NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: 72, 75-83 (1979) Scaling Laws for Modeling Nuclear Reactor Systems Amir N, Columbia University, Department |. Nahavandi of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering ‘New York, New York 10027 Frank S. Colurabia University, Depart and 5. Castellana “ment of Chemical Engineering New York, New York 10027 and Edick N. Moradkhanian Atomic Energy Organization of Iran Tehran, Iran Received. July 3, 1978 Accepted Noveraber 2, 1978 Seale models are used 0 predict the bekasior of nuclear reactor systems during normal and abnormal operation as well as w procedt inder accident conditions. Three types of sealing ures are considered: time-reducing, time-preserving volumetric, and time-preserving idealized modeljprototype. The necessary relations between the model and the full-scale unit are developed for each scaling type. Based on these relationships, it is shown that sealing procedures can lead to distortion in certain areas that are discussed. It is advised that, depending on the specific unit 10 minimize modelprototype distortion 1; INTRODUCTION Nuclear reactor safety legislation has required extensive thermal-hydraulic testing of simulated fuel cores and other reactor system components. In view of the inherent difficulties associated with full-scale testing, scale models of prototype systems have been used extensively in these investigations. Several stud- ies have been performed to establish relationships between the prototype and the scale model. Rose, in a study of heat transfer problems associated with the loss-of-fluid test (LOFT) program, employed a ‘one-dimensional form of the continuity, momentum, IR. P, ROSE, “Heat Transfer Problems Associated with the LOFT (Loss of Fluid Test) Program," Proc. ASME-AICRE Heat Transfer Conf, Los Angeles, California, August 8-11, 1965, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1965). (0020-5639/79/0010-0075$02.00/0 © 1979 American Nuclear Society be scaled, @ suitable procedure be chosen to and energy equations to devise similarity relations between the LOFT geometry and its scale model. Carbiener and Cudnik? performed similitude studies for modeling nuclear reactor blowdown. In this work, a nuclear reactor vessel was idealized as two volumes coupled through a flow path representing the core. ‘The authors apply the conservation equations of mass, energy, and momentum to this simplified model and present two scaling laws, one time-reduc- ing and one time-preserving. Ybarrando et al." exam- ined the thermal-hydraulic scaling concepts, selected AY. A. CARBIENER and R. A. CUDNIK, Trans. Aa Muel, Soe., 12, 361 (1968). 3, J. YBARRANDO et al., “Examination of LOFT Sealing,” contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of the ‘American Society of Mechanical Engineers at the Annual Winter Mtg., New York (Nov. 1974). 876 NAHAVANDTI et al, compromises required in the design of the LOFT experimental system, and assessed the effect of these compromises on the LOFT program. The develop- ment in each of these investigations, while in- teresting, is limited and is based on an idealized one-dimensional approach that needs further refine- ment. Langhaar* outlined similitude studies in which the model laws are derived from the differential equations governing the phenomena for simple in- compressible flow configurations. ‘The purpose of this study is to develop a set of scaling laws for the prediction of full-scale unit behavior from model test measurements based on application of the generalized conservation laws of mass, momentum, and energy as well as the phenome- nological equation of state known to be valid at any point in the fluid in the model and the full-scale unit (prototype). These governing equations are valid for single- and two-phase flows under both equilibrium and nonequilibrium conditions involving condensa- tion or evaporation, It is important to realize that the generalized conservation equations employed reduce to two-velocity, nonequilibrium, two-phase flow eque- tions after appropriate space and time averaging and then contain terms representing interaction between the two phases, such as mass, momentum, and energy exchanges.®° Since the purpose here is the derivation of scaling laws and not the direct solution of the governing equations, the equations employed are Kept in their most generalized form. The behaviors of the model and prototype are considered to be identical when the generalized conservation equations of continuity, momentum, and energy, together with the equation of state, expressed for the model and prototype, are exactly the same. Employing a set of geometric and kinematic scale factors, the governing equations for the model are transformed and the prospective equations for the prototype are derived. These equations are then compared with the governing equations for the model. This comparison yields the scaling laws for which the governing equations and the transient predictions of the model and the prototype are similar. In many: instances, the model/prototype simili- tude is established by equating such dimensionless parameters as Froude number, Reynolds number, Nusselt number, etc.”® These dimensionless parame- ters are extremely useful for developing scaling laws “i. L. LANGHAAR, Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1960), ‘, M. DELHAY, “General Equations of Two-Phase Systems and Their Applications to Ai-Water Bubble Flow and to SteamWater Flashing Flow,” ASME Publication 69-H1T-63, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1969). - PANTON, J. Fluid. Mech., 31, Part 2, 273 (1960). WL. I. SEDOV, Similarity, and Dimensional Methods in ‘Mechanics, Academic Press, Inc., New York (1961). when one operating force or phenomenon is pre- dominant. For example, for completely enclosed isothermal flow in pipes, flowmeters, pumps, and turbines or flow about immersed bodies when viscous forces predominate, the similarity between the model and the prototype is established by equating the Reynolds numbers. As a second example, for open- channel flow and surface waves produced in the ocean, the dynamic similarity condition requires that the Froude number should be the same in the model and prototype. However, difficulties are encountered in this application when the primary operating forces or phenomena are more than one, For example, in the case of the drag of a surface ship when gravita- tional and viscous forces predominate, both the Froude number and the Reynolds number should be the same in the model and prototype. This combina- tion requires that for a model one order of magnitude smaller than the prototype, the mode! fluid viscosity must be about two orders of magnitude less than that of the prototype fluid (water) that cannot be found.* Such difficulties become insurmountable when the number of operating forces or phenomena exceeds two, These considerations ted to the develop- ment of scaling laws presented herein where the fluid medium and operating conditions in the model and prototype are identical and are addressed par- ticularly to scale modeling studies of pressurized water reactors. Il, THEORY AND DISCUSSION The conservation laws are based on the three- dimensional form of the continuity, momentum, and energy equations in a Cartesian coordinate system 44 (Le. Xp X25 and x5), with the x5 axis vertically upward. To condense this presentation, the well- known summation convention is employed through- out, where repeated index implies summation, In most reactor system phenomena, the velocities involved are relatively large and the flow is considered to be turbulent. Under this condition, the eddy momentum and energy fluxes are much larger than the molecular momentum and energy diffusion. For this reason, contributions of the latter terms in the momentum and energy equations can be safely ignored. However, it must be noted that for laminar flow, the eddy momentum and energy fluxes vanish and molecular momentum and energy diffusion pre- vail. Under this condition, the present treatment is not valid, ‘Three types of scaling laws are considered: 1. time-reducing scaling laws "H. M. RAGHUNATH, Dimensional Analysis and Hy- draulie Model Testing, Asia Publishing House, New York (1967).SCALING LAWS FOR MODELING REACTOR SYSTEMS 7 2. time-preserving volumetric scaling laws 3, time-preserving idealized model/ prototype scal- ing laws. The implication of the first two methods is manifest; in the last approach, scaling is based on an equiva- lency of mathematical representations of the proto- type and model. In the following sections, these sciling laws are developed, and their limitation in predicting full-scale unit behavior is discussed. ILA, Development of Time-Reducing Scaling Laws ‘The conservation equations of mass, momentum, and energy at any point in the model can be ex- pressed as follows: Continuity equation: Be Seu at oy OF @ Momentum equation: @ Energy equation. = ROC of @) Equation of state p= plh.p) « @ (A Nomenclature appears on p. 83.) In the following development, symbols without an asterisk superscript refer to the model, and those with an asterisk superscript refer to the full-scale unit, We define the geometric and kinematic simi- larity relations between the model and the prototype by 1, geometric relation for length L & ©) 2. kinematic relations for time, velocity, and acceleration d a To yechiand Bog. © SW. M. ROHSENOW and H. CHOI, Heat, Mass and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1961). For identical model and prototype operating condi- tions, one can write (7a) ‘The scaling law for heat generation per unit volume per unit time is expressed by wre (7b) Substituting Eqs. (S), (6), and (7) into Eqs. (1) through (4) vields Op* , ap* Onur _ at pp 8 i aQir yu? alr ut pare a ee ! a a = OUPVE Fe RGF ps Dap MOI» 0 ot [2s +Onuy a5] ao ahy le GROINGTI) i ap* ap + eeef2 slr 3] tog", (10) p= pity). ap Simplifying the above equations, one obtains ao* , atu _ Bee toe 78> ay aut dup lat 1a —4, ae tel age CDS or aap pF Bp OU” + (13) ap* ap* arg Foeut Pe tort, (14) i pts pt(h*p*) . ds) A comparison of Eqs. (12) through (15), the prospective equations for the prototype, with Eqs. (1) through (4), the governing equations for the model, indicates that the two sets of equations describing the behavior of the two systems are identical if (16)78 NAHAVANDI et al and or=l. ay One can then conclude that the dynamic behaviors of the model and the prototype are similar if 1. the time scale 7 between the model and the prototype is equal to the geometric scale A (timereducing) 2. the scale for heat generation per unit volume per unit time o between the model and the protype is equal to the inverse of the geometric seale 3. the scales for velocity and acceleration between ‘the model and the prototype are equal to | and 1A, respectively. It is important that the implications of items 2 and 3 be clearly understood. To obtain a heat generation per unit volume per unit time for the model 1/& times larger than the full-scale unit, it is necessary to operate the model with 1/A? times less power then the prototype. As for the imposed boundary flows on the model, the fluid velocities entering or leaving the model must be kept equal to the full-scale unit, while the acceleration of fluid entering or leaving the model (if any) should be 1/A times larger than the full-scale unit. The gravitational acceleration with components (0,0,-g) along the coordinate axes x;(i= 1,2,3) poses 2 particular problem. The momentum equation [Ea (2)] along the x, and x, axes is unaffected by the gravitational acceleration, since the components of acceleration along these two axes are F, = F, = 0. However, for the third momentum equation, Fy and the similarity conditions require that the accelera- tion of gravity imposed on the model be 1/A times larger than the full-scale unit, a condition that obvi- ously cannot be easily satisfied. The implications of equivalent gravitational acceleration for the model and prototype depend on te nature of the process, being modeled. For transient problems such as the Blowdown phase of the lossof-coolant accident (LOCA), steam break, and water hammer phenomena, body forces due to the acceleration of gravity play an insignificant role compared to the pressure differ- ential, and distortion in the model is insignificant. However, for transient problems involving density wave phenomenon, such as steam generator hydro- thermal instability and the reflood phase of the LOCA, the elevational head in the downcomer due to gravity is considerable compared to the pressure differential. For these problems, the model predic- tions using the above similarity rationale will be significantly distorted (ie., different from the proto- type behavior). ILB. Development of Time-Preserving Sealing Laws Two sets of time-preserving scaling laws are considered 1. volumetric scaling 2. idealized model/prototype scaling. I.B.1. Volumetric Scaling Starting from the conservation equations of mass, momentum, and energy at any arbitrary point in the model as expressed by Eqs. (1) through (4), introducing the following geometric and kinematic similarity relations between the model and the prototype: 1. geometric relation for length, area, and volume Le A v Teh. Geen, perdean, (18) 2. kinematic relations for time, velocity, and acceleration =1 (Gimeppreserving) , A and Ser, as) a and maintaining the same similarity relationships for the operating conditions and heat generation per unit volume per unit time as indicated by Eqs. (7a) and (7b), the conservation equations for the model are transformed as follows: dp* | ap* hu ‘ar ange > (20) Oru yOu art MT ane 1 g* 1 3 ao ONT Sea pF Rap OUR). 1) = (SA* ye GAY e (i Sita #5) + roee(eet uf %) tog*, (22) aos loopgiry1 } pt = pth") 23) Simplifying the above equations, one obtains 20% , Ootut at axe 79> e4) but, But ae axe appt bd 8 sae fee F axk pe bap PCN 25)SCALING LAWS FOR MODELING REACTOR SYSTEMS 79 Begun ap* yp 22" . ere tut ) tog", i (26) pt = pr(h*p*) . Q7) ‘A comparison of Eqs. (24) through (27), the prospective equations for the prototype, with Eqs. (1) through (4), the governing equations for the model, indicates that the two sets of equations describing the behavior of the two systems are identical if o=l (28) and (29) Equation (28) indicates that the heat generation per unit volume per unit time for the model and the prototype should be equal, i.e., a MWY ae MWeive . G0) where MW and MW* are the power generations in megawatts for the model and the prototype, and V and V* are the respective volumes. From Eq. (30), one can conelude that MWY mw” Vv ive., to obtain a time-preserving model, it is necessary to operate the model at 6 times the power input of the prototype. Also, Eq. (29) indicates that for a similar condition, 8, BD hed, (32) ie., the lengths in the model remain equal to those of the prototype. This situation combined with Eq. (31) gives G3) Itis important tonote thet the imposed boundary flows on the model, ie., the fluid velocities or accelerations entering or leaving the model, must both be kept equal to the fulkscale unit, Further more, the acceleration of gravity on the model should bbe equal to that of the prototype, a condition that is obviously satisfied. This scaling law imposes the least distortion in the model and is, therefore, widely used in the simulation of the reactor core by the electri cally heated fuel rod bundle test models. The critical heat flux and heat transfer characteristics as well as flow and enthalpy distribution in the reactor core are predicted from: the experimental data obtained from these fuel rod bundle tests. ILB.2, Idealized Model/Prototype Scaling idealized model/prototype scaling is based on the equivalency of mathematical representations of the prototype and the model. Here, both the model and prototype are idealized as systems consisting of nodes that can store mass and energy, connected by flow paths that can store momentum. The similarity relations are established between these two idcalized systems rather than the original prototype and the model. Starting from the conservation equations of mass and energy for any arbitrary node and the conserva- tion equation of momentum for any arbitrary flow path in the model, as expressed by Eqs. (1) through (4), introducing the following geometric and kine- matic similarity relations between the model and prototype: 1. geometric relations for length, area, and vol ume: for control volume, A ea , (34) for flow path, L 2 pd. eM, @s) 2. kinematic relations for time and mass flow rate: (36) and maintaining the same similarity relations for operating conditions as indicated by Eq. (7a), the imilarity relations for the flow path velocity and acceleration become Hot ook ue? at OF (37) Considering the similarity relation for heat generation per unit volume per unit time given by Eq. (7b), the conservation equations for the model nodes and flow paths are transformed as follows: apt , Muln)ptut at aimee 8° G8) Our uh | (HN UPDADUF ae A aay a pet) 41 bet 1 2 [BY acy a(t) Be ant 9 ae OP” | > @9)80 NAHAVANDI et al ah: ° -[Bese bn* at star Soha 2 [os cet Lary] «| OP™ * +788 ie Oa ating] oe » (40) p* = p*(h*,p*) 41 Simplifying the above equations, one obtains Haptut arts oe o> a duke OuF ae ey axf wla j—. 3p % Bap Eom aia)" » (43) (BB, 4 BD™ rp (+ +e ut ee hoe" (44) ert p*) (45) A comparison of Eqs. (42) through (45), the pro- spective equations for the prototype, with Eqs. (1) through (4), the governing equations for the model, indicates that the two sets of equations describing the behavior of the two systems are identical if was, (46) ued, 4) a= (48) pen? (49) Equation (48) indicates that heat generation per unit volume per unit time for the model and for the prototype should be equal, ie., 4, MMV. q*) MwWeiy* where MW and MW* are the power generations in megawatts for the model and the prototype, and 7 and V* are the respective volumes. From Eq. (50) one can conclude that mw _Y MWe” ve iie., the total power rating is scaled down propor- tional to volume reduction. 1, (50) . (51) Equations (46) and (47) indicate that the mass flow rate and the flow path length are also scaled down in proportion to the volume. Furthermore, it should be noted that the model area ratio does not enter into the analysis directly, and while the prototype flow path volume is generally equal to its nodal volume, the model flow path volume is not equal to its nodal volume. Examination of Eq. (49) indicates that the simi- larity for the momentum flux and turbulent momen- tum exchange terms cannot be maintained. Therefore, when the contributions of these two terms are significant, the behavior of the model is distorted. For most modeling problems of auclesr reactor systems, the momentum flux contribution is insignifi- cant, and the furbulent momentum exchange could be reduced to wall friction under turbulent flow conditions given by Ku?. Defining a similarity rele- tion for the loss coefficient, kK, (52) one obtains xv (53) Equation ($3) indicates that the flow path wall friction including losses due to expansion, contrac tion, ete., should be scaled down by 22. ILC. The Effect of Heating Rod Diameter and Pitch on Scaling Laws In Secs. ILA and ILB, scaling laws for the prediction of the full-scale unit behavior from model results were developed. Section ILA dealt with time- reducing scaling laws, and Sec. IB presented two types of time-preserving scaling laws. For practical reasons, it is necessary to use unscaled electrically heated rods with outside diamo- ter and pitch equal to those of the fullsize unit. The purpose of this section is to determine the resultant effect on time-reducing and time-preserving scaling laws, The approach is to express the heat transfer rate between the heating element and the fluid (for the convective subcooled heat transfer to liquid and nucleate boiling conditions that are pre~ vailing modes of heat transfer in most reactor transients) for the model, and then transform the equations that result employing the geometric, kine- matic, and thermodynamic scale factors developed in the previous sections. The derived prototype equa- tions are then compared with the governing equations of the model. This comparison reveals the effect of heating rod diameter and pitch on the scaling laws under consideration. The convective heat transfer to liquid is calculated on the basis of the Dittus-Boelter correlation, and the nucleate boiling heat transfer is calculated from the Jens-Lottes correlation.SCALING LAWS FOR MODELING REACTOR SYSTEMS at ILC.1. Effect on Time-Reducing Scaling Laws The rate of heat transfer in the model is partly onvective heat exchange and partly by g as follows: For convective heat transfer to liquid in the model, the heat flux is given by = 6, (Bee) (eH or, a= 0,522) Yc, qT), (54) and for nucleate boiling by Q= Cyexp(p/225)(Ty - Tsat)* - 85) For time-reducing similarity relations, it was shown earlier that Q geal, 56) ge G6) 1 67 Defining new similarity relations for the hydraulic diameter and the wall temperature, Ben, =o. (58) Equations (32) and (33) can be transformed as follows: at fupeotut\" (Chit ee one cyst Mee ) (Ge OTE-T) 69) Q*/A= Czexp(p*/225)(6T5 - Tan? - (60) Comparing the above equations (the prospective equations for the prototype) with Eqs. (54) and (55) (the governing equations for the model), and noting that when the heater rod outside diameter and pitch in the model are equal to those of the prototype Ay is equal to unity, one concludes that O41 (61) This indicates that the time-reducing scaling (where velocities and initial thermodynamic variables are kept the same between the model and the prototype) leads to model distortion. When the heater rod out- side diameter and pitch in the model and prototype are equal, tie wall temperatures in the model and the prototype are not equal. Thus, phenomena dependent on bubble formation and development of flow regimes are different in the test facility and the fullsize unit. In this respect, it should also be pointed out that the temperature distributions within the model heating element and prototype fuel rod are not the same. The similarity relations between the model and the prototype are maintained by setting My: 2el fe’, Bey. ; : (62) then, MW gPLNn: HW BPN (6) and Nay yen (64) One can conclude that the number of heated rods in the model should be 1/2? times less than that of the prototype. IL.C.2. Effect on Time-Preserving Scaling Laws IC.2.a. Volumetric Scaling Laws Starting from Eqs. (54) and (55), one can proceed in a similar manner by expressing the time-preserving similarity relations derived earlier as follows: 2 (65) (66) Defining new similarity relations for the hydraulic diameter and the wall temperature as indicated by Eq. (58), Eqs. (54) and (55) are transformed as follows: eet feaDteru” (BUN oe Q soi Mae (Ge om-ry, (61) Q* = Crexp(p*/225)(6T$ ~ T&)* - (68). Comparing the above equations with those of the model, noting as before that hy = 1, and by virtue of conclusions reached earlier = 1, one concludes that the time-preserving scaling relations result in an undistorted model wall temperature. The time-pre- serving tests can be conducted ‘by observing the following scaling laws: Hats (69) then, (70) and dns a82 NAHAVANDI et al. ILC2.b. Idealized Model/Prototype Scaling Laws Starting from Eqs. (54) and (55), one again proceeds in a manner similar to the above by ex- pressing the time-proserving idealized model/proto- type scaling similarity relations derived earlier as follows: , (72) (73) Defining new similarity relations for the hydra diameter as indicated by Eq. (58), Eqs. (54) and (55) are transformed as follows: ket faDeptout\ (Chut\" (74) O* = Cyexp(p*/225)(0T* - TE)* (75) Comparing the above equations with those of the model and noting as before that \; = 1, one concludes that (76) and ann an Condition (76) is satisfied automatically if relation (77) is satisfied. Recalling. relation (34) from Sec. 11.B.2, which States that 7 is the scaling factor for the crosssec- tional area of the control volume, and noting that no specific value was assigned to n, one can easily conclude that the control volume cross section and length can be varied such that the control volume will be scaled down by its prescribed value 6. This allows the designer to choose the value of 7 close to 5 to make a 8/n value close to unity (Eq. (34)], which results in a minimum distortion in the scaling process. However, in practice it may be appropriate to scale down the control volume dimensions proportionally, taking into account, of course, the resulting distor: tion in the model. The idealized model/prototype scaling tests can be conducted by observing the following scaling laws: Fl; (78) then, MW __ gel MWe TENE 79) and NL yer} (80) HL, CONCLUSIONS ‘The three scaling laws presented in this study are compared in Table I. The time-reducing scaling TABLE | Sealing Laws ‘Model/Prototype ‘Time Reducing ‘Time Preserving* ‘Time Preserving” Length d 1 d Tine x 1 I | Hydraulic dameter i I i | Avea x 5 x Volume x 8 d Velocity 1 1 1m Acceleration Im 1 Im Properties (pressure, temperature, ets) 1 1 1 Heat generation/unitvolume/unit time in 1 1 Power x 8 d Rod diameter 1 1 1 Number of rods x 8 d | Heat flux Im 1 1 Wall temperature Distorted 1 1 Limitation ‘Turbulent low Turbulent tow | Torbulent flow Negligible buoyancy Negligible momentum fx ‘Refers to volumetric scaling, Refers to idealized model/prototype.SCALING LAWS FOR MODELING REACTOR-SYSTEMS 83 procedure is most applicable when body forces due top the acceleration of gravity are small compared to the pressure differential. The time-preserving with volu- metric scaling procedure is conceptually the easiest to apply and the most general in application, espe- @Q = heat flux cially for model testing where rod diameter and pitch are full scale, The time-preserving idealized * model/prototype procedure is not applicable when the momentum flux contribution is significant and, 7” = temperature moreover, is dependent on our understanding and yn per unit volume per unit =heater rod outside radius (fuel rod, U tube, or electrically heated rod outside radius) reliability of the mathematical model selected. Al $ “time procedures are applicable only to the turbulent flow 1 = velocity components condition eee ‘The approach used in this study is more general than those utilized by Rose,' Ybarrando et al.,° and x; = Cartesian coordinates Carbiener and Cudnik.? However, the scaling laws 1/23 obtained confirm the correctness of results presented 8 = volume expansion coefficient = —> 22) by these authors. e\et }p 6 =volume scaling factor (between model and rotot} NOMENCLATURE prototype) n = area scaling factor Eee aeoserationy & = flow resistance scaling factor A Ay = area 2X =length scaling factor Cp = specific heat Ai =hydraulic diameter scaling factor C,,C) = constants in convective and boiling heat 9 = wall temperature scaling factor transfer equations from Dittus-Boelter and Amba aaa Jens-Lotter correlations, respectively u = fluid viscosity or mass flow rate scaling factor, wl applies D — =hydraulic diameter peedaeceettataa f — * friction factor eee : ca factor it rer atic unit F; components of gravitation! acslertion on ct are pecans eee Le ; 7 = time-scaling factor = gravitational acceleration h = enthalpy Superseripts k= thermal conductivity of fluid 7 refers to turbulent fluctuating components iL f refers to full-scale unit (prototype); symbols K flow loss factor ¢ ay without * refer to the model io —— refers to the averaging procedure in turbulent L.Ly length Tow analyale m,n powers of Reynolds and Prandtl number terms in Dittus-Boelter correlation Subscripts tn = mass flow rate ij refers to index notation (f=1,2,3) MW = power generation w refers to the heater rod wall N = number of heater rods sat refers to saturation