4 There are also a couple of drawbacks to the use of drilled-shaft construction, Fop thing, the concreting operation may be delayed by bad weather and always needs ¢ supervision, For another as inthe case of braced cuts, deep excavations for died shafts mp induce substantial ground loss and damage to nearby structures. y Types of Drilled Shafts Drilled shafts are classified according to the ways in which they are designed to transfp the structural load to the substratum, Figure 12.18 shows a drilled straight shay. Itextendy through the upper laye(s) of poor sol, and its tp rests ona strong load-bearing soil lay or rock, The shat can be cased with stee! shell or pipe when required (as iis with case cast-in-place conerete piles: see Figure 11.4). For such shafts, the resistance to the applied oud may develop from end bearing and also from side friction at the shaft perimeter ang soil interface A belled shaft (see Figures 12.1b and ¢) consists of a straight shaft with a bell at the bottom, which rests on good bearing soil. The bell can be constructed in the shape of a dome (see Figure 12.1b), or it can be angled (see Figure 12.1c). For angled bells the underreaming tools that are commercially available can make 30 to 45° angles with the vertical, For the majority of drilled shafts constructed in the United States, the entire load-carrying capacity is assigned to the end bearing only. However, under certain cin. cumstances, the end-bearing capacity and the side friction are taken into account, In Europe, both the side frictional resistance and the end-bearing capacity are always taken into account. Straight shafts can also be extended into an underlying rock layer. (See Figure 12.14.) In the calculation of the load-bearing capacity of such shalts, the end bear- ing and the shear stress developed along the shaft perimeter and rock interface can be taken into account. Ginwlf (a) Figure 12.1 Types of drilled shaft: (a) straight shaft; (b) and (c) belled shaft; (A) sta socketed into rack0.762 m| 1200 = 800 2 400 6 12 18 24 30 Mean settlement (mim) (b) Load (kN) 400800 12001400 Figure 12.8 Load test results of 60 Reese et al. (1976) on a drilled shaft: (@) dimensions of the shaft; (b) plot ‘of base, sides, and total load with a 1 t . mean settlement; (¢) plot of load- © Aistribution curve with depth ultimate load Q, ~ ultimate load carrying capacity at the base Q, = frictional (skin) resistance The ultimate base load Q,, can be expressed in a manner similar to the way it is expressed in the case of shallow foundations [Eq. (3.19)], or Oy = AL NE Fukec + a NghyEybyc + YN FPF, (123) = Ay iF lee + SYN FFPLE (a) (b Figure 12.9 Ulimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts: (a) with bell and (b) straight shaft where c ‘ohesion N,.. Nj, N, = bearing capacity factors FF, F,, = shape factors Fey Fars Fya = depth factors Ec, Foes Fe = compressibility factors {fective unit weight of soil at the base of the shaft q’ = effective vertical stress at the base of the shaft es ‘A, = area of the base =o In most instances, the last term (the one containing 1V,) is neglected, except in the case of a relatively short drilled shaft. With this assumption, we can write 2a) A,(C'NeFesFeaFce + N,FysFtFgc) + Qs The procedure to estimate the ultimate capacity of drilled shafts in granular and cohesive soil is described in the following sections. Drilled Shafts in Granular Soil: Load-Bearing CapacitY Estimation of Q, For a drilled shaft with its base located on a granular soil (that is, ¢” load-carrying capacity at the base can be obtained from Eq. (12.4) as pone) = Aglg' (Ng ~ 1) FasFeaFec] ultimate 0), the net‘The bearing capacity factor, N,. for various soil friction angles (f") can be taken from ‘Table 3.3. Itis also given in Table 12.1. Also, Fy, = 1+ tang" (12.6) Fy = 1+ Ctan (£) (2.7) “ Dy radian C= 2tano'(1 = sin)? (12.8) The variations of F,, and C with $' are given in Table 12.1 According to Chen and Kulhawy (1994), F,. can be calculated in the following manner, Step 1. Calculate the critical rigidity index as 1, = 05 evo[28s eof 45 = s J (12.9) where /,, = critical rigidity index (see Table 12.1). 1 Variation of Ny, Fyy: Cs Tey Ae ad with ” ny, Fy c he Ms a (Table 3.3) (Eq. (126) (Eq (128) Eq. (129) Eg. (12.13)) Eq. (12.15) 10.66 1.466 031 43.84 0.100 0.00500 L185 1488 0.308 47.84 o.t1s 0.00475 13.20 1510 0.304 52.33 0.130 0.00450 14.72 0.299 37.40 0.145 0.00425 16.44 0.294 63.13 0.160 0.00400 18.40 0.289 69.63 0.175 0.00375 2063 0.283 77.03 0.190 0.00350 2.18 0.276 85.49 0.205 0.00325 26.09 0.269 95.19 0.220 0.00300 20.44 0.262 106.37 0.235 0.00275 33.30 0.255 119.30 0.250 0.00250 37.75 0.247 134.33 0.265 0.00225 42.92 0.239 151.88 0.280 0.00200 48.93 0231 17247 0.295 0.0017 55.96 0.223 196.76 0310 0.00150 64.20 0.214 225.59 0325 0.00125 73.90 0.206 259.98 0.340 0.00100 85.38 0.197 301.29 0.355 0.00075 99.02 0.189 1.22 0370 0.00050 11531 0.180 412.00 0.385 0.00025 134.88 0.172 486.56 0.400 0.00000Step 2. Step 3. Calculate the reduced rigidity index as 1+%8 (12419) where 1p sei ity index — Saag gh (2.4) in which E, = drained modulus of elasticity of soil = mp, . (12.42) P, = atmospheric pressure (~ 100kN/m? or 20001b/ft?) 100 to 200 (loose soil) 200 to 500 (medium dense soil) 500 to 1000(dense soil) m F é Poisson’s ratio of soil = 0.1 + 03( (for 25° = ' = 45°) (see Table12.1) (12.13) aant (12.4) Po _ #3 .005( n eee Table 12.1) (12.15) 20 IL, = [op then 1 (12.16) However, if fy, < Ion then a , (3.07 sin $") (Ios ) ot oof ( sarong + | Cotsnd Cs Ta } (247) ‘The magnitude of Qpioq) also can be reasonably estimated from g relationship based on the analysis of Berezantzev et al. (1961) that cam expressed as F. Qn) = Ay (ONG ~ 1) al where 7 9.19). Ng = bearing capacity factor = 0.21e""* (See Table 12.2) ‘orrection factor = f(L/Ds) E i p, is sven In Eq, (12.19), $” is in degrees. The variation of w with L/ Dp! in Figure 12.10,Table 12.2 Variation of Nf with o (Eq. (12.19)] # (deg) ™ 25 1472 26 17.45 27 20.68 28 24.52 29 29.06 30 34d 31 40.83 32 48.39 33 57.36 uM 67.99 35 80.59 36 95.52 37 113.22 38 134.20 39 159.07 40 188.55 41 223.49 42 264.90 43 3139 44 372.17 45 441.14 1.0 0.9 LD, = os 5 #07 0 ow 15 36 os oa 2 28 «32843634. Figure 12.10 Variation of Soil friction angle, o (deg) with # and L/D,EI Estimation of Q, ‘The frictional resistance at ultimate load, Q,, developed in a drilled shaft may be lated as, where p = shaft perimeter = 7D, {Jf = unit frictional (or skin) resistance = Ko, tan 3° (aay K = earth pressure coefficient ~ K, = 1 — sino! (12.23) or, = effective vertical stress at any depth 2 Thus, = [ pfdz = 7D — sno) [ oj tan 5! dz (12.23) The value of o, will increase to a depth of about 15D, and will remain constant thereafter, as shown in Figure 11.16. For cast-in-pile concrete and good construction techniques, a rough interface develops and, hence, 5'/#' may be taken to be one. With poor slurry construction, 3/6" ~ 0.7 00.8. Allowable Net Load, Q,1 not) An appropriate factor of safety should be applied to the ultimate load to obtain the net allowable load, or Ona) + Q. Qui) = (12.24) Load-Bearing Capacity Based on Settlement On the basis of a database of 41 loading tests, Reese and O'Neill (1989) proposes # method for calculating the load-bearing capacity of drilled shafts that is based 0” ment. The method is applicable to the following ranges: Shaft diameter: D, = 0.52 to 1.2 m (1.7 to 3.93 ft) Bell depth: L = 4.7 to 30.5 m (15.4 to 100 ft) Field standard penetration resistance: Nyy = 5 to 60 Concrete slump = 100 to 225 mm (4 to 9 in.)2 1.5 m (5 ft) noncontributing zone (cohesive soil only) ‘Noncontributing zones: Length = D, (cohesive soil only) FL No side-load transfer permitted on perimeter of bell Figure 12.11 Development of Eq. (12.25) Reese and O’Neill’s procedure (see Figure 12.11) gives y Quy = DAPAL: + WAy where ultimate unit shearing resistance in layer 7 1p = perimeter of the shaft = =D, Gp = unit point resistance A, = area of the base = (77/4) Di = Bitim < By where o,, = vertical effective stress at the middle of layer i By, = By ~ B,z"* (for 0.25 = B, = 1.2) (12.25) (12.26) (1227)‘The units for f, systems are » Zand 0%, and the magnitude of B., Bs, and f, in the SI and x, Item si English fi KN/m* ou kN/m? Bs 192 kN/m? By Ls Be 0.244 The point bearing capacity is 4p ~ BsNwo = Bo for Dy < 1.27m(50in.)} (1228) where Njy = field standard penetration number within a distance of 2D, below the base of the drilled shaft. ‘The magnitudes of Bs and Bi and the unit of q, in the SI and English systems are given here. tem st English Bs 575 12 Bs 4310 N/m? 90 kip/ft? % kN/m? kip/ft? If Dy is equal to or greater than 1.27 m (50 in.), excessive settlement may occur. In that case, q, may be replaced by qj. SI Units: (12.298) English Units: Qe = (12.290) Based on the desired level of settlement, Figures 12.12 and 12.13 may now be used (© alee late the allowable load, Qugay- Note that the trend lines given in these figures is the aver@®= of all test results. R More recently, Rollins et al. (2005) have modified Eq. (12.27) for gravelly sand follows: For sand with 25 to 50% gravel, By = B, ~ yz (for 0.25 = B, = 1.8) 12.30)20 Ls > ale”? = if 3|2 "Trend Bye og tine = 5 04 0 Figure 12.12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Normalized base-load Sealement ofbae_, tuansfer versus settlement Diameter of base, D, in sand 12 J 10 2 Lr “Trend alg Tine He S\é gis 06 a2 aE o4 0 0 04 08 12 16 20 Settlement ___(, Figure 12.13 Normalized side-load Diameter of shaft, D, » ‘uansfer versus seuilemen sand For sand with more than 50% gravel, By = Bye™P=* (for 0.25 = B, = 3.0) (12.31) ‘The magnitudes of B, Bs, Bs, and Bio and the unit of z, in the SI and English systems are given here.Item si English By 20 20 By ous 0.062 By 34 34 Bw — 0.085 ~ 0.026 2 m ft Figure 12.14 provides the normalized side-load transfer trend based on the level of settlement for gravelly sand and gravel. g é “rend 3 line é 0 04 081 20 24 _Setlement oF base ume of shat @ 10 e 3 Sos elt 22 trend £3 °° line 3 4\z os 2/3 202 0 0 os to 20 "e) (b) Figure 12.14 Normalized side-load transfer versus settlement: (a) gravelly sand (gravel 25-$0%) and (b) gravel (more than 50%)Construction Procedures ‘The most common construction procedure used in the United States involves rotary drilling. There are three major types of construction methods: the dry method, the casing, method, and the wet method. Dry Method of Construction This method is employed in soils and rocks that are above the water table and that will not cave in when the hole is drilled to its full depth. The sequence of construction, shown in Figure 12.2, is as follows: Step 1. The excavation is completed (and belled if desired), using proper drilling tools, and the spoils from the hole are deposited nearby. (See Figure 12.2a.) Step 2. Conerete is then poured into the cylindrical hole, (See Figure 12.2b.) Step 3. If desired, a rebar cage is placed in the upper portion of the shaft. (See Figure 12.2c.) Step 4. Concreting is then completed, and the drilled shaft will be as shown in Figure 12.24 Casing Method of Construction ‘This method is used in soils or rocks in which caving or excessive deformation is likely to ‘occur when the borehole is excavated. The sequence of construction is shown in Figure 12.3 and may be explained as follows: Step 1. The excavation procedure is initiated as in the case of the dry method of ‘construction. (See Figure 12.3a,) Step 2. When the caving soil is encountered, bentonite slurry is introduced into the borehole. (See Figure 12.3b.) Drilling is continued until the excava- tion goes past the caving soil and a layer of impermeable soil or rock is, encountered. Step 3. A-casing is then introduced into the hole. (See Figure 12.3c.) Step4, The slurry is bailed out of the casing with a submersible pump. (See Figure 12.34.) Step 5. A smaller drill that can pass through the casing is introduced into the hole, and excavation continues. (See Figure 12.3e.) Step 6. If needed, the base of the excavated hole can then be enlarged, using an underreamer. (See Figure 12.3f,) Step 7. Mf reinforcing steel is needed, the rebar cage needs to extend the full length of the excavation. Concrete is then poured into the excavation and the cas- ing is gradually pulled out, (See Figure 12.32.) Step 8. Figure 12.3h shows the completed drilled shatt. Wet Method of Construction This method is sometimes referred to as the slurry displacement method. Slurry is used to keep the borehole open during the entire depth of excavation. (See Figure 12.4.) Following are the steps involved in the wet method of construction:Example 12.1 A soil profile is shown in Figure 12.15. A point bearing drilled shaft with a bell is placed in a layer of dense sand and gravel. Determine the allowable load the drilled shaft could carry. Use Eq. (12.5) and a factor of safety of 4, Take D, = 1m and D, = 1.75 m. For the dense sand layer, ’ = 36°; E, = $00p,. Ignore the frictional re- sistance of the shaft. Solution We have Qowesy = Ala'(Ng — 1) FysFgaF ge] and q’ = (6) (16.2) + (2) (19.2) = 135.6 N/m? For 6" = 36°, from Table 12.1, N, = 37.75. Also, Fy = 1.727 and Loose sand y= 16.2 KN/m® Dense sand and gravel y = 19.2 N/m? 6 ~ 36" Figure 12.15 Allowable load of drilled shaftFrom Eq. (12.9), Tq = 05 exp 288 en( a5 a *)| = 134.3 (See Table 12.1) From Eq. (12.12), E, = mp,. With m = 500, we have E,, = (500) (100) = 50,000 kN/m? From Eg. (12.13) and Table 12.1, by = 0.265 So E, 50,000 1704 (aan 6) ~ 201 + 0.265) (135.6) (tan 36) 2008 From Eq, (12.10), i fora with 135.6 o.on2s( 2) = 0.0031 it follows that 200.6 Is = T+ (200.6)(0.0031) ~ 1237 Jn is less than /.,. So, from Eq, (12.17), 3.075 eto.) TY Fi 1+ sin’ ye = eo{ssune + [ (3.07 sin 36) log(2 x zany} = 0.958 = exp (-3.8 tan) +[ eo Hence, Qpinay = [(Z)orJasso.er7s ~ 1)(1.727) (1.335)(0.958) = 26.474 BN and Qriver) _ 26,474 . Quay = “Eg = —g— 6619 KNExample 12.2 Solve Example 12.1 using Eq. (12.18). Solution Equation (12.18) asserts that Qpivesy = Aya’ (WNG ~ 1) We have (also see Table 12.2) NG = 0.21e%* = 0.211 = 95.52 and % & = 457 From Figure 12.10, for ¢’ = 36° and L/D, = 4.57, the value of w is about 0.83. So Qpfoery = [(Z)a2s» assess) 0550) — 1] = 25,532 kN and Qa = Be = 6383 KN . Example 12.3 A drilled shaft is shown in Figure 12.16. The uncorrected average standard penetra- tion number (Ni) within a distance of 2D, below the base of the shaft is about 30. Determine a. The ultimate load-carrying capacity b. The load-carrying capacity for a settlement of 12mm. Use Eq. (12.30). Solution Part a From Eqs. (12.26) and (12.27), Si = Bio and By = 2.0 — 0.152" For this problem, z; = 6/2 = 3m, so B=2~ (0.15)(3)" = 1.658_oose sandy gravel, y= 16kN/m? Dense sandy gravel y= kN j-— 1.5m —> Nog ~ 30 Figure 12.16 Drilled shaft supported by a dense layer of sandy gravel and Oy = ¥2% = (16) (3) = 48 KN/m? Thus, = (48) (1.658) = 79.58 kN/m? and Yfip AL; = (79.58) (mw x 1)(6) = 1500 KN From Eg. (12.28), Qp = 57.5Nw = (57.5) (30) = 1725 kN/m? Note that D, is greater than 1.27. So we will use Eq. (12.29a). ee ( ap = (‘Zans ~ 1461 KN/m? IorA = (14. on(% x 1s) = 2582 KN Hence, Quiinet) = IprAy + Sfip AL; = 2582 + 1500 = 4082 KNPart b We have Allowable settlement 2h vat D, (1.0) (1000) ~ ‘The trend line in Figure 12.14a shows that, for a normalized settlement of 1.2%, the normalized load is about 0.8 . Thus, the side-load transfer is (0.8) (1500) ~ 1200 kN. Similarly, 0.12 = 1.2% Allowable settlement = 12. Dy (1.5) (1000) The trend line shown in Figure 12.12 indicates that, for a normalized settlement of 1.4%, the normalized base load is 0.317. So the base load is (0.317)(2582) = 818.5 KN. Hence, the total load is Q = 1200 + 818.5 ~ 2018.5 kN . = 0.008 = 0.8% Drilled Shafts in Clay: Load-Bearing Capacity For saturated clays with & = 0, the bearing capacity factor N, in Eq, (12.4) is equal to unity. Thus, for this case, Qpires) ~ A peuNeFesFealir (12.32) where ¢, = undrained cohesion. Assuming that L = 3D,, we can rewrite Eq. (12.32) as pinay = AyeuNE (12.33) where N# = NFFaFc = 1.33[(In J,) + 1] in which J, = soil rigidity index. (12.34) ‘The soil rigidity index was defined in Eq, (12.11). For 6 = 0, L= oe 12.35) 3c, ee) O'Neill and Reese (1999) provided an approximate relationship between ¢, and E,/3cy. This relationship is shown in Figure 12.17. For all practical purposes, if ¢,/p, is300 250 200 Based on O'Neill and Reese (1999) 150 100 Figure 12.17 Appuximae variation of 5 with e/p, (ote: p, = atmospheric pressure): (Based on O'Neill and Reese, 1999) 0 os 15 20 equal to or greater than unity (p,, = atmospheric pressure ~ 100 kN/m? or 2000 Ih/f2), then the magnitude of NV can be taken to be 9. Experiments by Whitaker and Cooke (1966) showed that, for belled shafts, the full value of NS = 9 is realized with a base movement of about 10 to 15% of D,. Similarly, for straight shafts (D, = D,), the full value of N¥ = 9 is obtained with a base movement of about 20% of D,, The expression for the skin resistance of drilled shafts in clay is similar to Eq. (11.5), or D atep AL (12.36) im Kulhawy and Jackson (1989) reported the field-test result of 106 straight oil shafts—65 in uplift and 41 in compression, The best correlation obtained from results is er =o21 + 02s(2) <1 asp Su where p, = atmospheric pressure ~ 100 kN/m? (~2000 Ib/ft). So, conservatively, we may assume that a*=04 238)Load-Bearing Capacity Based on Settlement Reese and O'Neill (1989) suggested a procedure for estimating the ultimate and allowable (based on settlement) bearing capacities for drilled shafts in clay. According to this proce- dure, we can use Eq. (12.25) for the net ultimate load, or Quiiaery = Dir AL + qA, ‘The unit skin friction resistance can be given as Puy (12.39) ‘The following values are recommended for a: a = 0 for the top 1.5 m (9 ft) and bottom | diameter, D,, of the drilled shaft. (Note: If D, > D,, then a* = 0 for | diameter above the top of the bell and for the periph- eral area of the bell itself.) af = 0.55 elsewhere. The expression for q, (point load per unit area) can be given as > sea(1 1 02 & ) F Myp = 40py (12.40) " where Gu» = average undrained cohesion within a vertical distance of 2D, below the base Pa = atmospheric pressure If Dy is large, excessive settlement will occur at the ultimate load per unit area, dy as given by Fq, (1.40). Thus, for D, > 1.01m (75 in.), qp may be replaced by or = Fay (12.41) where 25 i= -s1 12.42 Dy + th = The relations for y, and y, along with the unit of D,, in the SI and English systems are given in Table 12.3. Figures 12.18 and 12.19 may now be used to evaluate the allowable load-bearing capacity, based on settlement. (Note that the ultimate bearing capacity in Figure 12.18 is Jp» NOt q,,-) To do so,Step 1. Select a value of settlement, s. Step 2. Calculate > fip AL, and q,A,. Step 3. Using Figures 12.18 and 12.19 and the calculated values in Step 2, deg mine the side load and the end bearing load. 4 Step 4. ‘The sum of the side load and the end bearing load gives the total alloy, able load. X Table 12.3 Relationships for y and Ws Item si English wy Ww x 104 + 8.26 X 10 (£)ssox 0 w= o00n + 0002i( 4) 1, NE ~ 9.)666 Chapter 12: Drilled-Shaft Foundations Figure 12.20 A dil shaft without a bell Part b From Eq. (12.36), = Sare,pAL From Eq. (12.38), o4 p= aD, = (3.14)(3.3) = 10.37 ft and (0.4) (10.37){(1000 x 27) + (2175 x 8.5)] = 188, 682 1b = 188.7 kip Part c +Q, . O. Q, _ 1674 + 188.7 _ gzip Example 12.5 {A drilled shaft in a cohesive soil is shown in Figure 12.21. Use Reese and oneill’s ‘method to determine the following. a, The ultimate load-carrying capacity. b. The load-carrying capacity for an allowable settlement of 12. mm.Surface casing, nnoncaving soul @ ) Competent = noncaving. soil © @ Figure 12.2 Dry method of construction: (a) initiating drilling; (b) starting concrete pov (©) placing rebar cage; (d) completed shaft (After O'Neill and Reese, 1999)Clay’ yn) = 40 KN? mg — 6, = 145 kN/m? Figure 12.21 A drilled shaft in layered clay Solution Parta From Eq, (12.39), Si = aPeuiy From Figure 12.21, AL, =3-15=15m AL, = (6 ~ 3) ~ D, = (6 ~ 3) ~ 0.76 = 2.24m Cyt) = 40. KN/m? and ya) = 60 KN/m? Hence, ZfipAL; = Lacy pAL; = (0.58) (40) (a X 0.76) (1.5) + (0.55) (60) ( x 0.76) (2.24) = 255.28 kNAgain, from Eq. (12.40), a= seal +02 9) A check reveals that 6+15 7 (oyu + oa i | = 1957.5 kN/m? Ip = Mu» = (9) (145) = 1305 KN/m* < 1957.5 kN/m? So we use gq, = 1305 KN/m? Ap = a Z02) = x9} (Z)c.2y'] = 1475.9 kN Hence, Quy = Lahey PAL; + qpAp = 255.28 + 1475.9 ~ 1731 KN Part b We have Allowable settlement 2 SS = = 0.0158 = 1.589 D, (rey coooy a CSE = 8% ‘The trend line shown in Figure 12.18 indicates that, for a normalized settlement of 1.58%, the normalized side load is about 0.9. Thus, the side load is (0.9) (2fpAL,) = (0.9) (255.28) = 229.8 kN Again, Allowable settlement ____12 D, (1.2) (1000) The trend line shown in Figure 12.19 indicates that, for a normalized settlement of 1,0%, the normalized end bearing is about 0.63, so Base load = (0.63) (qpA,) = (0.63) (1475.9) = 929.8 KN Thus, the total load is = 0.01 = 1.0% Q = 229.8 + 929.8 = 1159.6 kN Settlement of Drilled Shafts at Working Load The settlement of drilled shafts at working load is calculated in a manner similar 10 outlined in Section 11.15. In many cases, the load carried by shaft resistance #8 compared with the load carried at the base. In such cases, the contribution of Ss MY ignored, (Note that in Eqs. (11.74) and (11.75) the term D should be replaced bY Pr drilled shafis.)Example 12.6 $$ Refer to Figure 12.20. Given: L, = 8m, L2 = 3m, D, = 1.5m, cy) = 50 kN/m?, aa) = 105 KN/m’, and working load Q,, = 1005 KN. Estimate the elastic settlement at the working load. Use Egs. (11.73), (1 1.75), and (11.66). Take & = 0.65, Hy = 21 X 10°KN/m*, E, = 14,000 kN/m*, 1, = 0.3, and Q,y = 250 KN, Solution From Eq, (11.73), (Quy + EQus)L as aH Ape, Now, Qy, = 1005 ~ 250 = 755 kN so 250 + (0.65) (755)](11 Set oa 0.22 mm (z x Ls )er x 105) From Eq, (11.75), Quy $42) = = Da, From Table 11.13, for stiff clay, C,, ~ 0.04; also, yNE = (105)(9) = 945 KN/m? for Hence, _ (250) (0.04) *) ~ (1.5) (945) Again, from Eqs. (11.76) and (11.77), = 0.0071 m = 7.1 mm where In, = 2 + 0.35, 755 Ls : “i 3 543) = lean ley)o ~ 03°) (2.95) = 0.0042 m = 4.2 mm‘The total settlement is Se = Ser) + 502) + Seq) = 0.22 + 7.1 + 4.2 ~ 11.52 mm LEAL Lateral Load-Carrying Capacity—Characteristic Load and Moment Method Several methods for analyzing the lateral load-carrying capacity of piles, swell as the load-carrying capacity of drilled shafts, were presented in Section 11.16; therefor, thay will not be repeated here. In 1994, Duncan et al. developed a characteristic load methoy for estimating the lateral load capacity for drilled shafts that is fairly simple to use. We describe this method next, According to the characteristic load method, the characteristic load Q. and moment -M, form the basis for the dimensionless relationship that can be given by the following correlations: Characteristic Load . o \"* Q. = 7.§4D? CE kn( 5) (for clay) (12.43) yD.b" Q. = 1.57D? (E,R0( (for sand) (12.44) Characteristic Moment c, \oss = 3.86D} ‘: la (12.45) M, = 3.86D} ta( Ze) (for clay) M, = 1.33D;(E,R, epee M.= 13301 ER ER 040 ) (for sand) (12.46) In these equations, iameter of drilled shafts iodulus of elasticity of drilled shafts ‘0 of moment of inertia of drilled shaft section to moment of inertia of a solid section (Note: R, = 1 for uneracked shaft without central void) sffective unit weight of sand ffective soil friction angle (degrees) ankine passive pressure coefficient = tan?(45 + '/2) Deflection Due to Load Q, Applied at the Ground Line Figures 12.22 and 12.23 give the plot of Q,/Q. versus x,/D, for drilled shalt i and clay due to the load Q, applied at the ground surface, Note that x, is the £! n sand round12.12 Lateral Load-Carrying Capacity—Characteristic Load and Moment Method 6711 0.050 0.050. 0.045 0.045 0.030 0.030 0015 o.o1s 0 0.05 0.10 os Q, Figure 12.22 Plot of >and line deflection. If the magnitudes of Q, and Q. are known, the ratio Q,/Q, can be cal- culated. The figure can then be used to estimate the corresponding value of x,/D, and, hence, x,. Deflection Due to Moment Applied at the Ground Line Figures 12.22 and 12.23 give the variation plot of M,/M, with x,/ D, for drilled shafts in sand and clay due to an applied moment M, at the ground line. Again, x, is the ground line deflec- mn. If the magnitudes of M,, M,, and D, are known, the value of x, can be calculated with the use of the figure.672. Chapter 12: Drilled-Shaft Foundations 9018 9 | ois 0.010 0.010 a 2. 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.010 | 0.0021 0.0019 0.020 | 0.0033 0.0032 o 0 0.08 0.10 os D, QM, Figure 12.23 Plot of Gand 7 versus 7 in sand Deflection Due to Load Applied Above the Ground Line When a load Q is applied above the ground line, it induces both a load O, = Q and & moment M, = Qe at the ground line, as shown in Figure 12.24a, superposition solution can now be used to obtain the ground line deflection, The step-by-step procedure is as fol lows (refer to Figure 12.24b): Step 1. Calculate Q, and M,. Step 2. Calculate the deflection x, that would be caused by the load Q, a¢tng alone. Step 3. Calculate the deflection x,,, that would be caused by the moment acting alone. Step 4, Determine the value of a load Q,,y that would cause the same deflect the moment (i.e., x,y) Step 5. Determine the value of a moment Mzo that would cause the tion as the load (i.e. 4). Step 6, Calculate (Q, + Q,.)/Q... and determine x,9u/D,- Step 7. Calculate (M, + M,o)/M, and determine x,,,0/ Dy jon as me defleeFigure 12.24 Superposition of deflection due to load and moment Step 8. Calculate the combined deflection: Xo(combined) = 0.5(XxgM + Xoo) (12.47) Maximum Moment in Drilled Shaft Due to Ground Line Load Only Figure 12.25 shows the plot of Q,/Q. with Mgu/M, for fixed- and free-headed drilled shafts due only to the application of a ground line load Q,. For fixed-headed0.045 01s enw o 2, 2 | coo # (cay) or ae 01s 0.005 LT 0 0.005 0.010 ois : aration of 2 wan Miss Figure 12.23 Variation of > with “yr shafis, the maximum moment in the shaft, Myx, Occurs at the ground line. For this condi- tion, if Q., M,, and Q, are known, the magnitude of M,.. can be easily calculated. Maximum Moment Due to Load and Moment at Ground Line Ifa load Q, and a moment M, are applied at the ground line, the maximum moment in the drilled shaft can be determined in the following manner: Step 1. Using the procedure described before, calculate Xpjcoabicet) f°™ Eq, (12.47). Step 2. To solve for the characteristic length 7; use the following equation 2.430, Xo(combiaed) = ae 248) tomes) = ET Step 3, The moment in the shaft at a depth z below the ground surface can be cA lated as «249 M, Ap QT + ByMgwhere A,,, By, = dimensionless moment coefficients (Matlock and Reese, 1961); see Figure 12.26. The value of the maximum moment M,,, can be obtained by calculat- ing M, at various depths in the upper part of the drilled shaft. ‘The characteristic load method just described is valid only if L/D, has a certain min- imum value. If the actual L/D, is less than (L/D,),.i., then the ground line deflections will be underestimated and the moments will be overestimated, The values of (L./D,) in for drilled shafts in sand and clay are given in the following table: Sand EA & (L/D in yDwK, (1/2 nin 1x 10° 6 1x 10° 8 3x 10° 10 4x 10° ul 1x 10° M4 2x 10° 14 Am By ae 20 Figure 12.26 Variation of A,, and B,, with 2/TExample 12.7 aa A free-headed drilled shaft in clay is shown in, Determine igure 12.27. Let E, = 22 X10° kNyga a. The ground line deflection, x,(combines) b, The maximum bending moment in the drilled shaft The maximum tensile stress in the shaft 4. The minimum penetration of the shaft needed for this analysis Solution We are given D,=1m G, = 100 KN/m? R,=1 E, = 22 X 10°KN/m* and Parta From Eq. (12.43), c \os Q. = 7.34D? ,8)( <8) a 100 22 x 10°)(1) = (7.34) (1)*[(22 x man] = 37,607 kN 200 kN-m oN Clay 6, = 100 KN/w? Figure 12.27 Free-headed drilled sh!tCaving soil Caving soit Cohesive soil = (@) Caving soil © @ Figure 12.3 Casing method of construction: (a) initiating drilling: (b) drilling with slurry; (c) introducing casing; (4) casing is sealed and slurry is being removed from interior of casing; (c) drilling below casing; (f) underreaming: (g) removing casing: (hy completed shaft (After O'Neill and Reese, 1999)From Eq. (12.45), 46 M.= 38603 ERI 5) » 100 Ke = (3.86) (1)°{(22 x mol ee] = 296,139 kN-m Thus, From Figure 12.22. for x.y//D, = 0.0014, the value of Q,,/Q, ~ 0.002. Hence, Ka _ 9.0025 _ 6 5095 T= From Figure 12,22, for x,9/D, = 0.0025, the value of M,o/M, ~ 0.0013, so Qe Qe a+ 0.004 + 0,002 = 0.006 0. +o, 7 2004 + 0.002 From Figure 12.22, for (Q, + Q,.)/Q. = 0.006, the value of x,,/D, ~ 0.0046. Hence, Xagu = (0.0046) (1) = 0,0046 m = 4.6mm Thus, we have My | Myo MM. = 0.000675 + 0.0013 ~ 0.00108 From Figure 12.22, for (M, + M,g)/M, = Hence, .00198, the value of x,.0/D, ~ 0.0041. Xoqo = (0.0041) (1) = 0.0041 m = 4.1 mm‘Consequently, %o (combines) = O-5(XoM + Xoo) = (0.5) (4.6 + 4.1) = 4.35 mm Part b From Eq. (12.48), 2.430, Fo Goombinad) = Fe 1.62M, T3+ Gi Enly so. 150) 62) (200 or 0.00435 m = 338 x 10°°T? + 300.6 x 10°° T? and it follows that T = 205m From Eq. (12.49), Mz = An Q,T + By My = Ay(150) (2.05) + Byy(200) = 307.5A,, + 200 By, Now the following table can be prepared: & An Br T (Figure'2.26) —(Figure’12.26) (kl 0 0 10 200 o4 0.36 0.98 306.7 06 0.52 0.95 349.9 08 0.63 09 373.7 1.0 0.75 0.845 399.6 i 0.765 08 395.2 1.25 0.75 0.73 376.6 So the maximum moment is 399.4 KN-m ~ 400 kN-m and occurs at z/T ~ 1. Hence. 2 = (1)(T) = (1)(2.05 m) = 2.05 m Part ¢ ‘The maximum tensile stress is, w(2) ee 2 F rmie 7, 0a) > 4081-6 KN/m:Part d We have EpR _ (22 x 105)(1) _ eke ae en, By interpolation, for (E,Ry)/cy = 2.2 X 10°, the value of (L/D,)min ~ 8.5. S0 L~ (85)(1) =85m . Drilled Shafts Extending into Rock In Section 12.1, we noted that drilled shafts can be extended into rock. Figure 12.28 shows a drilled shaft whose depth of embedment in 1uck is equal to L. When consider ing drilled shafts in rock, we can find several correlations between the end bearing capacity and the unconfined compression strength of intact rocks, qy. Itis important to recognize that, in the field, there are cracks, joints, and discontinuities in the rock, and the influence of those factors should be considered. Keeping this in mind, Zhang and Einstein (1998) analyzed a data base of 39 full-scale drilled shaft tests in which the Qu unit side resistance 4p = unit point bearing Figure 12.28 Drilled shaft socketed into rockshaft bases were cast on or in generally soft rock with some degree of jointing, on these results, they proposed Quincy = Qp + Q, where end bearing capacity Q, can be expressed as = q,A, + fpL Q)(MN) = ap, = [4.83(q, MN/m*)°™,A,(m?)] Figure 12.29 shows the plot of q,(MN/m?) versus q,(MN/m*) obtained from the data on j which Eq. (12.51) is based. Also, the side resistance Q, is Q.(MN) = fpL = (04(Gq MN/m?)?*TrD,(m) [L(m)} (for smooth socket) (12.52) and Q.(MN) = fpL = (0.8(q, MN/m*)"*[7D,(m){L(m)] as 53) (for rough socket) 100 30 q Z 0 3 1 ol 031 3 10 30100 Unconfined compression strength, q,,(MN/m?) Figure 12.29 Plot of q, versus q,, (Adapted from Zhang and Einstein, 1998)Example 12.8 ee eee Figure 12.30 shows a drilled shaft extending into a shale formation. For the intact rock cores, given q, = 4.2 MN/m?, Estimate the allowable load-bearing capacity of the drilled shaft. Use a factor of safety (FS) = 3. Assume a smooth socket for side resistance, Solution From Eq. (12.51), Q, = Af4.83(4,)°"] Again, from Eq. (12.52), 7.89 MN FA) 1483)(4.2)") Q, = 0.4(4,)“(4D,L) = 0.44.2) (a7) (1) (4)) = 10.3 MN Hence, Figure 12.30 Drilled shaft extending into rock 12.1 A drilled shaft is shown in Figure P12,1. Determine the net allowable point bearing capacity. Given Yo = 15.6 KN/m* Ys = 17.6 kKN/m> $= 35° 35 KN/m? Use Eq. (12.18). 12.2 Redo Problem 12.1, this time using Eq. (12.15). Let E, = 600p,. 12.3. For the drilled shaft described in Problem 12.1, what skin resistance would develop in the top 6 m, which are in clay? Use Eqs. (12.36) and (12.38),12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 128 129 Silty clay ¥e k— D, —+| Figure P12.1 Redo Problem 12.1 with the following: 17.8 KN/m* 18.2 KN/m* 32° 32. KN/m* Factor of satety = 4 Redo Problem 12.4 using Eq, (12.5). Let £, = 400p,. For the drilled shaft described in Problem 12.4, what skin friction would develop in the top 6.25 m? a. Use Eqs, (12.36) and (12.38). b. Use Eq, (12.39), Figure P12.7 shows a drilled shaft without a bell. Assume the following values: L,=6m yyy = S0KN/m* Tm —Cyay = 75 KN/m? a. The net ultimate point bearing capacity [use Eqs. (12.33) and (12.34)] The ultimate skin friction {use Eqs. (12.36) and (12.38)] ¢. The working load Q, (factor of safety Repeat Problem 12.7 with the following data: L,=20f eq = L400 1b/ ft Ly = 10M eye) = 2400 Ib/f? D,= 3ft Use Eqs. (12.39) and (12.40). A drilled shaft in a medium sand is shown in Figure P12.9, Using the method Pr” posed by Reese and O’Neill, determine the following:Figure P12.7 a. The net allowable point resistance for a base movement of 25 mm b. The shatt frictional resistance for a base movement of 25 mm. The total load that can be carried by the drilled shaft for a total base movement of 25mm Assume the following values: y = 18kN/m* ob = 38° D, = 65%(medium sand) Average standard, peuettation number (Ney) within 2D, below the drilled shaft = 19 ai —t Figure P12.912.10 In Figure P12.9, let L = 7m, L; = 6m, D, = 0.75 m, Dy = 1.25 m, y = I8KN/m*, and f’ = 37°. The average uncorrected standard penetratio, ber (Nig) within 2D, below the drilled shaft is 29. Determine a. The ultimate load-carrying capacity b, The load-carrying capacity for a settlement of 12 mm. q ‘The sand has 35% gravel. Use Eq. (12.30) and Figures 12.12 and 12.14, 12.11 For the drilled shaft described in Problem 12.7, determine a, The ultimate load-carrying capacity b, The load carrying capacity for a settlement of 25 mm. Use the procedure outlined by Reese and O'Neill, (See Figures 12.18 and 12.19) 12.12 For the drilled shaft deseribed in Problem 12.7, estimate the totl elastic settemeny at working load. Use Eqs. (11.73), (11.75), and (11.76). Assume that E, = 20 X 10°KN/m?, C, = 0.03, € = 0.65, 4, = 0.3, E, = 12,000 KN/m?, ang Q., = 0.8Q,,. Use the value of Q,, from Part (c) of Problem 12.7. 12.13 For the drilled shaft described in Problem 12.8, estimate the total elastic settlement at working load. Use Eqs. (11.73), (11.75), and (11.76). Assume that E,, = 3 X 10°lb/in’, C, = 0.03, € = 0.65, w, = 0.3, E, = 2000 Ib/in’, and Q., = 0.83Q,,. Use the value of Q,, from Part (c) of Problem 12.8, 12.14 Figure P12.14 shows a drilled shaft extending into clay shale. Given: q,(clay shale) = 1.81MN/m?. Considering the socket to be rough, estimate the allowable load-carrying capacity of the drilled shaft. Use FS = 4. A free-headed drilled shaft is shown in Figure P12.15. Let Q, = 260 kN, M, y = 17.5KN/m’, g' = 35°, c’ = 0, and E, = 22 X 10°KN/m*. Determine a, The ground line deflection, ¥,, b, The maximum bending moment in the drilled shaft c. The maximum tensile stress in the shaft 4. The minimum penetration of the shaft needed for this analysis nu Clay shale Concrete ‘rilled shaft Figure P12.15Caving soil Level of fluid concrete Drifting fluid forced from space between ceasing and soil Caving soit a Figure 12.3 (Continued) OyCaving soil @ (b) Cohesive soil Caving soil Caving sit o @ Figure 12.4 Slurry method of construction: (a) drilling to full depth with slurry; (b) placing rebar cage; (c) placing concrete; (A) completed shaft (After O'Neill and Reese, 1999) Step 1 Step 2. Step 3. Step 4. Excavation continues to full depth with slurry. (See Figure 12.42.) If reinforcement is required, the rebar cage is placed in the slurry. (See Figure 12.4b,) Concrete that will displace the volume of slurry is then placed in the drill hole. (See Figure 12.4¢.) Figure 12.4d shows the completed drilled shat. Figure 12.5 shows a drilled shaft under construction using the dry method. The con- struction of a drilled shaft ing the wet method is shown in Figure 12.6. A typical auger, a reinforcement cage, and a typical clean-out bucket are shown in Figure 12.7.Drilled shaft construction using the dry method (Ce of Sanjeev Kumar, Southern Minois University, Carbondale, Mlinois) ire 12.6 Drilled shaft construction using wet method (Courtesy of Khaled Soblia” Florida Aiamic Univetsity, Boca Raton, Florida)Figure 12.7 Drilled shaft construction: (a) A typical auger; (b) a reinforcement cage; (c) a clean- ‘out bucket (Courtesy of Khaled Sobhan, Florida Atlantic Univetsity, Boca Raton, Florida) Other Design Considerations For the design of ordinary drilled shafts without casings, a minimum amount of vertical steel reinforcement is always desirable. Minimum reinforcement is 1% of the gross cross-sectional area of the shaft. For drilled shafts with nominal reinforcement, most building codes suggest using a design concrete strength, f., on the order of f{/4. Thus, the mi12.6 or is) Qu (2 2.257, fi (yy () (025)f where D, = diameter of the shaft f= 28-day conerete strength Q,, = working load of the drilled shaft Ay, = gross cross-sectional area of the shaft If drilled shafts are likely to be subjected to tensile louds, reinforcement should be contin: ued for the entire length of the shaft. Concrete Mix Design The concrete mix design for drilled shafts is not much different from that for any other conerete structure. When a reinforcing cage is used, consideration should be given to the ability of the concrete to flow through the reinforcement. In most cases, a concrete slump of about 15.0 (6 in.) is considered satisfactory. Also, the maximum size of the aggre gate should be limited to about 20 mm (0.75 in.) Load Transfer Mechanism The load transfer mechanism from drilled shafts to soil is similar to that of piles, as described in Section 11.5. Figure 12.8 shows the load test results of a drilled shaft, conducted in a clay soil by Reese et al. (1976). The shaft (Figure 12.8a) had a diame ter of 762 mm (30in.) and a depth of penetration of 6.94 m (22.75 ft). Figure 1280 shows the load-settlement curves. It can be seen that the total load curtied by the drilled shaft was 1246 kN (140 tons). The load carried by side resistance was about 800 KN (90 tons), and the rest was carried by point bearing. It is interesting (0 Nl that, with a downward movement of about 6 mm (0.25 in), full side resistance "8S mobilized. However, about 25 mm (~1in.) of downward movement was required FoF mobilization of full point resistance. This situation is similar to that observed it case of piles. Figure 12.8c shows the average load-distribution curves for differem stages of the loading. Estimation of Load-Bearing Capacity The ultimate load-bearing capacity of a drilled shaft (see Figure 12.9) is Q) +O. 22)Drilled-Shaft Foundations Introduction The terms caisson, pier. drilled shaft, and drilled pier are often used interchangeably in foundation engineering; all refer to a cast-in-place pile generally having a diameter of about 750 mm (~2.5 ft) or more, with or without steel reinforcement and with or without an enlarged bottom, Sometimes the diameter can be as small as 305 mm (~I ft). To avoid confusion, we use the term drilled shaft for a hole drilled or excavated to the bottom of a structure's foundation and then filled with concrete. Depending on the soil conditions, casings may be used to prevent the soil around the hole from caving in during construction, The diameter of the shaft is usually large enough for a person to enter for inspection. The use of drilled-shaft foundations has several advantages: |. A single drilled shaft may be used instead of a group of piles and the pile cap. Constructing drilled shafts in deposits of dense sand and gravel is easier than driving piles. 3. Drilled shafts may be constructed before grading operations are completed. 4. When piles are driven by a hammer, the ground vibration may cause damage to nearby structures, The use of drilled shafts avoids this problem. 5. Piles driven into clay soils may produce ground heaving and cause previously driven piles to move laterally. This does not occur during the construction of drilled shafts. 6. There is no hammer noise during the construction of drilled shafts: there is during pile driving. 7. Because the base of a drilled shaft can be enlarged, it provides great resistance to the uplifting load. 8. The surface over which the base of the drilled shaft is constructed can be visually inspected. 9. The construction of drilled shafts generally utilizes mobile equipment, which, under proper soil conditions, may prove to be more economical than methods of construct ing pile foundations. 10. Drilled shafts have high resistance to lateral loads. 637