
solving limits mathematically 10
continuity 13
3 derivatives 16
definition of the derivative 17
derivative rules 20
chain rule 23
equation of the tangent line 25
implicit dierentiation 26
optimization 28
4 integrals 38
definite integrals 39
fundamental theorem of calculus 41
initial value problems 42
5 solving integrals 44
u-substitution 45
integration by parts 50
partial fractions 54
6 partial derivatives 68
second-order partial derivatives 71
7 dierential equations 73
linear, first-order dierential equations 75
nonlinear (separable) dierential equations 77
8 about the author
1
1
foundations

play video

Most of the equations youll encounter in calculus are functions. Since not all equations
are functions, its important to understand that only functions can pass the Vertical Line
Test.

2
vertical line test

Most of the equations youll encounter in the graph twice, which causes the graph
calculus are functions. Since not all to fail the Vertical Line Test.
equations are functions, its important to
understand that only functions can pass
the Vertical Line Test. In other words, in
order for a graph to be a function, no
completely vertical line can cross its graph
more than once.

Circles are not functions because they never pass

the Vertical Line Test.

You can also test this algebraically by

plugging in a point between 1 and 1 for x,
This graph does not pass the Vertical Line Test such as x = 0.
because a vertical line would intersect it more
than once.
Example
Passing the Vertical Line Test also implies
Determine algebraically whether or not
that the graph has only one output value
x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a function.
for y for any input value of x. You know that
an equation is not a function if y can be Plug in 0 for x and simplify.
two dierent values at a single x value.
(0)2 + y 2 = 1
You know that the circle below is not a
function because any vertical line you y2 = 1 y2 = 1
draw between x = 1 and x = 1 will cross
y =1

3
At x = 0, y can be both 1 and 1. Since a
function can only have one unique output
value for y for any input value of x, the
function fails the Vertical Line Test and is
therefore not a function. Weve now proven
with both the graph and with algebra that
this circle is not a function.

4
2
limits and continuity

play video

The limit of a function is the value the function approaches at a given value of x, regardless
of whether the function actually reaches that value.

5
what is a limit?

The limit of a function is the value the
function approaches at a given value of x,
regardless of whether the function actually
reaches that value.
For an easy example, consider the
function
In this simple example, the limit of the
function is clearly 6 because that is the
actual value of the function at that point;
the point is defined. However, finding limits
gets a little trickier when we start dealing
with points of the graph that are
undefined.

f (x) = x + 1 In the next section, well talk about when

limits do and do not exist, and some more
When x = 5, f (x) = 6. Therefore, 6 is the
creative methods for finding the limit.
limit of the function at x = 5, because 6 is
the value that the function approaches as
the value of x gets closer and closer to 5.

I know its strange to talk about the value

that a function approaches. Think about
it this way: If you set x = 4.9999 in the
function above, then f (x) = 5.9999.
Similarly, if you set x = 5.0001, then
f (x) = 6.0001.

You can begin to see that as you get

closer to x = 5, whether youre
approaching it from the 4.9999 side or the
5.0001 side, the value of f (x) gets closer
and closer to 6.

x 4.9999 5.0000 5.0001

f (x) 5.9999 6.0000 6.0001

6
when does a limit exist?
General vs. one-sided limits
When you hear your professor talking
about limits, he or she is usually talking
about the general limit. Unless a right- or
left-hand limit is specifically specified,
youre dealing with a general limit.
The general limit exists at the point x = c if
1. The left-hand limit exists at x = c ,
2. The right-hand limit exists at x = c , and
3. The left- and right-hand limits are equal.
These are the three conditions that must
be met in order for the general limit to
exist. The general limit will look something
like this:
lim f (x) = 4
x2
You would read this general limit formula
as The limit of f of x as x approaches 2
equals 4.
Left- and right-hand limits may exist even
when the general limit does not. If the
graph approaches two separate values at
the point x = c as you approach c from the
left- and right-hand side of the graph, then
separate left- and right-hand limits may
exist.
Left-hand limits are written as
lim f (x) = 4
x2
The negative sign after the 2 indicates that
were talking about the limit as we
approach 2 from the negative, or left-hand
side of the graph.
Right-hand limits are written as
lim f (x) = 4
x2+
The positive sign after the 2 indicates that
were talking about the limit as we
approach 2 from the positive, or right-hand
side of the graph.
In the graph below, the general limit exists
at x = 1 because the left- and right-
hand limits both approach 1. On the other
hand, the general limit does not exist at
x = 1 because the left-hand and right-hand
limits are not equal, due to a break in the
graph.
7
 since that is the value that the graph
approaches as you trace the graph from
right to left.

Left- and right-hand limits are equal at x = 1,

but not at x = 1.

Where limits dont exist

The general limit does not exist at x = 1 or at
We already know that a general limit does
x = 2.
not exist where the left- and right-hand
limits are not equal. Limits also do not
Where there is a vertical asymptote at
exist whenever we encounter a vertical
x = 2, the left-hand limit is , and the
asymptote.
right-hand limit is +. However, the

There is no limit at a vertical asymptote general limit does not exist at the vertical

because the graph of a function must asymptote because the left- and right-

approach one fixed numerical value at the hand limits are unequal.

point x = c for the limit to exist at c. The

Where limits dont exist
graph at a vertical asymptote is increasing
We already know that a general limit does
and/or decreasing without bound, which
not exist where the left- and right-hand
means that it is approaching infinity
limits are not equal. Limits also do not
instead of a fixed numerical value.
exist whenever we encounter a vertical
In the graph below, separate right- and asymptote.
left-hand limits exist at x = 1 but the
There is no limit at a vertical asymptote
general limit does not exist at that point.
because the graph of a function must
The left-hand limit is 4, because that is the
approach one fixed numerical value at the
value that the graph approaches as you
point x = c for the limit to exist at c. The
trace the graph from left to right. On the
graph at a vertical asymptote is increasing
other hand, the right-hand limit is 1,

8
and/or decreasing without bound, which
means that it is approaching infinity
instead of a fixed numerical value.

In the graph below, separate right- and

left-hand limits exist at x = 1 but the
general limit does not exist at that point.
The left-hand limit is 4, because that is the
value that the graph approaches as you
trace the graph from left to right. On the
other hand, the right-hand limit is 1,
since that is the value that the graph
approaches as you trace the graph from
right to left.

The general limit does not exist at x = 1 or at

x = 2.

Where there is a vertical asymptote at

x = 2, the left-hand limit is , and the
right-hand limit is . However, the general
limit does not exist at the vertical
asymptote because the left- and right-
hand limits are unequal.

9
solving limits mathematically

Substitution When you cant just plug in the value

Sometimes you can find the limit just by youre evaluating, your next approach
plugging in the number that your function should be factoring.
is approaching. You could have done this
with our original limit example, f (x) = x + 1.
Example
If you just plug 5 into this function, you get
6, which is the limit of the function. Below Evaluate the limit.
is another example, where you can simply
x 2 16
plug in the number youre approaching to lim
x4 x 4
solve for the limit.
Just plugging in 4 would give us a nasty

Example 0/0 result. Therefore, well try factoring

instead.
Evaluate the limit.
(x + 4)(x 4)
lim
lim x 2 + 2x + 6 x4 x4
x2

Canceling (x 4) from the top and bottom

Plug in 2 for x and simplify.
of the fraction leaves us with something
lim (2)2 + 2(2) + 6 that is much easier to evaluate:
x2

lim x + 4
lim 4 4 + 6 x4
x2

Now the problem is simple enough that we

2
lim x + 2x + 6 = 6 can use substitution to find the limit.
x2

lim 4 + 4
x4

Factoring x 2 16
lim =8
x4 x 4

10
Conjugate method Evaluate the limit.
This method can only be used when either
the numerator or denominator contains 4+h2
lim
exactly two terms. Needless to say, its x0 h

usefulness is limited. Heres an example of

Multiply the numerator and denominator
a great, and common candidate for the
by the conjugate.
conjugate method.
4+h2 4+h+2
( 4 + h + 2)
4+h2 lim
lim x0 h
x0 h

In this example, the substitution method Simplify and cancel the h.

would result in a 0 in the denominator. We
(4 + h) + 2 4 + h 2 4 + h 4
also cant factor and cancel anything out lim
of the fraction. Luckily, we have the
x0 h( 4 + h + 2)

conjugate method. Notice that the

(4 + h) 4
numerator has exactly two terms, 4+h lim
x0 h( 4 + h + 2)
and 2.
h
Conjugate method to the rescue! In order lim
to use it, we have to multiply by the
x0 h( 4 + h + 2)

conjugate of whichever part of the fraction

1
contains the radical. In this case, thats the lim
x0 4+h+2
numerator. The conjugate of two terms is
those same two terms with the opposite
Since were evaluating at 0, plug that in for
sign in between them.
h and solve.
Notice that we multiply both the numerator
1
and denominator by the conjugate, lim
x0 4+0+2
because thats like multiplying by 1, which
is useful to us but still doesnt change the
4+h2 1
value of the original function. lim =
x0 h 4

Example
11
Remember, if none of these methods work,
you can always go back to the method we
were using originally, which is to plug in a
number very close to the value youre
evaluating and solve for the limit that way.

12
continuity

You should have some intuition about what
it means for a graph to be continuous.
Basically, a function is continuous if there
are no holes, breaks, jumps, fractures,
broken bones, etc. in its graph.
You can also think about it this way: A
function is continuous if you can draw the
entire thing without picking up your pencil.
Lets take some time to classify the most
common types of discontinuity.
Point discontinuity
Point discontinuity exists when there is a
hole in the graph at one point. You usually
find this kind of discontinuity when your
graph is a fraction like this:
x 2 + 11x + 28
f (x) =
x+4
Youll usually encounter jump
discontinuities with piecewise-defined
functions. A piece-wahoozle whatsit?
you ask? Exactly. A piecewise-defined
function is a function for which dierent
parts of the domain are defined by
dierent functions. A common example
used to illustrate piecewise-defined
functions is the cost of postage at the post
oce. Heres how the cost of postage
might be defined as a function, as well as
the graph of this function. They tell us that
the cost per ounce of any package lighter
than 1 pound is 20 cents per ounce; that
the cost of every ounce from 1 pound to
anything less than 2 pounds is 40 cents
per ounce; etc.

In this case, the point discontinuity exists

at x = 4, where the denominator would
equal 0. This function is defined and
continuous everywhere, except at x = 4.
The graph of a point discontinuity is easy
to pick out because it looks totally normal
everywhere, except for a hole at a single
point.

Jump discontinuity
A piecewise-defined function

13
Every break in this graph is a point of jump
discontinuity. You can remember this by
imagining yourself walking along on top of
the first segment of the graph. In order to
continue, youd have to jump up to the
second segment.

Infinite (essential) discontinuity

Youll see this kind of discontinuity called
both infinite discontinuity and essential
A vertical asymptote at x = 2 that makes the
discontinuity. In either case, it means that
graph discontinuous
the function is discontinuous at a vertical
asymptote. Vertical asymptotes are only
points of discontinuity when the graph
exists on both sides of the asymptote.

The first graph below shows a vertical

asymptote that makes the graph
discontinuous, because the function exists
on both sides of the vertical asymptote.
The vertical asymptote in the second
graph below is not a point of discontinuity,
because it doesnt break up any part of the
graph.
A vertical asymptote at x = 0 that does not make
the graph discontinuous
(Non)removable discontinuities
A discontinuity is removable if you can
easily plug in the holes in its graph by
redefining the function. When you cant
easily plug in the holes because the gaps
are bigger than a single point, youre
dealing with nonremovable discontinuity.
Jump and infinite/essential discontinuities
are nonremovable, but point discontinuity

14
is removable because you can easily patch
the hole in the graph.

Lets take the function from the point

discontinuity section.

x 2 + 11x + 28
f (x) =
x+4

If we add another piece to this function as

follows, we plug the hole and the
function becomes continuous.

15
3
derivatives

play video

The derivative of a function f (x) is written as f(x), and read as f prime of x. By definition,
the derivative is the slope of the original function. Lets find out why.

16
definition of the derivative

The definition of the derivative, also called graph, sometimes hitting it at multiple
the dierence quotient, is a tool we use points, and looks generally meaner, like
to find derivatives the long way, before this:
we learn all the shortcuts later that let us
find them the fast way.

Mostly its good to understand the

definition of the derivative so that we have
a solid foundation for the rest of calculus.
So lets talk about how we build the
dierence quotient.

A secant line
Secant and tangent lines
A tangent line is a line that juuussst barely
Its important to realize here that the slope
touches the edge of the graph,
of the secant line is the average rate of
intersecting it at only one specific point.
change over the interval between the
Tangent lines look very graceful and tidy,
points where the secant line intersects the
like this:
graph. The slope of the tangent line
instead indicates an instantaneous rate of
change, or slope, at the single point where
it intersects the graph.

Creating the derivative

A tangent line
A secant line, on the other hand, is a line
that runs right through the middle of a
If we start with a point, (c, f (c)) on a graph,
and move a certain distance, x, to the
right of that point, we can call the new
point on the graph (c + x, f (c + x)).
Connecting those points together gives us
a secant line, and we can use the slope of
a line

17
 y2 y2
x2 x1
to determine that the slope of the secant
line is
f (c + x) f (c)
(c + x) c
which, when we simplify, gives us
f (c + x) f (c)
x
The point of all this is that, if I take my
second point and start moving it slowly
left, closer to the original point, the slope
of the secant line becomes closer to the
slope of the tangent line at the original
point.
As the secant line moves closer and closer to the
tangent line, the points where the line intersects
the graph get closer together, which eventually
reduces x to 0.
Running through this exercise allows us to
realize that if I reduce x to 0 and the
distance between the two secant points
becomes nothing, that the slope of the
secant line is now exactly the same as the
slope of the tangent line. In fact, weve just
changed the secant line into the tangent
line entirely.
That is how we create the formula above,
which is the very definition of the
derivative, which is why the definition of
the derivative is the slope of the function at
a single point.
Using the dierence quotient
To find the derivative of a function using
the dierence quotient, follow these steps:
1. Plug in x + h for every x in your original
function. Sometimes youll also see h as
x.
2. Plug your answer from Step 1 in for
f (x + h) in the dierence quotient.
3. Plug your original function in for f (x) in
the dierence quotient.
4. Put h in the denominator.
5. Expand all terms and collect like terms.
6. Factor out h from the numerator, then
cancel it from the numerator and
denominator.
18
7. Plug in 0 for h and simplify. For x, plug in the number youre
approaching, in this case 0. Then simplify
and solve.
Example
lim 0 + 2x 5 lim 2x 5
Find the derivative of x0 x0

f (x) = x 2 5x + 6 at x=7

After replacing x with (x + x) in f (x), plug

in your answer for f (c + x). Then plug in
f (x) as-is for f (c). Put x in the
denominator.

[(x + x)2 5(x + x) + 6] (x 2 5x + 6)

lim
x0 x

Expand all terms.

x 2 + 2xx + x 2 5x 5x + 6 x 2 + 5x 6
lim
x0 x

Collect similar terms together then factor

x out of the numerator and cancel it from
the fraction.

x 2 + 2xx 5x
lim
x0 x

x(x + 2x 5)
lim
x0 x

lim x + 2x 5
x0

19
derivative rules

Finally, weve gotten to the point where the exponent will become the new
things start to get easier. Weve moved coecient.
past the dierence quotient, which was
cumbersome and tedious and generally
Example
not fun. Youre about to learn several new
derivative tricks that will make this whole Find the derivative of the function.
process a whole lot easier.
f (x) = 7x 3
The derivative of a constant
The derivative of a constant (a term with Applying power rule gives
no variable attached to it) is always 0.
f(x) = 7(3)x 31
Remember that the graph of any constant
is a perfectly horizontal line. Remember f(x) = 21x 2
also that the slope of any horizontal line is
0. Because the derivative of a function is
the slope of that function, and the slope of
Product rule
a horizontal line is 0, the derivative of any
If a function contains two variable
constant must be 0.
expressions that are multiplied together,
Power rule you cannot simply take their derivatives
The power rule is the tool youll use most separately and then multiply the
frequently when finding derivatives. The derivatives together. You have to use the
rule says that for any term of the form a x n, product rule. Here is the formula:
the derivative of the term is
Given a function
(a n)x n1
h(x) = f (x)g(x)
To use the power rule, multiply the
then its derivative is
variables exponent, n, by its coecient, a,
then subtract 1 from the exponent. If there h(x) = f (x)g(x) + f(x)g(x)
is no coecient (the coecient is 1), then

20
To use the product rule, multiply the first Given a function
function by the derivative of the second
f (x)
function, then add the derivative of the first h(x) =
g(x)
function times the second function to your
result. then its derivative is

f(x)g(x) f (x)g(x)
Example h(x) =
[g(x)]2

Find the derivative of the function.

h(x) = x 2e 3x Example

Find the derivative of the function.

The two functions in this problem are x 2
and e 3x. It doesnt matter which one you
choose for f (x) and g(x). Lets assign f (x) to
x 2 and g(x) to e 3x. The derivative of f (x) is
f(x) = 2x. The derivative of g(x) is
g(x) = 3e 3x.
According to the product rule,
x2
h(x) =
ln x
Based on the quotient rule formula, we
know that f (x) is the numerator and
therefore f (x) = x 2 and that g(x) is the
denominator and therefore that g(x) = ln x.

h(x) = (x 2)(3e 3x ) + (2x)(e 3x ) f(x) = 2x, and g(x) = 1/x. Plugging all of
these components into the quotient rule
2 3x 3x
h(x) = 3x e + 2xe
gives
h(x) = xe 3x(3x + 2)
(ln x)(2x) (x 2)( 1x )
h(x) =
(ln x)2

Quotient rule 2x ln x x
h(x) =
Just as you must always use the product (ln x)2
rule when two variable expressions are
x(2 ln x 1)
multiplied, you must use the quotient rule h(x) =
(ln x)2
whenever two variable expressions are
divided. Here is the formula:

21
Reciprocal rule
The reciprocal rule is very similar to the
quotient rule, except that it can only be
used with quotients in which the
numerator is a constant. Here is the
formula:

Given a function

a
h(x) =
f (x)

then its derivative is

f(x)
h(x) = a
[ f (x)]2

Given that the numerator is a constant and

the denominator is any function, the
derivative will be the negative constant,
multiplied by the derivative of the
denominator divided by the square of the
denominator.

Example

Find the derivative of the function.

1 5
h(x) = +
2x + 1 3x 1

Applying the reciprocal rule gives

2 15
h(x) =
(2x + 1)2 (3x 1)2

22
chain rule
The chain rule is often one of the hardest
concepts for calculus students to
understand. Its also one of the most
important, and its used all the time, so
make sure you dont leave this section
without a solid understanding.
You should use chain rule anytime your
function contains something more
complicated than a single variable. The
chain rule says that if your function takes
the form
h(x) = f (g(x))
then its derivative is
h(x) = f(g(x))g(x)
The chain rule tells us how to take the
derivative of something where one function
is inside another one. It seems
complicated, but applying the chain rule
requires just two simple steps:
1. Take the derivative of the outside
function, leaving the inside function
completely alone.
2. Multiply your result by the derivative of
the inside function.
Example
Find the derivative of the function.
f (x) = (x 2 + 3)10
In this example, the outside function is
(A)10. A is representing x 2 + 3, but well
leave that part alone for now because the
chain rule tells us to take the derivative of
the outside function first, leaving our inside
function, A, completely untouched.
Taking the derivative of (A)10 using power
rule gives
10(A)9
Plugging back in for A gives us
10(x 2 + 3)9
But remember, were not done. The chain
rule tells us to take our result and multiply
it by the derivative of the inside function.
Our inside function is x 2 + 3, and its
derivative is 2x. Therefore, multiplying our
result by the derivative of the inside
function gives
f(x) = 10(x 2 + 3)9(2x)
23
f(x) = 20x(x 2 + 3)9

24
equation of the tangent line

Youll see it written dierent ways, but the Next, take the derivative and plug in x = 4.
most understandable tangent line formula
Ive found is f(x) = 12x 2

y = f (a) + f(a)(x a) f(4) = 12(4) 2

When a problem asks you to find the f(4) = 46

equation of the tangent line, youll always
Finally, insert both f (4) and f(4) into the
be asked to evaluate at the point where
tangent line formula, along with 4 for a,
the tangent line intersects the graph.
since this is the point at which were asked
In order to find the equation of the tangent to evaluate.
line, youll need to plug that point into the
y = 93 + 46(x 4)
original function, then substitute your
answer for f (a). Next youll take the You can either leave the equation in this
derivative of the function, plug the same form, or simplify it further:
point into the derivative and substitute
your answer for f(a). y = 93 + 46x 184

y = 46x 91
Example

Find the equation of the tangent line at

x = 4 to the graph of

f (x) = 6x 2 2x + 5

First, plug x = 4 into the original function.

f (4) = 6(4)2 2(4) + 5

f (4) = 96 8 + 5

f (4) = 93

25
implicit differentiation

Implicit Dierentiation allows you to take
the derivative of a function that contains
both x and y on the same side of the
equation. If you cant solve the function for
y, implicit dierentiation is the only way to
take the derivative.
3. Move all terms involving dy/d x to the left
side and everything else to the right.
4. Factor out dy/d x on the left and divide
both sides by the other left-side factor
so that dy/d x is the only thing remaining
on the left.

On the left sides of these derivatives,

instead of seeing y or f(x), youll find
dy/d x instead. In this notation, the Example
numerator tells you what function youre
Find the derivative of
deriving, and the denominator tells you
what variable is being derived. dy/d x is x 3 + y 3 = 9x y
literally read the derivative of y with
respect to x. Our first step is to dierentiate both sides
with respect to x. Treat y as a variable just
One of the most important things to like x, but whenever you take the derivative
remember, and the thing that usually of a term that includes y, multiply by dy/d x.
confuses students the most, is that we Youll need to use the product rule for the
have to treat y as a function and not just as right side, treating 9x as one function and y
a variable like x. Therefore, we always as another.
multiply by dy/d x when we take the
dy dy
derivative of y. To use implicit 3x 2 + 3y 2 = (9)(y) + (9x)(1)
dx dx
dierentiation, follow these steps:
dy dy
1. Dierentiate both sides with respect to 3x 2 + 3y 2 = 9y + 9x
dx dx
x.
2. Whenever you encounter y, treat it as a Move all terms that include dy/d x to the
variable just like x, then multiply that left side, and move everything else to the
term by dy/d x. right side.

26
 dy dy
3y 2 9x = 9y 3x 2
dx dx Example (continued)

Factor out dy/d x on the left, then divide dy 3(3) (2)2

(2,3) =
both sides by (3y 2 9x). dx (3)2 3(2)

dy dy 94
(3y 2 9x) = 9y 3x 2 (2,3) =
dx dx 96

dy 9y 3x 2 dy 5
= 2 (2,3) =
dx 3y 9x dx 3

Dividing the right side by 3 to simplify Since you have the point (2,3) and the

gives us our final answer: slope of the tangent line at the point (2,3),
plug the point and the slope into point-
dy 3y x 2 slope form to find the equation of the
= 2
dx y 3x tangent line. Then simplify.

5
y3= (x 2)
3
Equation of the tangent line
3y 9 = 5(x 2)
You may be asked to find the tangent line
equation of an implicitly-defined function.
3y 9 = 5x 10
Just for fun, lets pretend youre asked to
find the equation of the tangent line of the 3y = 5x 1
function in the previous example at the
5 1
point (2,3). y= x
3 3
Youd just pick up right where you left o,
and plug in this point to the derivative of
the function to find the slope of the
tangent line.

27
optimization
Graph sketching is not very hard, but there
are a lot of steps to remember. Like
anything, the best way to master it is with
a lot of practice.
When it comes to sketching the graph, if
possible I absolutely recommend graphing
the function on your calculator before you
get started so that you have a visual of
what your graph should look like when its
done. You certainly wont get all the
information you need from your calculator,
so unfortunately you still have to learn the
steps, but its a good double-check Example
system.
Our strategy for sketching the graph will
include the following steps:
1. Find critical points.
2. Determine where f (x) is increasing and
decreasing.
3. Find inflection points.
4. Determine where f (x) is concave up and
concave down.
5. Find x- and y-intercepts.
6. Plot critical points, possible inflection
points and intercepts.
7. Determine behavior as f (x) approaches
.
8. Draw the graph with the information
weve gathered.
Critical points
Critical points occur at x-values where the
functions derivative is either equal to zero
or undefined. Critical points are the only
points at which a function can change
direction, and also the only points on the
graph that can be maxima or minima of
the function.
Find the critical points of the function.
4
f (x) = x +
x
Take the derivative and simplify. You can
move the x in the denominator of the
fraction into the numerator by changing
the sign on its exponent from 1 to 1.
f (x) = x + 4x 1
Using power rule to take the derivatives
gives
f(x) = 1 4x 2
4
f(x) = 1
x2
28
Now set the derivative equal to 0 and solve
for x.

4
0=1
x2

4
1=
x2

x2 = 4
A decreasing function
x =2
Based on this information, it makes sense
that the sign (positive or negative) of a
functions derivative indicates the direction
Increasing and decreasing
of the original function. If the derivative is
A function that is increasing (moving up as
positive at a point, the original function is
you travel from left to right along the
increasing at that point. Not surprisingly, if
graph), has a positive slope, and therefore
the derivative is negative at a point, the
a positive derivative.
original function is decreasing there.

We already know that the direction of the

graph can only change at the critical
points that we found earlier. As we
continue with our example, well therefore
plot those critical points on a wiggle graph
to test where the function is increasing and
decreasing.

An increasing function Example (continued)

Similarly, a function that is decreasing Find the intervals on which the function is
(moving down as you travel from left to increasing and decreasing.
right along the graph), has a negative 4
slope, and therefore a negative derivative. f (x) = x +
x
29
First, we create our wiggle graph and plot 4
f(1) = 1
our critical points, as follows: (1)2

f(1) = 1 4

f(1) = 3 < 0
Next, we pick values on each interval of
To test 2 < x < , well plug 3 into the
the wiggle graph and plug them into the
derivative.
derivative. If we get a positive result, the
graph is increasing. A negative result 4
f(3) = 1
means its decreasing. The intervals that (3)2
we will test are
4
f(3) = 1
< x < 2, 9

9 4
2 < x < 2 and f(3) =
9 9
2 < x < .
5
f(3) = >0
9
To test < x < 2, well plug 3 into
the derivative, since 3 is a value in that Now we plot the results on our wiggle
interval. graph,
4
f(3) = 1
(3)2

4
f(3) = 1
9 and we can see that f (x) is

9 4
f(3) = increasing on < x < 2,
9 9
decreasing on 2 < x < 2 and
5 increasing on 2 < x < .
f(3) = > 0
9

To test 2 < x < 2, well plug 1 into the Inflection points

derivative.

30
Inflection points are just like critical points,
except that they indicate where the graph
changes concavity, instead of indicating
where the graph changes direction, which
is the job of critical points. Well learn
about concavity in the next section. For
now, lets find our inflection points.
In order to find inflection points, we first
take the second derivative, which is the
derivative of the derivative. We then set the
second derivative equal to 0 and solve for
x.
Example (continued)
Well start with the first derivative, and take
its derivative to find the second derivative.
4 x = 0. On the range 0 < x < , the graph is
f(x) = 1
x2
f(x) = 1 4x 2
f(x) = 0 + 8x 3
8
f(x) =
x3
Now set the second derivative equal to 0
and solve for x.
8
0=
x3
There is no solution to this equation, but
we can see that the second derivative is
undefined at x = 0. Therefore, x = 0 is the
only possible inflection point.
Concavity
Concavity is indicated by the sign of the
functions second derivative, f(x). The
function is concave up everywhere the
second derivative is positive (f(x) > 0),
and concave down everywhere the second
derivative is negative (f(x) < 0).
The following graph illustrates examples of
concavity. From < x < 0, the graph is
concave down. Think about the fact that a
graph that is concave down looks like a
frown. Sad, I know. The inflection point at
which the graph changes concavity is at
concave up, and it looks like a smile. Ah
much better.
x 3 is concave down on the range < x < 0 and
concave up on the range 0 < x < .
31
We can use the same wiggle graph Now we can plot the results on our wiggle
technique, along with the possible graph
inflection point we just found, to test for
concavity.

Example (continued)
Since our only inflection point was at
x = 0, lets go ahead and plot that on our
wiggle graph now.
We determine that f (x) is concave down on
the interval < x < 0 and concave up on
the interval 0 < x < .

Intercepts
To find the points where the graph

As you might have guessed, well be intersects the x and y-axes, we can plug 0

testing values in the following intervals: into the original function for one variable
and solve for the other.
< x < 0 and

0<x< Example (continued)

Given our original function

4
To test < x < 0, well plug 1 into the f (x) = x + ,
x
second derivative.
well plug 0 in for x to find y-intercepts.
8
f(1) = =8<0
(1)3 4
y =0+
0
To test 0 < x < , well plug 1 into the
second derivative. Immediately we can recognize there are no
y-intercepts because we cant have a 0
8
f(1) = =8>0 result in the denominator.
(1)3
Lets plug in 0 for y to find x-intercepts.

32
 4
0=x+
x
Multiply every term by x to eliminate the
fraction.
0 = x2 + 4
4 = x 2
Since there are no real solutions to this
equation, we know that this function has
no x-intercepts.
Local and global extrema
Maxima and Minima (these are the plural
versions of the singular words maximum
and minimum) can only exist at critical
points, but not every critical point is
necessarily an extrema. To know for sure,
you have to test each solution separately.
Minimums exist at x = 2 as well as x = 1. Based
on the y-values at those points, the global
minimum exists at x = 2, and a local minimum
exists at x = 1.
If youre dealing with a closed interval, for
example some function f (x) on the interval
0 to 5, then the endpoints 0 and 5 are
candidates for extrema and must also be
tested. Well use the first derivative test to
find extrema.
First derivative test
Remember the wiggle graph that we
created from our earlier test for increasing
and decreasing?
Based on the positive and negative signs
on the graph, you can see that the function
is increasing, then decreasing, then
increasing again, and if you can picture a
function like that in your head, then you
33
know immediately that we have a local
maximum at x = 2 and a local minimum
at x = 2.
You really dont even need the silly first
derivative test, because it tells you in a
formal way exactly what you just figured
out on your own:
1. If the derivative is negative to the left of
the critical point and positive to the right
of it, the graph has a local minimum at
that point.
2. If the derivative is positive to the left of
the critical point and negative on the
right side of it, the graph has a local
maximum at that point.
As a side note, if its positive on both sides
or negative on both sides, then the point is
neither a local maximum nor a local
minimum, and the test is inconclusive.
Remember, if you have more than one
local maximum or minimum, you must
plug in the value of x at the critical points
to your original function. The y-values you
get back will tell you which points are
global maxima and minima, and which
ones are only local. For example, if you
find that your function has two local
maxima, you can plug in the value for x at
those critical points. As an example, if the
first returns a y-value of 10 and the second
returns a y-value of 5, then the first point is
your global maximum and the second
point is your local maximum.
If youre asked to determine where the
function has its maximum/minimum, your
answer will be in the form x=[value]. But if
youre asked for the value at the
maximum/minimum, youll have to plug the
x-value into your original function and state
the y-value at that point as your answer.
Second derivative test
You can also test for local maxima and
minima using the second derivative test if
it easier for you than the first derivative
test. In order to use this test, simply plug
in your critical points to the second
derivative. If your result is negative, that
point is a local maximum. If the result is
positive, the point is a local minimum. If
the result is zero, you cant draw a
conclusion from the second derivative test,
and you have to resort to the first
derivative test to solve the problem. Lets
try it.
Example (continued)
Remember that our critical points are
x = 2 and x = 2.
8
f(2) =
(2)3
34
 8 value of zero as the denominator of a
f(2) =
8 fraction, or whenever we have a negative
f(2) = 1 < 0
Since the second derivative is negative at
x = 2, we conclude that there is a local
maximum at that point.
8
f(2) =
(2)3
8 plugging in 0 for x makes the denominator
f(2) =
8 of the fraction 0, and therefore undefined.
f(2) = 1 > 0
Since the second derivative is positive at
x = 2, we conclude that there is a local
minimum at that point.
Good news! These are the same results we
got from the first derivative test! So why
did we do this? Because you may be
asked on a test to use a particular method
to test the extrema, so you should really
know how to use both tests.
Asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes are the easiest to test
for, because they only exist where the
function is undefined. Remember, a
function is undefined whenever we have a
value inside a square root sign. Consider
the example weve been working with in
this section:
4
f (x) = x +
x
You should see immediately that we have
a vertical asymptote at x = 0 because
Horizontal asymptotes
Vertical and horizontal asymptotes are
similar in that they can only exist when the
function is a rational function.
When were looking for horizontal
asymptotes, we only care about the first
term in the numerator and denominator.
Both of those terms will have whats called
a degree, which is the exponent on the
variable. If our function is
x 3 + lower-degreeterms
f (x) = 2
x + lower-degreeterms
then the degree of the numerator is 3 and
the degree of the denominator is 2.
Heres how we test for horizontal
asymptotes.
35
1. If the degree of the numerator is less
than the degree of the denominator,
then the x-axis is a horizontal
asymptote.
2. If the degree of the numerator is equal
to the degree of the denominator, then
the coecient of the first term in the
numerator divided by the coecient in
the first term of the denominator is the
horizontal asymptote.
3. If the degree of the numerator is greater
than the degree of the denominator,
there is no horizontal asymptote.
Using the example weve been working
with throughout this section, well
determine whether the function has any
horizontal asymptotes. We can use long
division to convert the function into one
fraction. The following is the same function
as our original function, just consolidated
into one fraction after multiplying the first
term by x /x:
x2 + 4
f (x) =
x
We can see immediately that the degree of
our numerator is 2, and that the degree of
our denominator is 1. That means that our
numerator is one degree higher than our
denominator, which means that this
function does not have a horizontal
asymptote.
Slant asymptotes
Slant asymptotes are a special case. They
exist when the degree of the numerator is
1 greater than the degree of the
denominator. Lets take the example weve
been using throughout this section.
4
f (x) = x +
x
First, well convert this function to a
rational function by multiplying the first
term by x /x and then combining the
fractions.
x2 + 4
f (x) =
x
We can see that the degree of our
numerator is one greater than the degree
of our denominator, so we know that we
have a slant asymptote.
To find the equation of that asymptote, we
divide the denominator into the numerator
using long division and we get
4
f (x) = x +
x
Right back to our original function! That
wont always happen, our function just
happened to be the composition of the
quotient and remainder.
36
Whenever we use long division in this way
to find the slant asymptote, the first term is
our quotient and the second term is our
remainder. The quotient is the equation of
the line representing the slant asymptote.
Therefore, our slant asymptote is the line
y = x.
Knowing that the graph is concave up in
the upper right, and concave down in the
lower left, and realizing that it cant cross
either of the asymptotes, you should be
able to make a pretty good guess that it
will look like the following:

Sketching the graph

Now that weve finished gathering all of
the information we can about our graph,
we can start sketching it. This will be
something youll just have to practice and
get the hang of.

The first thing I usually do is sketch any

asymptotes, because you know that your
graph wont cross those lines, and
therefore they act as good guidelines. So
lets draw in the lines x = 0 and y = 0.
The graph of f (x) = x + 4/x
In this case, picturing the graph was a little
easier because of the two asymptotes, but
if you didnt have the slant asymptote,
youd want to graph the x- and y-
intercepts, critical and inflection points,
and extrema, and then connect the points
using the information you have about
increasing/decreasing and concavity.

The asymptotes of f (x) = x + 4/x

37
4
integrals

play video

The integral of a function is its antiderivative. In other words, to find a functions integral,
we perform the opposite actions that we would have taken to find its derivative. The value
we find for the integral models the area underneath the graph of the function. Lets find out
why.

38
definite integrals

Evaluating a definite integral means finding If we let f (x) = 3x 2 5x + 2 and then

the area enclosed by the graph of the integrate the polynomial, we get
function and the x-axis, over the given
2

( )
interval [a, b]. 5
F(x) = x 3 x 2 + 2x + C ,
2
0
In Figure I, the shaded area is the integral
of f (x) on the interval a to b. Finding this
where C is the constant of integration.
area means taking the integral of f (x),
plugging the upper limit, b, into the result, Evaluating on the interval [0,2], we get
and then subtracting from that whatever

( )
5
you get when you plug in the lower limit, a. F(x) = (2)3 (2)2 + 2(2) + C
2

( )
5
(0)3 (0)2 + 2(0) + C
2

F(x) = (8 10 + 4 + C ) (0 0 + 0 + C )

F(x) = 8 10 + 4 + C C

F(x) = 2

As you can see, the constant of integration

cancels out in the end, leaving a definite
Figure I value as the final answer, not just a
function for y defined in terms of x.

Example Since this will always be the case, you can

just leave C out of your answer whenever
Evaluate the integral.
youre solving a definite integral.
2

0
3x 2 5x + 2 d x So, what do we mean when we say
F(x) = 2? What does this value represent?

39
When we say that F(x) = 2, it means that This means that, if the area enclosed by
the area the graph below the x-axis is larger than
the area enclosed by the graph above the
1. below the graph of f (x), x-axis, then the value of F(x) will be
2. above the x-axis, and negative (F(x) < 0).
3. between the lines x = 0 and x = 2
If the area enclosed by the graph below
is 2. the x-axis is exactly equal to the area
enclosed by the graph above the x-axis,
then F(x) = 0.

Keep in mind that were talking about the

area enclosed by the graph and the x-axis.
If f (x) drops below the x-axis inside [a, b],
we treat the area under the x-axis as
negative area.

Then finding the value of F(x) means

subtracting the area enclosed by the graph
under the x-axis from the area enclosed by
the graph above the x-axis.

Evaluating the definite integral of f (x) = sin x on

[1,5] means subtracting the area enclosed by the
graph below the x-axis from the area enclosed by
the graph above the x-axis.

40
fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus is 8

=8
the formula that relates the derivative to 3
the integral and provides us with a method 24 8
for evaluating definite integrals. =
3 3
b b 16
a
f (x) d x = F(x) =
a 3

a
f (x) d x = F(b) F(a)
The fundamental theorem of calculus is
not just applicable to integrals. We need it
On the left side of the equal sign is the
for derivatives too! The first derivative of
definite integral; the equivalent function is
the function F(x) is the continuous function
on the right after its been evaluated
f (x).
through integration.

The limits of integration on the left are

substituted into the equivalent function on
the right - upper limit minus lower limit.

Example

Evaluate the integral on the given interval.

y = 4 x 2 on [0,2]

2
2
x3
1 [ 3]
2
4 x d x = 4x
0

(2)3 (0)3
[ 3 ] [ 3 ]
= 4(2) 4(0)

41
initial value problems

Consider the following situation. Youre
given the function f (x) = 2x 3 and asked
to find its derivative. This function is pretty
basic, so unless youre taking calculus out
of order, it shouldnt cause you too much
stress to figure out that the derivative of
long-lost friend, 3 , well need some
additional information about this problem,
namely, an initial condition, which looks
like this:
y(0) = 3

f (x) is 2.
Problems that provide you with one or

Now consider what it would be like to more initial conditions are called Initial

work backwards from our derivative. If Value Problems. Initial conditions take

youre given the function f(x) = 2 and what would otherwise be an entire rainbow

asked to find its integral, its impossible for of possible solutions, and whittles them

you to find get back to our original down to one specific solution.

function, f (x) = 2x 3. As you can see,

Remember that the basic idea behind
taking the integral of the derivative we
Initial Value Problems is that, once you
found gives us back the first term of the
dierentiate a function, you lose some
original function, 2x, but somewhere along
information about that function. More
the way we lost the 3. In fact, we always
specifically, you lose the constant. By
lose the constant (term without a variable
integrating f(x), you get a family of
attached), when we take the derivative of
solutions that only dier by a constant.
something. Which means were never

going to get the constant back when we
2 d x = 2x 3
try to integrate our derivative. Its lost
forever.
= 2x + 7
Accounting for that lost constant is why
= 2x 2
we always add C to the end of our
integrals. C is called the constant of
Given one point on the function, (the initial
integration and it acts as a placeholder
condition), you can pick a specific solution
for our missing constant. In order to get
out of a much broader solution set.
back to our original function, and find our

42
Example

Given f(x) = 2 and f (0) = 3, find f (x).

Integrating f(x) means were integrating

2 d x, and well get 2x + C, where C is the
constant of integration. At this point, C is
holding the place of our now familiar
friend, 3, but we dont know that yet. We
have to use our initial condition to find out.

To use our initial condition, f (0) = 3, we

plug in the number inside the parentheses
for x and the number on the right side of
the equation for y. Therefore, in our case,
well plug in 0 for x and 3 for y.

3 = 2(0) + C

3 = C

Notice that our solution would have been

dierent had we been given a dierent
initial condition. So hooray for our long-
lost friend 3!! Now we know exactly what
our full solution looks like, and exactly
which one of the many possible solutions
was originally dierentiated. Therefore, our
final answer is the function we originally
dierentiated:

f (x) = 2x 3

43
5
solving integrals

play video

Now that we know what an integral is, well talk about dierent techniques we can use to
solve integrals.

44
u-substitution

Finding derivatives of elementary functions For integrals that contain power functions,
was a relatively simple process, because try using the base of the power function as
taking the derivative only meant applying the substitution.
the right derivative rules.

This is not the case with integration. Unlike Example

derivatives, it may not be immediately
Use u-substitution to evaluate the integral.
clear which integration rules to use, and

every function is like a puzzle.
x(x 2 + 1)4 d x

Most integrals need some work before you

can even begin the integration. They have Let
to be transformed or manipulated in order
u = x2 + 1
to reduce the functions form into some
simpler form. U-substitution is the simplest
and
tool we have to transform integrals.
du = 2x d x
When you use u-substitution, youll define
u as a dierentiable function in terms of or solving for d x,
the variable in the integral, take the
du
derivative of u to get du, and then dx =
2x
substitute these values back into your
integrals. Substituting back into the integral, we get

Unfortunately, there are no perfect rules for du

x(u)4
defining u. If you try a substitution that 2x
doesnt work, just try another one. With
du

practice, youll get faster at identifying the u4
2
right value for u.
1 4

Here are some common substitutions you u du
2
can try.

45
This is much simpler than our original du = 2x d x
integral, and something we can actually
integrate. or solving for d x,

du

2 (5 )
1 1 5 dx =
u +C 2x

Substituting back into the integral, we get

1 5
u +C
10 x du
u 2x

Now, back-substitute to put the answer
back in terms of x instead of u. 1 du
u 2

1 2
(x + 1)5 + C
10 1 1
2 u
du

This is much simpler than our original

For integrals of rational functions, if the
integral, and something we can actually
numerator is of equal or greater degree
integrate.
than the denominator, always perform
division first. Otherwise, try using the 1
ln | u | + C
denominator as a possible substitution. 2

Now, back-substitute to put the answer

Example back in terms of x instead of u.

Use u-substitution to evaluate the integral. 1

ln | x 2 + 1 | + C
2
x
x2 + 1
dx

Let For integrals containing exponential

2
functions, try using the power for the
u = x +1
substitution.
and

46
 Integrals containing trigonometric
Example functions can be more challenging to
manipulate. Sometimes, the value of u isnt
Use u-substitution to evaluate the integral.
even part of the original integral. Therefore,

the better you know your trigonometric
e sin x cos x cos 2x d x
identities, the better o youll be.

Let
Example
u = sin x cos x
Use u-substitution to evaluate the integral.
and using the product rule to dierentiate,
tan x
cos x
dx

[( d x ) ( dx )]
d d
du = sin x cos x + sin x cos x dx
Since tan x = sin x /cos x,

du = [cos x cos x + sin x (sin x)] d x sin x

tan x
cos x cos x
d x = cos x d x
du = cos2 x sin2 x d x

sin x 1
cos x cos x
du = cos 2x d x = dx

Substituting back into the integral, we get

sin x
cos2 x
= dx

e u du
Let
eu + C
u = cos x
Now, back-substitute to put the answer
back in terms of x instead of u. and

e sin x cos x + C du = sin x d x

or solving for d x,

du
dx =
sin x

47

Substituting back into the integral, we get cos x
0 1 + sin2 x
2
dx

u 2 ( sin x )
sin x du

Let

1
u2
du u = sin x

and

u 2 du
du = cos x d x

1 1 or solving for d x,
u +C
1
du
dx =
u 1 + C cos x

1 Since were dealing with a definite integral,

+C
u
we need to use the equation u = sin x to

Now, back-substitute to put the answer find limits of integration in terms of u,

back in terms of x instead of u. instead of x.

1 when x = 0, u = sin 0
+C
cos x
u=0

when x = , u = sin
2 2
U-substitution in definite integrals
U-substitution in definite integrals is just u=1
like substitution in indefinite integrals
except that, since the variable is changed, Substituting back into the integral
the limits of integration must be changed (including for our limits of integration), we
as well. get

1
cos x du
0 1 + u 2 cos x

Example

Use u-substitution to evaluate the integral.

48
 1
1
0 1 + u 2
du

Using this very common formula,

1
1 + x2
1
d x = tan x+C

take the integral.

1
1 1

0 1 + u 2
1
du = tan u
0

= tan1 1 tan1 0

=
4

49
integration by parts
Unlike dierentiation, integration is not
always straightforward and we cant
always express the integral of every
function in terms of neat and clean
elementary functions.
When your integral is too complicated to
solve without a fancy technique and
youve ruled out u-substitution, integration
by parts should be your next approach for
evaluating your integral. If you remember
that the product rule was your method for
finding derivatives of functions that were
multiplied together, you can think about
integration by parts as the method often
used for integrating functions that are
multiplied together.
Suppose you want to integrate the
following
x
xe dx
How can you integrate the above
expression quickly and easily? You cant,
unless youre a super human genius. But
hopefully you can recognize that you have
two functions multiplied together inside of
this integral, one being x and the other
being e x. If you try u-substitution, you
wont find anything to cancel in your
integral, and youll be no better o, which
means that your next step should be an
attempt at integrating with our new
method, integration by parts.
The formula well use is derived by
integrating the product rule from CALC I,
and looks like this:
u dv = uv v du
In the formula above, everything to the left
of the equals sign represents your original
function, which means your original
function must be composed of u and dv.
Your job is to identify which part of your
original function will be u, and which will
be dv.
My favorite technique for picking u and dv
is to assign u to the function in your
integral whose derivative is simpler than
the original u. Consider again the example
from earlier:
xe x d x
I would assign u to x, because the
derivative of x is 1, which is much simpler
than x. If you have ln x in your integral,
thats usually a good bet for u because the
50
derivative of ln x is 1/x; much simpler than
ln x. Once you pick which of your functions
will be represented by u, the rest is easy
because you know that the other function
will be represented by dv.
Our integral is comprised of two functions,
x and e x. One of them must be u and the
other dv. Since the derivative of x is 1,
which is much simpler than the derivative
of e x, well assign u to x.

Using this formula can be challenging for a u=x dierentiate du = 1 d x

lot of students, but the hardest part is
identifying which of your two functions will dv = e x d x intgrate v = e x

be u and which will be dv. Thats the very

Plugging all four components into the right
first thing you have to tackle with
side of our formula gives the following
integration by parts, so once you get that
transformation of our original function:
over with, youll be home free.

After completing this first crucial step, you (x)(e x ) (e x )(1 d x)

take the derivative of u, called du, and the

integral of dv, which will be v. Now that xe x + e x d x
you have u, du, v and dv, you can plug all
of your components into the right side of
Now that we have something we can work
the integration by parts formula.
with, we integrate.
Everything to the right of the equals sign
will be part of your answer. If youve xe x + (e x ) + C
correctly assigned u and dv, the integral on
the right should now be much easier to Our final answer is therefore
integrate.
xe x e x + C
Lets apply the formula to our original
Or, factored, we have
example to see how it works.
e x(x + 1) + C

Example

xe x d x What happens if you apply integration by
parts and the integral youre left with still

51
isnt easy to solve? The first thing you
should do in this situation is make sure
that you assigned u and dv correctly. Try
assigning u and dv to opposite
components of your original integral and
see if you end up with a better answer. If
you still get a funky integral, you may be
able to apply another fancy integration
technique to your answer. Try first to see if
u-substitution will work on your new
integral. If not, you may need to apply
integration by parts a second time.
Heres an example of what that looks like.
Example
x 3 cos x d x
u = x3 dierentiate du = 3x 2 d x
dv = cos x d x integrate v = sin x
Plugging all four components into the
formula gives
(x 3)(sin x) (sin x)(3x 2 d x)
x 3 sin x 3x 2 sin x d x
What remains inside the integral is not
easy to evaluate. Since u-substitution
wont get us anywhere, we try integration
by parts again, using our most recent
integral.
u = 3x 2 dierentiate du = 6x d x
dv = sin x d x integrate v = cos x
Plugging in again to our last integral gives
[ ]
x 3 sin x (3x 2)(cos x) (cos x)(6x d x)
( )
x 3 sin x 3x 2 cos x + 6x cos x d x
x 3 sin x + 3x 2 cos x 6x cos x d x
We still dont have an easy integral, so we
use integration by parts one more time.
u = 6x dierentiate du = 6 d x
dv = cos x d x integrate v = sin x
Using the integration by parts formula to
again transform the integral, we get:
( )
x 3 sin x + 3x 2 cos x (6x)(sin x) (sin x)(6 d x)
x 3 sin x + 3x 2 cos x 6x sin x + 6 sin x d x
We finally have something we can easily
integrate, so we get our final answer:
x 3 sin x + 3x 2 cos x 6x sin x 6 cos x + C
52
 ( )
e x cos x + (sin x)(e x ) (e x )(cos x d x)

Sometimes after applying integration by

parts twice, you end up with an integral e x cos x d x = e x cos x + e x sin x e x cos x d x
that is the same as your original problem.
When that happens, instead of feeling like
See how our new integral on the right is
youre right back where you started, realize
the same as our integral? It seems like
that you can add the integral on the right
were right back to the beginning of our
side of your equation to the integral on the
problem and that all hope is lost. Instead,
left. Take the following example.
we can add the integral on the right to the
left side of our equation.
Example

2 e x cos x d x = e x cos x + e x sin x

e x cos x d x

Well just simplify the right-hand side and

u = cos x dierentiate du = sin x d x then divide both sides of the equation by 2
to get our final answer.
dv = e x d x integrate v = ex

Plugging all four components into the 2 e x cos x d x = e x(cos x + sin x)
integration by parts formula gives
e x(cos x + sin x)

x
e cos x d x =

(cos x)(e x ) (e x )(sin x d x) 2

e x cos x + e x sin x d x

We use integration by parts again to

simplify the remaining integral.

u = sin x dierentiate du = cos x d x

dv = e x d x integrate v = ex

Plugging in again, we get

53
partial fractions

The method of Partial Fractions is an denominators are 1, so this step didnt

extremely useful tool whenever you need appear. But if your integral is
to integrate a fraction with polynomials in
3
2x + 1
both the numerator and denominator; dx
something like this:

7x + 1 then your answer will be

f (x) = 2
x 1 3
ln | 2x + 1 | + C
2
If you were asked to integrate

3 4 because the derivative of our denominator

f (x) = + is 2, which means we have to divide by 2,
x+1 x1
according to chain rule.
you shouldnt have too much trouble,
because if you dont have a variable in the So back to the original example. We said
numerator of your fraction, then your at the beginning of this section that
integral is simply the numerator multiplied 7x + 1
by the natural log (ln) of the absolute value f (x) =
x2 1
of the denominator, like this:
would be dicult to integrate, but that we
3 4
x+1 x1
+ dx wouldnt have as much trouble with

3 4
f (x) = +
3 ln | x + 1 | + 4 ln | x 1 | + C x+1 x1

where C is the constant of integration. Not In fact, these two are actually the same
too hard, right? function. If we try adding 3/(x + 1) and
4/(x 1) together, youll see that we get
Dont forget to use chain rule and divide by
back to our original function.
the derivative of your denominator. In the
case above, the derivatives of both of our 3 4
f (x) = +
x+1 x1

54
 3(x 1) + 4(x + 1) Because the degree (the value of the
f (x) =
(x + 1)(x 1) highest exponent in the numerator, 3), is
greater than the degree of the
3x 3 + 4x + 4
f (x) = 2 denominator, 1, we have to perform long
x x+x1
division first.
7x + 1
f (x) =
x2 1

Again, attempting to integrate

f (x) = (7x + 1)/(x 2 1) is extremely dicult.
But if you can express this function as
f (x) = 3/(x + 1) + 4/(x 1), then integrating
is much simpler. This method of converting
complicated fractions into simpler
fractions that are easier to integrate is
called decomposition into partial After performing long division, our fraction
fractions. has been decomposed into

Lets start talking about how to perform a 52

(x 2 6x + 18)
partial fractions decomposition. Before we x+3
move forward its important to remember
Now the function is easy to integrate.
that you must perform long division with
your polynomials whenever the degree 52

x 2 6x + 18 dx
(value of the greatest exponent) of your x+3
denominator is not greater than the degree
1 3
of your numerator, as is the case in the x 3x 2 + 18x 52 ln | x + 3 | + C
3
following example.

Example Okay. So now that youve either performed

x 3 3x 2 + 2 long division or confirmed that the degree

dx
x+3 of your denominator is greater than the
degree of your numerator (such that you
dont have to perform long division), its

55
time for full-blown partial fractions. Oh
goodie! I hope youre excited.
The first step is to factor your denominator
as much as you can. Your second step will
be determining which type of denominator
youre dealing with, depending on how it
factors. Your denominator will be the
product of the following:
1. Distinct linear factors
2. Repeated linear factors
3. Distinct quadratic factors
4. Repeated quadratic factors
Lets take a look at an example of each of
these four cases so that you understand
the dierence between them.
Distinct linear factors
In this first example, well look at the first
case above, in which the denominator is a
product of distinct linear factors.
Example
2
x + 2x + 1
x 3 2x 2 x + 2
dx
Since the degree of the denominator is
higher than the degree of the numerator,
we dont have to perform long division
before we start. Instead, we can move
straight to factoring the denominator, as
follows.
x 2 + 2x + 1
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 2)
dx
We can see that our denominator is a
product of distinct linear factors because
(x 1), (x + 1), and (x 2), are all dierent
first-degree factors.
Once we have it factored, we set our
fraction equal to the sum of its component
parts, assigning new variables to the
numerator of each of our fractions. Since
our denominator can be broken down into
three dierent factors, we need three
variables, A, B and C to go on top of each
one of our new fractions, like so:
x 2 + 2x + 1 A B C
= + +
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 2) x1 x+1 x2
Now that weve separated our original
function into its partial fractions, we
multiply both sides by the denominator of
the left-hand side. The denominator will
cancel on the left-hand side, and on the
right, each of the three partial fractions will
end up multiplied by all the factors other
than the one that was previously included
in its denominator.
x 2 + 2x + 1 = A(x + 1)(x 2)+
56
 B(x 1)(x + 2)+ Doing this allows us to equate coecients
on the left and right sides. Do you see how
C(x 1)(x + 1) the coecient on the x 2 term on the left-
hand side of the equation is 1? Well, the
Our next step is to multiply out all of these
coecient on the x 2 term on the right-hand
terms.
side is (A + B + C ), which means those two
x 2 + 2x + 1 = A(x 2 x 2)+ must be equal. We can do the same for the
x term, as well as for the constants. We get
B(x 2 + x + 2)+ the following three equations:

C(x 2 1) A+B+C =1 1

x 2 + 2x + 1 = Ax 2 Ax 2A+ A + B = 2 2

Bx 2 + Bx + 2B+ 2A + 2B C = 1 3

Cx 2 C Now that we have these equations, we

need to solve for our three constants, A, B,
Now we collect like terms together,
and C. This can easily get confusing, but
meaning that we re-order them, putting all
with practice, you should get the hang of
the x 2 terms next to each other, all the x
it. If you have one equation with only two
terms next to each other, and then all the
variables instead of all three, like (2), thats
constants next to each other.
a good place to start. Adding A to both
x 2 + 2x + 1 = Ax 2 + Bx 2 + Cx 2 sides in (2) gives us

Ax + Bx B =2+A 4

2A + 2B C Now well substitute (4) for B into (1) and

(3) and then simplify, such that these
Finally, we factor out our x terms. equations:

x 2 + 2x + 1 = (A + B + C )x 2+ A + (2 + A) + C = 1

(A + B)x+ 2A + 2(2 + A) C = 1

(2A + 2B C ) become these equations:

57
 2A + C = 1 5 3 ln | x 2 | 2 ln | x 1 | + C

C=3 6 And using laws of logarithms to simplify

our final answer, we get
Now we can plug (6) into (5) to solve for A.
3 x2
2A + 3 = 1 ln +C
2 x1

2A = 4

A=2 7
Repeated linear factors
With (1), (6) and (7), we have everything we Lets move now to the second of our four
need to find B. case types above, in which the
denominator will be a product of linear
2 + B + 3 = 1 factors, some of which are repeated.

B=0 8
Example
Having solved for the values of our three
2x 5 3x 4 + 5x 3 + 3x 2 9x + 13

constants in (7), (8) and (6), were finally dx
ready to plug them back into our partial x 4 2x 2 + 1
fractions decomposition. Doing so should
Youll see that we need to carry out long
produce something thats easier for us to
division before we start factoring, since the
integrate than our original function.
degree of the numerator is greater than the
x 2 + 2x + 1 2 0 3 degree of the denominator (5 > 4).
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 2) x1 x+1 x2
dx = + + dx

Simplifying the integral on the right side,

we get

3 2
x2 x1
dx

Remembering that the integral of 1/x is

Now that the degree of the remainder is
ln | x | + C, we integrate and get
less than the degree of the original

58
denominator, we can rewrite the problem To see why, lets take a simpler example.
as The partial fractions decomposition of
x 2 /[(x + 1)4] is
9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16

2x 3 + dx
x 4 2x 2 + 1 x2 A B C D
= + + +
(x + 1)4 x + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3 (x + 1)4
Integrating the 2x 3 will be simple, so for
now, lets focus on the fraction. Well factor Notice how we included (x + 1)4, our
the denominator. original factor, as well as each factor of
lesser degree? We have to do this every
3 2
9x 3x 11x + 16 time we have a repeated factor.
(x 2 1)(x 2 1)
Lets continue with our original example.
3 2
9x 3x 11x + 16
(x + 1)(x 1)(x + 1)(x 1) 9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16 A B C D
= + + +
x 2x + 1
4 2 x 1 (x 1) 2 x + 1 (x + 1)2

9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16
Well multiply both sides of our equation
(x + 1)2(x 1)2
by the denominator from the left side,
Given the factors involved in our (x + 1)2(x 1)2, which will cancel the
denominator, you might think that the denominator on the left and some of the
partial fraction decomposition would look factors on the right.
like this:

9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16 A B C D
= + + + 9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16 =
(x + 1)2(x 1)2 x+1 x+1 x1 x1

However, the fact that were dealing with A(x 1)(x + 1)2 + B(x + 1)2+
repeated factors, ((x + 1) is a factor twice
C(x 1)2(x + 1) + D(x 1)2
and (x 1) is a factor twice), our partial
fractions decomposition is actually the To simplify, well start multiplying all terms
following: on the right side together.

9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16 A B C D
= + + + 9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16 =
x 4 2x 2 + 1 x 1 (x 1)2 x + 1 (x + 1)2

A(x 3 + x 2 x 1)+

59
 B(x 2 + 2x + 1)+ 2A + B + D = 6 6

C(x 3 x 2 x + 1)+ 2B 2D = 2 7

D(x 2 2x + 1) 2A + B + D = 7 8

Now well group like terms together. Lets now solve (7) for B.

9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16 = 2B 2D = 2

(A + C )x 3 + (A + B C + D)x 2+ 2B = 2 + 2D

(A + 2B C 2D)x + (A + B + C + D) B =1+D

Equating coecients on both sides of the B =D1 9

equation gives us the following equations.
Plugging (9) into (6) and (8), we get
A+C =9 1
2A + (D 1) + D = 6
A+BC+D =3 2
2A + (D 1) + D = 7
A + 2B C 2D = 11 3
And simplifying, we get the following:
A + B + C + D = 16 4
2A + 2D = 7 10
Now well start solving for variables. If we
subtract A from both sides of (1), we get 2A + 2D = 8 11

C =9A 5 We solve (11) for D.

If we plug (5) into (2), (3) and (4), we have 2A + 2D = 8

A + B (9 A) + D = 3 2D = 8 + 2A

A + 2B (9 A) 2D = 11 D =4+A 12

A + B + (9 A) + D = 16 We plug (12) into (10) to solve for A.

And simplifying, we get the following: 2A + 2(4 + A) = 7

60
 2A + 8 + 2A = 7 the 2x 3 that we put aside following the
long division earlier in this example, well
4A = 1 write out our partial fractions
1 decomposition.
A= 13
4
2x 5 3x 4 + 5x 3 + 3x 2 9x + 13

dx =
At last! Weve solved for one variable. Now x 4 2x 2 + 1
its pretty quick to find the other three.
9x 3 3x 2 11x + 16

With (13), we can use (12) to find D. 2x 3 + dx =
x 4 2x 2 + 1
1
D =4 1
4
11 37 15
4

4 4 4
2x 3 + + + + dx
x1 (x 1)2 x+1 (x + 1)2
15
D= 14
4 Now we can integrate. Using the rule from
algebra that 1/(x n) = x n, well flip the
We plug (14) into (9) to find B.
second and fourth fractions so that they
15 are easier to integrate.
B= 1
4
1 1 11

2x 3 d x dx + (x 1)2 d x+
11 4 x1 4
B= 15
4
37 1 15
4 x+1 4
dx + (x + 1)2 d x
Last but not least, we plug (13) into (5) to
solve for C.
Now that weve simplified, well integrate

( 4)
1 to get our final answer.
C =9
1 11
x 2 3x ln | x 1 | +
1 4 4(x 1)
C =9+
4
37 15
ln | x + 1 | +C
37 4 4(x + 1)
C= 16
4

Taking the values of our constants from

(13), (15), (16) and (14) and bringing back Distinct quadratic factors

61
Now lets take a look at an example in
which the denominator is a product of
distinct quadratic factors.
In order to solve these types of integrals,
youll sometimes need the following
formula:
The numerators of quadratic factors
require a polynomial, like this:
Ax + B
x2 + 9
Remember though that when we add
these fractions together in our partial

(n)
1 m x fractions decomposition, we never want to
m x2 + n2
1
d x = tan +C A
n repeat the same constant, so our partial
fractions decomposition is

Example x 2 2x 5 A Bx + C
= +
(x 1)(x 2 + 9) x1 x2 + 9
x 2 2x 5
x 3 x 2 + 9x 9
dx
See how we started the second fraction
with B instead of A? If we added a second
As always, the first thing to notice is that
quadratic factor to this example, its
the degree of the denominator is larger
numerator would be Dx + E.
than the degree of the numerator, which
means that we dont have to perform long Multiplying both sides of our
division before we can start factoring the decomposition by the denominator on the
denominator. So lets get right to it and left gives
factor the denominator.
x 2 2x 5 = A(x 2 + 9) + (Bx + C )(x 1)
x 2 2x 5
(x 1)(x 2 + 9)
dx
x 2 2x 5 = Ax 2 + 9A + Bx 2 Bx + Cx C

We have one distinct linear factor, (x 1), x 2 2x 5 = (Ax 2 + Bx 2) + (Bx + Cx) + (9A C )

and one distinct quadratic factor, (x 2 + 9).

x 2 2x 5 = (A + B)x 2 + (B + C )x + (9A C )
As we already know, linear factors require
Then equating coecients on the left and
one constant in the numerator, like this:
right sides gives us the following
A equations.
x1
A+B =1 1

62
 B + C = 2 2 8
C= 2
5
9A C = 5 3
2
C= 9
We solve (1) for A. 5

A=1B 4 We can also plug (8) into (4) to solve for A.

8
Plugging (4) into (3) leaves us with two A=1
5
equations in terms of B and C.
3
B + C = 2 2 A= 10
5

9(1 B) C = 5 5
Plugging (10), (8) and (9) into our partial
fractions decomposition, we get
Simplifying (5) leaves us with

35 8 2
x 2 2x 5 x 5
(x 1)(x 2 + 9) x1
B + C = 2 2
dx = 5
+ 2 dx
x +9
9B C = 14 6
3 1 8 x 2 1
5 x1 5 x2 + 9 5 x2 + 9
dx + d x dx
Solving (2) for C we get

C =B2 7 Integrating the first term only, we get

3 8 x 2 1
5 x2 + 9 5 x2 + 9
Plugging (7) into (6) gives
ln | x 1 | + d x dx
5
9B (B 2) = 14
Using u-substitution to integrate the
10B + 2 = 14 second term, we get

10B = 16 u = x2 + 9
8
B= 8 du = 2x d x
5
du
Now that we have a value for B, well plug dx =
2x
(8) into (7) to solve for C.

63
 3 8 x du 2 1

ln | x 1 | + dx Well be using formula (A) like we did in the
5 5 u 2x 5 x + 9
2
last example.

3 4 1 2 1
5 u 5 x2 + 9
ln | x 1 | + du dx
5 Example
3 4 2 1 x 3 + 2x 2 x + 1
5 x2 + 9
ln | x 1 | + ln | u | dx dx
5 5 x(x 2 + 1)2

3 4 2 1

ln | x 1 | + ln | x 2 + 9 | dx Remember, when were dealing with
5 5 5 x +9
2
repeated factors, we have to include every
lesser degree of that factor in our partial
Using (A) to integrate the third term, we get
fractions decomposition, which will be

( )
1 m x
m x2 + n2
1
d x = tan +C A x 3 + 2x 2 x + 1 A Bx + C Dx + E
n n = + +
x(x 2 + 1)2 x x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
m=1
Multiplying both sides by the denominator
n=3 of the left-hand side gives us

x 3 + 2x 2 x + 1 = A(x 2 + 1)2+
5 [3 ( 3 )]
3 4 2 1 x
ln | x 1 | + ln | x 2 + 9 | tan1 +C
5 5
(Bx + C )x(x 2 + 1)+

(3)
3 4 2 x
ln | x 1 | + ln | x 2 + 9 | tan1 +C (Dx + E )x
5 5 15

Simplifying the right-hand side, we get

5[ ( 3 )]
1 2 x
4 ln | x 2 + 9 | 3 ln | x 1 | tan1 +C
3
x 3 + 2x 2 x + 1 = A(x 4 + 2x 2 + 1)+

(Bx + C )(x 3 + x)+

Repeated quadratic factors (Dx + E )x

Last but not least, lets take a look at an
x 3 + 2x 2 x + 1 = Ax 4 + 2Ax 2 + A+
example in which the denominator is a
product of quadratic factors, at least some
Bx 4 + Bx 2 + Cx 3 + Cx+
of which are repeated.

64
 Dx 2 + Ex 1+B =0

Grouping like terms together, we have B =1 6

x 3 + 2x 2 x + 1 = (Ax 4 + Bx 4) + (Cx 3)+ Plugging (2) into (4) to solve for E, we get

(2Ax 2 + Bx 2 + Dx 2)+ 1 + E = 1

(Cx + Ex)+ E=0 7

(A) Plugging (5) and (6) into (3) to solve for D

gives us
And factoring, we get
2(1) 1 + D = 2
3 2 4 3
x + 2x x + 1 = (A + B)x + (C )x +
D=1 8
(2A + B + D)x 2+
Plugging our constants from (5), (6), (2), (8)
(C + E )x+ and (7) back into our decomposition, we
get
(A)
(1) (1)x + (1) (1)x + (0)
x
Now we equate coecients and write + + 2 dx
x2 + 1 (x + 1)2
down the equations well use to solve for
each of our constants. 1 x+1 x
x x + 1 (x + 1)2
2 + 2 dx
A+B =0 1
1 x+1 x
x x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
C =1 2 dx d x + dx

2A + B + D = 2 3 1 x 1 x
x x +1 x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
dx 2 dx d x + dx

C+E =1 4
Integrating the first term only, we get
A=1 5
x 1 x
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
ln | x | d x d x + dx
We already have values for A and C.
Plugging (5) into (1) to solve for B gives us

65
Using u-substitution to integrate the du = 2x d x
second term, we get
du
dx =
u = x2 + 1 2x

1 x du
u 2x
du = 2x d x ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 x + 2
2
du
dx = 1 1 1
2 u2
2x ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 x + du
2
x du 1 x
u 2x x 2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
ln | x | d x + dx 1 1 2
2
ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 x + u du
2
1 1 1 x
2 u x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
ln | x | du d x + dx 1 1
ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 x +C
2 2u
1 1 x
x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
ln | x | ln | u | d x + dx
2 And plugging back in for u gives us our
final answer.
1 1 x
x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2
ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | d x + dx
2 1 1
ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 x +C
2 2(x 2 + 1)
Using formula (A) to integrate the third
term, we get

m=1 In summary, in order to integrate by

expressing rational functions (fractions) in
n=1 terms of their partial fractions
decomposition, you should follow these
( 1 ) (x 2 + 1)2
1 1 x x
ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 + dx
2 1 steps:

1 x 1. Ensure that the rational function is

(x 2 + 1)2
ln | x | ln | x 2 + 1 | tan1 x + dx
2 proper, such that the degree (greatest
exponent) of the numerator is less than
Using u-substitution to integrate the fourth the degree of the denominator. If
term, we get necessary, use long division to make it
proper.
u = x2 + 1

66
2. Perform the partial fractions
decomposition by factoring the
denominator, which will always be
expressible as the product of either
linear or quadratic factors, some of
which may be repeated.

a. If the denominator is a product of

distinct linear factors: This is the
simplest kind of partial fractions
decomposition. Nothing fancy here.

b. If the denominator is a product of linear

factors, some of which are repeated:
Remember to include factors of lesser
degree than your repeated factors.

c. If the denominator is a product of

distinct quadratic factors: Youll need
the following equation:

( )
1 m x
m x2 + n2
1
d x = tan +C A
n n

d. If the denominator is a product of

quadratic factors, some of which are
repeated: Use the two formulas above
and remember to include factors of
lesser degree than your repeated
factors.

67
6
partial derivatives
By this point weve already learned how to
find derivatives of single-variable
functions. After learning derivative rules
like power rule, product rule, quotient rule,
chain rule and others, were pretty
comfortable handling the derivatives of
functions like these:
f (x) = x 2 + 5
(x 2 + 4)3sin x
f (x) = 4
x + ln 7x 4
But now its time to start talking about
derivatives of multivariable functions, such
as
f (x, y) = x 4y 3 + x 3y 2 + ln xe y
Finding derivatives of a multivariable
function like this one may be less
challenging than you think, because were
actually only going to take the derivative
with respect to one variable at a time. For
example, well take the derivative with
respect to x while we treat y like its a
constant. Then well take another
derivative of the original function, this one
with respect to y, and well treat x as a
constant.
In that way, we sort of reduce the problem
to a single-variable derivative problem,
which is a derivative we already know how
to handle!
We call these kinds of derivatives partial
derivatives because were only taking the
derivative of one part (variable) of the
function at a time.
Remember the definition of the derivative
from single-variable calculus (aka the
dierence quotient)? Lets adapt that
definition so that it works for us for
multivariable functions.
We know that, if z is a function defined in
terms of x and y, like z = f (x, y), then
1. The partial derivative of z with respect to
x is
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 f (x + h, y) f (x, y)
zx = fx(x, y) = lim
h0 h Example

2. The partial derivative of z with respect to Using the definition, find the partial
y is derivatives of

f (x, y + h) f (x, y) f (x, y) = 2x 2y

zy = fy(x, y) = lim
h0 h
For the partial derivative of z with respect
The definition as weve written it here gives to x, well substitute x + h into the original
two dierent kinds of notation for the function for x.
partial derivatives of z: zx or zy and fx(x, y) or
fy(x, y). In fact, there are many ways you f (x + h, y) = 2(x + h)2 y

might see partial derivatives defined. f (x + h, y) = 2(x 2 + 2xh + h 2)y

The partial derivatives of a function z f (x + h, y) = 2x 2y + 4xhy + 2h 2y

defined in terms of x and y could be
written in all of these ways: Plugging our values of f (x, y) and f (x + h, y)
into the definition, we get
1. The partial derivative of z with respect to
x: 2x 2y + 4xhy + 2h 2y 2x 2y
fx(x, y) = lim
h0 h
z f
fx(x, y) = = = f (x, y) = fx = zx
x x x 4xhy + 2h 2y
fx(x, y) = lim
h0 h
2. The partial derivative of z with respect to
y: fx(x, y) = lim 4x y + 2hy
h0

z f
fy(x, y) = = = f (x, y) = fy = zy fx(x, y) = lim 4x y + 2(0)y
y y y h0

Lets use what weve learned so far to fx(x, y) = 4x y

work through an example using the
dierence quotient to find the partial For the partial derivative of z with respect
derivatives of a multivariable function. to y, well substitute y + h into the original
function for y.

69
 f (x, y + h) = 2x 2(y + h)
Example
f (x, y + h) = 2x 2y + 2x 2h
Using the power rule, find the partial
Plugging our values of f (x, y) and f (x, y + h) derivatives of
into the definition, we get
f (x, y) = 2x 2y
2x 2y + 2x 2h 2x 2y
fy(x, y) = lim For the partial derivative of z with respect
h0 h
to x, we treat y as a constant and use
2x 2h power rule to find the derivative.
fy(x, y) = lim
h0 h

( dx )
d 2
fx(x, y) = 2 x y
fy(x, y) = lim 2x 2
h0

fy(x, y) = 2x 2 fx(x, y) = 2 (2x) y

fx(x, y) = 4x y

Youll remember from single-variable For the partial derivative of z with respect
calculus that using the definition of the to y, we treat x as a constant and use
derivative was the long way that we power rule to find the derivative.
learned to take the derivative before we
( dx )
d
learned the derivative rules that made the fy(x, y) = 2x 2 y
process faster. The good news is that we
can apply all the same derivative rules to fy(x, y) = 2x 2(1)
multivariable functions to avoid using the
dierence quotient! We just have to fy(x, y) = 2x 2
remember to work with only one variable
at a time, treating all other variables as
constants.

The next example shows how the power

rule provides a faster way to find this
functions partial derivatives.

70
second-order partial derivatives

x ( x ) x 2
We already learned in single-variable f 2f
fxx = =
calculus how to find second derivatives;
we just took the derivative of the
derivative. Remember how we even used 2. The derivative with respect to y, of the
the second derivative to help us with first-order partial derivative with respect
inflection points and concavity when we to y
were learning optimization and sketching

y ( y ) y 2
f 2f
graphs? fyy = =

Heres an example from single variable

3. The derivative with respect to y, of the
calculus of what a second derivative looks
first-order partial derivative with respect
like:
to x
f (x) = 2x 3

y ( x ) xy
f 2f
fxy = =
f(x) = 6x 2

f(x) = 12x 4. The derivative with respect to x, of the

first-order partial derivative with respect
Well, we can find the second derivative of to y
a multivariable function in the same way.

( )
Except, instead of just one function that f 2f
fyx = =
defines the second derivative (like x y yx
f(x) = 12x above), well need four
That wording is a little bit complicated. We
functions that define the second derivative!
can think about like the illustration below,
Our second-order partial derivatives will
where we start with the original function in
be:
the first row, take first derivatives in the
1. The derivative with respect to x, of the second row, and then second derivatives
first-order partial derivative with respect in the third row.
to x

71
 Example

Find the second-order partial derivatives of

f (x, y) = 2x 2y

We found the first-order partial derivatives

of this function in a previous section, and

The good news is that, even though this they were

looks like four second-order partial

fx(x, y) = 4x y
derivatives, its actually only three. Thats
because the two second-order partial fy(x, y) = 2x 2
derivatives in the middle of the third row
will always come out to be the same. The four second order partial derivatives
are:
Whether you start with the first-order
partial derivative with respect to x, and
fxx = (4x y) = 4y
then take the partial derivative of that with x
respect to y; or if you start with the first-
order partial derivative with respect to y, fxy = (4x y) = 4x
x
and then take the partial derivative of that

with respect to x; youll get the same fyx = (2x 2) = 4x
x
answer in both cases. Which means our
tree actually looks like this:
fyy = (2x 2) = 0
x

Notice that the mixed second-order partial

derivative is the same, regardless of
whether you take the partial derivative first
with respect to x and then y, or vice versa.

72
7
differential equations

Dierential equations are broadly classified ODEs can be classified as

into two categories:
1. Linear dierential equations
1. Partial Dierential Equations (PDEs) 2. Nonlinear (separable) dierential
2. Ordinary Dierential Equations (ODEs) equations

We discussed partial derivatives ODEs can also be classified according to

previously, so here well be discussing only their order. When we talk about the order
ordinary dierential equations. of a dierential equation, we mean the
derivative of the highest degree that
ODEs involve the ordinary derivative of a occurs in the equation.
function of a single variable, while PDEs
involve partial derivatives of functions of For example, the order of
multiple variables. So as we saw before,
dy
sin x cos x = 2x
2u 2u 2u dx
+ + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2
is 1, because the highest-degree derivative
is a partial derivative. In contrast, an that occurs in this equation is dy/d x.
ordinary dierential equation looks like
In contrast, the order of
this:
d 2y dy
d 2y 3 =
= 2x d x2 dx
dx 2

73
is 2, because the highest-degree derivative
that occurs in this equation is d 2y/d x 2.

74
linear, first-order differential equations
ordinary dierential equations (ODEs)

Here well be discussing linear, first-order 2

P(x) =
dierential equations. Remember from the x
introduction to this section that these are
and
ordinary dierential equations (ODEs).
Q(x) = x
A linear, first-order dierential equation will
be expressed in the form Once were at a point where weve
identified P(x) and Q(x) from the standard
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x) A
form of our linear, first-order dierential
dx
equation, our next step is to identify our
where P(x) and Q(x) are functions of x, the equations integrating factor. To find the
independent variable. Lets talk about how integrating factor, we use the formula
to solve a linear, first-order dierential
equation. I(x) = e P(x) dx B

Since
Example 2
P(x) = ,
Solve the dierential equation. x

dy the integrating factor for this equation is

x 2y = x 2
dx 2
I(x) = e x dx

Its really important that the form of the 1

dierential equation match (A) exactly. In I(x) = e 2 x dx

order to get dy/d x by itself in our equation,

I(x) = e 2 ln x
we need to divide both sides by x.
Note: You can leave out the constant of
dy 2
y=x 1 integration, C, when you integrate P(x).
dx x
You can take my word for it, or you can
Matching (1) to (A) above, we can see that read through the very, very long proof that
tells you why.

75
 I(x) = e ln x
2
d
(yx 2) = yx 2 2yx 3
dx
I(x) = x 2
See how the derivative we just found
Our integrating factor is: matches the left side of (3)? If we multiply
through (1) by the integrating factor that
1
I(x) = 2 2 we found, (2), the resulting left side will
x
always be [yI(x)].
Well multiply both sides of (1) by (2) to get
So we can substitute [yx 2] into (3) to get
dy 1 2 1 1
2 2 y = x 2
dx x x x x [yx 2] = x 1

d x ( x2 ) x3
dy 1 2 1 Now we integrate both sides.
y =
x

[yx 2] d x = x 1 d x
yx 2 2yx 3 = x 1 3

The reason we multiply by the integrating yx 2 = ln | x | + C

factor is that it does something for us
y = x 2(ln | x | + C )
thats extremely convenient, even though
we dont realize it yet.

It turns the left side of (3) is the derivative

of yx 2, in other words, y times our
integrating factor, or yI(x) . And this will
always be the case! Lets prove it by taking
the derivative of yx 2. Well need to use
product rule.

( dx ) ( dx )
d d d 2
(yx 2) = y (x 2) + (y) x
dx

d
(yx 2) = (y)(x 2) + (y)(2x 3)
dx

76
nonlinear (separable) differential equations
ordinary dierential equations (ODEs)

A separable, first-order dierential

equation is an equation in the following Example
form
Solve the dierential equation.
y = f (x)g(y),
y = y 2 sin x
where f (x) and g(y) are functions of x and
First, well write the equation in Leibniz
y, respectively. The dependent variable is
notation. This makes it easier for us to
y; the independent variable is x. We can
separate our variables.
easily integrate functions in this form by
separating variables. dy
= y 2 sin x
dx
y = f (x)g(y)
Next, well separate our variables,
dy collecting ys on the left and xs on the
= f (x)g(y)
dx
right.

dy = f (x)g(y) d x
dy = y 2 sin x d x
dy
= f (x) d x dy
g(y) = sin x d x
y2
1
dy = f (x) d x 1
g(y) dy = sin x d x
y2
1
g(y)
dy = f (x) d x With variables separated, and integrating
both sides, we get
Sometimes in our final answer, well be 1
y2
able to express y explicitly as a function of dy = sin x d x
x, but not always. When we cant, we just

have to be satisfied with an implicit
y 2 dy = sin x d x
function, where y and x are not cleanly
separated by the = sign.

77
 y 1 = cos x + C

Note: You can leave out the constant of

integration on the left side, because in
future steps it would be absorbed into the
constant on the right side.

1
= cos x + C
y

1
= cos x + C
y

Note: We just multiplied through both

sides by 1, but we didnt change the sign
on C, because the negative can always be
absorbed into the constant.

1 = y(cos x + C )

1
y=
cos x + C

Sometimes well encounter separable

dierential equations with initial conditions
provided. Using the same method we used
in the last example, we can find the
general solution, and then plug in the initial
condition(s) to find a particular solution to
the dierential equation.

78
about the author

Krista King is the creator

ofintegralCALC
Academy,an interactive
learning tool designed
specifically to guide students
through the depth and
complexity of a
comprehensive calculus
curriculum.

A graduate of the University

of Notre Dame, Krista has 10
years experience
empowering students to
excel in calculus.

http://www.integralcalc.com/

79