ACTA MESOAMERICANA Volume 20 Genevieve Le Fort, Raphaél Gardiol, Sebastian Matteo and Christophe Helmke (eds.) The Maya and their Sacred Narratives Text and Context in Maya Mythologies Proceedings of the 12 European Maya Conférence Geneva, December 7-8, 2007 Separata a VERLAG ANTON SAURWEIN, "2009The Maya Maize God and the Mythic Origins of Dance Karl A. Taube UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, RIVERSIDE Abstract Dance constitutes one of the most common themes in Classic Maya art, with rulers and gods dressed in elaborate dance costumes and frequently while displaying explicit dance poses and gestures. However, there has been little study of the underlying symbolism and mythology pertaining to ancient Maya dance. In this paper, I examine the mythie relation of dance to the maize god, including the dancing maize god as a bird, and his dance of resurrection out of the earth. These themes appear to be of great antiquity. Not only can they be documented for the Late Preclassic Maya, but they probably originate among the still earlier Olmec of Formative Mesoamerica Resumen ‘La danza constituye uno de los temas més comunes en el arte maya clisico, con gobernantes y dioses vestidos con trajes elaborados de danza y frecuentemente mostrando poses y gestos explicitos. Sin embargo, ha habido poco estudio sobre el simbolismo y mitologia subyacente y pertinente a la danza maya antigua, En este articulo, examino la relacin entre Ia mitica de danza al dios de mafz, incluyendo el baiarin dios de maiz. como ppjaro, y su baile de rosurreccién emergiendo de la tierra. Estos temas parecen ser de gran antigiedad. No slo, pueden ser documentados para el Preclisico Tardio Maya, sino que probablemente se originan, aun antes, entre los Olmecas del Mesoamérica Formativo. For what is known of ancient Maya mythology of the Classic period, one of the ‘most salient beings related to sacred narrative events is the maize deity. In a paper published more than twenty years ago, I argued that a ‘major figure appearing on Late Classic Maya ‘vessel scenes was the maize god (Taube 1985). Because of his striking coiffure of a lower horizontal band of hair, a shaved central brow region and capping tuft of hair at the top of his elongated head, I termed him the Tonsured Maize God, in contrast to another form of this being that has a long, sharply bent ear of com emerging from the head. Although both ae present in the Classic period, this secord aspect of the maize god almost entirely replaces the Tonsured Maize God following the Classic Maya collapse. There are only to likely Late Postclassic examples that T am reasonably confident to cite, a canoeing scene from page 36b of the Codex Dresden and a tenoned sculpture from) Mayapan (Proskouriakoff 1962: Fig. 8g). Although the Postelassic foliated maize god appears in many scenes in the extant Mara codices as well as sculpture, there is little to be said of mythological events. However, for the Classic period “Tonsured Maize God” there is 4 great deal that can be discussed (unless otherwise stated in the paper, “maize god” will specifically refer to this same being for the Classic period). In my original paper devoted to this Classic Maya deity, 1 noted that he constituted the ancestral form of Hun Hunahpu of the Popol Vuh, the father of the hero twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, as well as the monkey artisans Hun Batz and Hun Chuen, described as the halt brothers of the hero twins. In support, there are many Late Classic Maya vessel scenes featuring the maize god appearing with both the hero twins and the monkey artisans. Moreover, a remarkable vessel in the Museo Popol Vuh portrays the severed head of the maize god in a fruitladen cacao tree, with one pod bearing human attributes, notably like the well-known Popol Vuk episode of the skull of Hun Hunahpu transformed into a calabash. A finely incised vessel often referred to as the “Death Vase” has what appears to be an early Classic version of this episode. In this scene, the maize god appears head-downwards as a fruit-laden cacao ‘ree with a small head sprouting maize foliation in its branches (see Kerr 2000: 972 [K6547). As in the case of the Museo Popol Vuh vase, this scene probably depicts. the severed head of the maize god being transformed into a fruit.42 ‘The rich corpus of material from Late Classic Maya vessel scenes have supplied information not documented in the sixteenth century Popol Vuh ot other Maya sources following the Classic Maya. As an historical process, this has recently been termed “spall” (see Houston and Taube 2008). For example, many Late Classic scenes feature the travel of the maize god through water, accompanied by comely women ~ probably his wives ~ as well as the hero twins carrying his regalia. In addition, many Late Classic Maya scenes feature the emergence of the maize god out of a turtle, a creature symbolizing the gently rounded earh floating on the sea (Taube 1985). Although the turtle is prominently featured in modem myths of Veracruz. featuring an infant maize god (see Braakhuis 1990), there is no mention of Hun ‘Hunahpu with a turtle in the Popol Vuh. In this paper, I discuss the relation of the maize god to dance, a theme that has been discussed by a number of authors. According to Mary Miller (1992: 159), the natural qualities of the living maize plant evokes dance: “In nature, maize plants sway to and fro, their crisp, green leaves moving like limbs of the human body; the Maize God, t00, is in motion, often seeming to dance and sway”. One of the most elaborately costumed figures in Late Classic Maya art, the Holmul Dancer, is clearly the maize god (Tauhe 1985; Honsten et al. 1992). In addition, Maya rulers are often portrayed in dance costume evoking the maize god: “The maize god was one of the most commonly impersonated beings in Classic Maya dance, with the sumptuous costumes of quetzal plumes and jade alluding to the verdant growth of the maize plant” (Taube 20012: 306). In short, if there is a Classic Maya god of dance, it would be the maize god. This study not only examines examples of dancing Maya maize gods, but also mythological scenes pertaining to dance, including images dating to the Late Preclassic as well as Classic periods The recently discovered Late Preclass.c ‘murals from Pinturas Structure Sub-1A at San Bartolo, Guatemala, have transformed our understanding of the origins of the Maya maize god and his mythology. Dating to the M century BC, the murals feature detailed scenes of early Maya creation mythology, especially the mythic deeds of the com deity. The major Karl A, Taube portion of the North Wall mural features the maize god and his retinue relaying food and water out of a zoomorphic mountain, probably an early version of the widespread myth of emergence as well as the Classic period episode of the netherworld joumey of the maize god (Satumo ef al. 2005b). For the larger and more elaborate West Wall mural, the maize god appears no less than six times, making it by far the most elaborate program conceming the maize deity known for the ancient Maya (Satumo et al. 2005a; Satumo 2006). However, for the topic of this discussion I focus on only two portions of the mural, the directional world trees and the resurrection of the maize god of the earth turtle, It will be noted that both scenes feature figures dancing or in dance costume, and constitute some of the earliest portrayals of dance known for ancient Mesoamerica The World Trees and Maize at the World Center For the southern half of West Wall mural at San Bartolo, there are a series of five world trees, each surmounted by a bird, For the first four trees, the bird is clearly the Principal Bird Deity, the ancestral form of Vucub Caquix of the Popol Vuh, Before these trees, four youths let blood from their phalli, and itis likely that they constitute early directional forms of ‘Hunahpu of the Popol Vuh, the hero twin who helps defeat Vueub Caquix. Whereas slain creatures, a fish, deer and ocellated turkey serve as the offerings, yellow, aromatic flowers are at the base of the fourth tree. The fourth tree scene is the most elaborate in the directional tree series and to the north side features three flying birds and a dancing duck- billed figure as well as an additional portrayal of the Principal Bird Deity descending to his tree (Fig. 1a). The scene also concems music and dance, themes entirely consistent with the aromatic blossoms, as flowers were widely identified with music in ancient Mesoamerica (Hill 1992; Taube 2004a), Not only do song scrolls emanate from the mouths of the birds, but the duck-billed figure is clearly dancing with a song or speech scroll emerging from his uptumed face. In addition, the tree on which the Principal Bird Deity perches is a gourd tree (Crescentia spp.), the fruit of which is used to create rattles. In the case of the fourth tree, the Principal Bird Deity appears frontally, and withMaize God and the Mythic Origins of Dance 43 Fig. 1. The portrayal of the duck:biled wind god with rain and music in early Maya at. (a) Principal Bird Deity descending with rain clouds to calabash tree, note dancing and singing duck-billed igure to viewer's right, West ‘Wall mural, Pinturas Sub-1A, San Bartolo (detail of drawing courtesy of Heather Hurs).(b) Duck-billed wind god with rain, note singing birds flanking tree with prokable head of Principal Bird Deity, detail of Early Classic carved vvase, Tikal (after Culbert 1993: Fig. 31a) its talons grasps two of the fruits almost as if they were a pair of rattles. The left leg is slightly raised and it is possible that this being is also dancing. In the sky band above, there are dark, swirling clouds, suggesting that the avian beings are engaged in a “rain dance.” An Early Classic incised Tikal vessel portrays @ notably similar scene with a pair of singing and flying birds with another duck-billed figure sitting in falling rain (Fig. 1b). In the San Bartolo scene, birds are shown as singing and dancing creatures, and it could well be that the ancient Maya regarded them as. the “original” performers, beings that both sing and engage in elaborate dances of courtship. ‘The rotund dancing figure is an early version of a Classic Maya duck-billed wind god first identified by David Stuart, who also noted tat this being probably relates to Ehecatl- Quetzalcoatl, the duck-billed wind god of Lete Postelassie Central Mexico (cited in Taube 2004b: 173). In the basal register of Stela 3 of Seibal, the duck-billed character. shakes a flower-tipped rattle while in the uppermost portion of the monument sit a pair of Tialoc rain gods, again suggesting a rain-bringing performance. Ehecatl-Quetzalcoat] was explicitly related to music and dance. In his description of the temple of Ehecatl- Quetzalcoatl, Diego Durén (1971: 143) noted that the Aztec performed dances and farces atop a flower-festooned platform in the temple courtyard: “This temple contained a fair-sized courtyard, where... were performed splendid dances, merry celebrations, and amusing farces.” According to the Histoire duu Mexique, wind went to the house of the sun to obtain music for humanity Garibay 1979: 111-12), Pages 35 to 37 of the Codex Borgia portray this mythic event, with Quetzalcoatl and44 ‘Tezcallipoca carrying a sacred _bunde containing a flute (Taube 2001b: 114-5). Out of this flute issues a great stream of wind carrying musical instruments, dance staffs, flowers and precious birds. In Mesoamerican thought, wind is the vehicle for music as well as rain clouds (see Taube 2001b, 2004a), Karl A. Taube It is of special importance that the fourth tree is a gourd tree, as in both Late Preclassic and Classic Maya art, this is consistently the tree that the Principal Bird Deity is shot out of (eg, Taube 1993: 64-5). For the following fifth tree in the series, the monster bird is no longer present, and in its place there is @ Fig. 2. Early examples of maize gods dressed in avian dance costumes, (a) Detail of West Wall mural of Pinturas| ‘Sub-A portraying maize god in avian costume before world tree and another maize god in similar costume presenting Avian Jester God to acceding corn deity seated in scaffold (detail of drawing courtesy of Heather Hurst). (b) Detail of San Bartolo maize god holding avian Jester God. (c) Olmec jadeite statuette portraying igure dressed as avian maize god (ater Taube 2004b: Fg. 48a). (d) Olmec woman dressed as avian maize god, detal cof carved jadeite belt colt (ater Taube 2004b: Fig. 0c).Maize God and the Mythic Origins of Dance Rather naturalistic looking bird perched atop its branches (Fig. 2a). In addition, the figure before the tree is not the youthful hero twin letting blood, but rather the maize god. It is quite likely that the maize god and world tree denote the fifth direction, the world center. In both ancient and contemporary Mesoamerica, maize commonly denotes the pivotal axis mundi, including Early Classic caches from Copan featuring jade images of the maize god in the center of quedripartite offerings (s:2 Fields and Reents-Budet 2005: cat. 20; Taube 2005: 25). Although much of the lower portion of his body is missing, itis clear that the maize god is dressed as a bird, with a wing-like shoulder cape and a long feathered tail. In an immediately adjacent scene further north on the West Wall, there is another portrayal of tie maize god wearing virtually the same costume as he presents a form of the royal Jester God to a figure seated on an accession scaffold (Fig 2a, b). The Jester God is the avian aspect, composed of the head of the Principal Bird deity sprouting foliation (for other e.g.s., see Taube 1998: Figs. 15, 16d, 16), 161). Tre portion of the face that remains of tie enthroned figure suggests that he is again tie maize god, perhaps engaged in the first myttic act of royal accession. For the attendant maize deity with the Jester God, he wears not only the feathered cape and tail, but also a bind headdress, clearly denoting him as an avian being. ‘Avian maize gods are also known for the idle Formative Olmec (ca. 900-500 BC). In Olmec iconography, this being appears to be the personification of green, growing com, and quite commonly has pairs of vertical lines across his brow and checks (see Taube 20C0: 305-307; 2004b: 97-99). The relation of ‘growing com to birds might partly be based on the resemblance of green maize leaves to the Jong plumes of the male quetzal, by far the most esteemed feathers of ancient Mesoamerica. The incised serpentine statue:te often referred to as “Slim” or the “Yousg Lord” is an excellent example of the avian maize being (see Benson and de la Fuente 1996; no. 50). Although this figure is cleanly male, a jadeite statuette attributed to Rio Pesquero portrays a probable woman dressed as this being (Taube 2004b: 105-21). For this example and another appearing on a finely carved jadeite belt celt, the figures wear feathered capes and long tails, costumes that 48 are very similar to the avian maize gods at San Bartolo (Fig, 2b-c). Rather that being casual elite dress, the Olmec and San Bartolo feathered avian costumes are items used in dance. Fig. 3, Avian maize gods in Classic Maya art. (a) Early Classic dancing maize god with serpent wings and bird tail, detall of stucco frieze, Tonina (after photo by author). (b) Dancing maize god with wings and headdress of Principal Bird Deity, detail of Early Classic bow, Calakmul (ater Carrasco Vargas and Colén Gonzalez 2005: 44). (¢) Spotted hero twin presenting winged maize god with belt colt assemblage, detail of Early Classic bow! in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (after wuwmfa.org cat. MS1105). (2) Dancing maize god displaying avian wing merged with serpent skyband {ater photograph by Justin Kerr, after Kerr 1997: 820). The appearance of the avian maize god at the fifth tree and the absence of the Principal Bird Deity in its branches may be mythically related ‘themes. I suspect that the feathered dance garb was obtained by the maize god through the defeat of the monster bird. An Early Classic bowl from Calakmul depicts a dancing winged maize god wearing the floral diadem of the Principal Bird Deity (Fig. 3b). The figure is in a dynamic pose suggesting flight as well as dance, and probably both were conceptually related in ancient Maya thought, dance and deity impersonation being essential means for contacting the celestial spirit world of gods and ancestors. The pose of the Calakmul maize god is also notably similar to thet adopted by the Principal Bird Deities appearing on Altars 9 and 10 of Late Preclassic Kaminaljuyu (see46 Parsons 1986: Figs. 140-1), and itis likely that these birds are also dancing. Dancing avian maize gods ate fairly common in Early Classic Maya art, including a series of four winged figures appearing in a stucco frieze from Tonina (Fig. 3a). An Early Classic polychrome bowl portrays the spotted hero twin presenting a winged maize god with the mask and triple belt celt assemblage used in royal dance (Fig. 3c). It is noteworthy that these avian m gods have wings with serpent heads, the serpent wing being a basic, defining trait of the Principal Bird Deity (see Bardawil 1976). Rhonda Taube (pers. comm, 2002) notes that the richly dressed Holmul dancer is the Late Classic form of the Maya avian maize god. I suspect that the feathered sky band backrack worn by the Holmul dancers probably derived from the elaborate serpent wing appearing behind Early Classic maize gods (e.g. Fig. 3c). For one Tepeu 1, Naranjo style vessel scene portraying four dancing maize gods, two of the figures are backed by large serpent wings (see Kerr 1997: 820 [K5746]). However, another of the maize gods has a short sky band extending from to the small of his back to the serpeat wing, thereby creating a serpent skyband (Fig. 3d). Lengthened, this skyband would separate the serpent wing from the body of the maize god and thereby create the feathered skybard niche of the Holmul Dancer. At times, the Classic Maya maize god wears a headdress portraying the Principal Bird Deity. An Early Classic jade plaque carved in the style of Copan portrays. the maize ged wearing a Principal Bird Deity headdress topped by a growing ear of corn (Fig. 4c). The figure appears to hold a pair of maize ears in the crook of his arms, with the foliation fallirg down the sides of his shoulders. These leaves probably allude to the feathers of bird wings, and maize foliation is commonly portrayed as quetzal plumes in Classic Maya art (see Taube 2000: 313). In what may be the westernmost known depiction of the maize god emerging out the carth turtle, an Ulua style vessel portrays the deity with wing-like emanations fon the sides of his upraised arms (Fig. 4a) Another Late Classic vessel portrays the maize g0d emerging waist out of the earth, recalling the sides of the sarcophagus of K’inich Janab Pakal of Palenque (Fig. 4b). As in the case of the Copan style jade, he wears the headdress of the Principal Bird Deity with maize foliation In addition, he displays wing-like growth on the sides of his upper arms. According to Karl A, Taube Rafael Girard (1962: 157), the modern Ch’orti refer to the first green sprouts of the com plant as “wings of the parakeet (alas de perico)”. More specifically, Girard (ibid.: 159) described these as two small leaves that flank the central shoot, strikingly similar to the pair of wings at the sides of the Classic Maya maize god. It is quite likely that the foliated wings of the maize god allude to growing maize rising out of the earth into the sky. Fig. 4 Classic Maya maize gods with wing-ke foliation on arms. (a) Probable scene of maize god emerging from turtle, detall of Late Classic Ulua- style polychrome (after Arte Primitivo 2008: no. 429), (b) Maize god with headdress of Principal Bird Deity and wings, detail of Late Classic vase (after Photograph by ‘Justin. Kerr, wiww.mayavase.com [k8540). (c) Copan style jade portraying maize god ‘seated atop Huk K'an toponym with Principal Bird Deity headdress and maize foliation resembling wings (after Sotheby's 1981: no. 76). Painted in a style similar to the exterior of Pinturas Sub-IA at San Bartolo, the Late Preclassic Str. SD-Sub.10-Ist from the North Acropolis at Tikal also features a small incised sgraffito of a dancing maize god (Fig. 5b). The Tikal maize god has his teft arm upraised and his right pointing down in a clear gesture of dance. A similar gesture appears with a Late Classic image of the maize god emerging from the earth turtle, although in this case the right arm is not pointing downward, only the hand (Fig. Se). I suspect that this striking pose denotes flight as well as dance, and evokes the lifted wing of a bird engaged in spiraling tums. One of three dancing avian maize godsMaize God and the Mythic Origins of Dance portrayed on an Early Classic bow! adopts the same pose, with one winged arm up and the other down (Fig. Sd). An Early Classic stuece- painted vase from Kaminaljuyu depicts four dancing Principal Bird Deity figures, with one displaying the same lifted arm position (Fig Se). The principal painting from Oxtotitlan Cave, Guerrero, depicts an Olmec figure in a masked bird costume clearly displaying the raised arm dance gesture denoting flight (Fig 5a). Although the figure is clearly seated, he is atop 8 zoomorphic head with crossed band eyes, the Olmec form of the plumed serpent a7 loralemon 1971: Figs. 248-249). In other words, the serpent seat may be his vehicle for supematural flight. The same pose can also be found in an Early Formative male sculpture excavated at San Lorenzo, although in this case the right arm is raised rather than the left (see Cyphers 2004: 256-7). As the head and most of the arms are missing, itis impossible to discern whether he had wings or a bird mask or headdress. However, the figure has a highly unusual costume detail, a loincloth covered with feathers, suggesting that he also is in avian costume Fig. 5. Figures with upraised arm dancing pose denoting fight. (a) Olmec figure in avian costume, detail of mural {rom Oxtotitlan Cave (after Grove 1970, frontspieze). () Incised grafito of Late Preclassic Maya dancing maize ‘god fram Structure §D-sub.3A, Tikal (after Tik and Kampen 1983: Fig. 83g). (c) Principal Bid Deity figure ‘dancing with upraised arm, detail of Early Classic stucco-painted vase, Kaminalluyu (after Kidder ef al. 1946: Fig, 207e). (d) Dancing avian maize god with upraised arm, detail of Early lassic bow (after Helmuth 1987: 267). (2) Dancing maize god with upraised arm emerging fom turtle carapace, detail from Late Classic Maya vase (from Taube 1993: 66).48 Turtle Earth and the Corn Dance of Resurrection To the north of the world trees, the West Wall features a remarkable tableau portraying the earth turtle and the birth, death and resurrection of the maize god (see Saturno et al, 20053; Saturno 2006). At the southem portion of the scene, a deity standing knee deep in water cradles the infant maize god in his arms, while the northern region features a ‘maize god diving into water, probably an early reference to the och ha’, or “enters the wate.” death event epigraphically mentioned for Classic Maya kings and the maize god in his mythic journey through the underworld. In the center, there is the earth turtle with its carapace in the form of a cave quatrefoil. The cave is ‘occupied by enthroned water gods, with the side to viewer's left being Chahk, the god of rain and lightning. David Stuart (pers. con. 2004) notes that with its water scroll head ard beak-like mouth, the opposing figure can be identified as the god of terrestrial water, a being that appears epigraphically in Classic Maya script as the personified form of the 360- day Tun period as well as the numeral 13 (fora recent discussion of this being see Ishihara 2t al, 2006), In the center of the scene, the maize god dances while striking a turtle shell drum bound as a pectoral around his neck. Clearly enough, this scene constitutes an early versicn of the Classic period resurrection of the maize god out of the earth mrile (see Taube 1985, 1993). In one Late Classic vessel scene, the maize god engages in an explicit gesture of dance as he emerges from the carapace (Fig. Se). In addition, at his flanks are a pair of Chahk figures bearing lightning weapons, including a buming axe (for entire scene, see Taube 1993: 66). In another vessel scene, the emerging maize god is accompanied by a lightning wielding Chahk and another deity striking a turtle shell drum (see Kerr 1997: 730 [K731)). The frequent appearance of Chahk in scenes with the turtle shell drum strongly suggests that the sound of this instrument denotes thunder. IF this be the case, the natural act of lightning striking the earth is music making on a cosmic scale, with thunder resounding from the carapace of the earth turtle. When the maize god emerges, he rises ‘out ofthe thundering earth in dance. Many Late Classic Maya vessel scenes portray the dressing of the maize god for his Karl A, Taube underworld joumey of death and rebirth (see Taube 1985; Freidel ef al. 1993: 89.95; Quenon and Le Fort 1997). An Barly Classic bow! in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, apparently constitutes an early version of the scenes of the hero twins and women dressing the maize god for his final dance of resurrection (Fig. 3c). The scene portrays the spotted hero twin, Hun Ajaw, presenting the winged maize god with a mask and belt-celt assemblage, such as frequently appear on dance costumes at Copén, Quirigua and many other Classic Maya sites. The dressing of the maize god surely related to the funerary dressing of deceased Maya kings, who frequently appear apotheosized as. the maize god. For example, the temple of Structure 101-18 at Copan, the probable burial place of Yax Pasaj, featured in the round carvings of richly dressed dancing maize gods (Barbara Fash, pers. com. 1995). Stela 11, the columnar monument associated with "this building, features Yax Pasaj as the maize god standing atop the centipede maw of the underworld, The theme and composition of this monument is strikingly similar to the Sarcophagus Lid of K’inich Janab Pakal of Palenque, which portrays the king apotheosized as the maize god atop the centipede maw. In addition, the Palenque king also wears the turtle shell drum as a pectoral, as can also be seen for the dancing rebom ‘maize god in the San Bartolo scene. As one of the final fimeral rites for Pakal, » dance helt assemblage of mosaic masks and pendant celt plaques was placed atop the Sarcophagus Lid (Ruz Lhuillier 1973: 253, Figs. 184-6). As in the case of the Early Classic scene of the mask and pendant celts being presented to the maize kod, this belt was probably offered to the deceased king for his dance of resurrection. Aside from mortuary temples dedicated to deceased kings, there were surely other loci for Maya dances pertaining to the maize god. A likely example is the main plaza at Machaquila, which along with a massive quadruped turtle altar, also contains a sunken quatrefoil patio (see Graham 1967). As noted by Stuart and Houston (1994: 33), this same quatrefoil appears as the basal register on immediately adjacent stelac featuring Maya kings dancing in the guise of the god of terrestrial water, the same entity accompanying Chahk and the maize god in the San Bartolo turtle. In addition, Machaquila Stela 10 alsoMaize God and the Mythic Origins of Dance features the head of Chak within the quatrefoil, probably denoting it as a place of rain, lightning and thunder. Dating to roughly the 10° century AD, Structure SC17 from the Initial Series Group at Chichen Itza was almost surely place of dance concerning the maize god. A round platform in the form of a giant turtle, it is supplied with a sculpted head and paws on the eastern side and a tail to the west As Peter Schmidt (2007: 193) notes, this turtle platform may well have be a locus for dances and performances celebrating the mythic cycle of the maize god. “The turtle is a well-known symbol of origin and resurrection, birth and rebirth, and it is easy to imagine that scenes showing “the resurrection of the maize god,” like the ones on some Classic polychrome vessels... could have been re-enacted on this platform” (Schmidt 2007: 193). Structures pertaining to dances concerning the maize god continue into the Late Postelassic period, Page 34a of the Codex Dresden features a group of figures playing music and dancing around a stepped platform supporting the lifeless, severed head of the maize god. This scene may well concern a celebration for the freshly harvested green com, an extremely widespread tradition of dance performed among native peoples of Mesoamerica, the Greater Southwest and the eastern United States to this day Conclusions Much as Mary Miller noted, growing maize is inextricably interwoven with dance in ancient Maya thought. In her essay, Miller (1992: Fig. 3) illustrates a Late Classic Atta Verapaz style figurine of a maize god dancing with green ears of com, a probable reference to a harvest dance. With his large basket and tumpline the maize god within the San Bartolo turtle scene is probably also dancing with harvested maize (Fig. 6a). In contemporary Mesoamerica, including among the Cakchiquel Maya, Nahua of Veracruz and the Huichol of Nayarit, maize and images of the maize deity are carried in dances (Zingg 1938: 461-7; ‘Thompson 1970: 286; Sandstrom 1991: 295), Com dances are also common among native peoples of the United States. In a maize origin myth of the Seneka Iroquois of New York 49 state, a man witnessed the female com spirits and other beings of the harvest dancing in a ‘maize field: “he saw them — a great company ‘of Com people, Bean people and Squash people, and so far as he could see they were in all respects human beings. They danced in a slow gentle manner in imitation of the com stalks as they stand in the ground” (Curtin and Hewitt 1918: 652). Cleary enough, certain natural characteristics of com, including its tall, closely human scale and the similarity of maize silk to human hair could create entirely independent but similar interpretations among historically widely divergent cultures, However, certain aspects of the ancient Maya imagery” probably derived from historically shared traditions, such as the avian nature of this being, which appears among the Olmec as well as Classic cultures of Veracruz. For the ancient Maya, the maize god is closely related to the Principal Bird Deity, tnd can appear dressed in the guise of this bird. It is quite possible that the maize god mythically obtained the regalia of dance from the Principal Bird Deity, perhaps following his defeat at the hands of the hero twins. Although this remains conjectural, it is clear that dance closely related to the flight of birds in Classic Maya thought, with the Principal Bird Deity being the preeminent avian being. The many portrayals of Maya elite wearing feathered dance costumes may not only concern aesthetics, but also denotes them as partly avian and thereby celestial beings, Among the Classic Maya, dancing maize gods closely related to courily life, and reflected the beauty, health and abundant wealth of the ruler. However, in dance, the maize god could also symbolize" the resurrection of the deceased ruler as com ‘growing from the earth, At Late Preclassic San Bartolo and in Classic Maya imagery, this ‘mythic resurrection is portrayed by the maize ‘god rising out of the earth. This episode can be ‘raced to the Middle Formative Olmec, as serpentine pectoral from Tabasco depicts head of the infant aspect of the Olmec maize god atop a turtle carapace (Fig. 66). Mention has been made of the mythic cycle of the infant Homshuk and related maize gods of the contemporary Veracruz (see Braakhuis 1990), AAs with the daneing San Bartolo maize god, this being is also a musician. In Veracruz, the maize god finds his slain father after crossing a body of water. He then plays music to annoy his father’s killers (Elson 1947:205; Tehon50 Karl A. Taube Fig. 6. Portrayals of the maize god and the turtk in ancient and contemporary Mesoamerica. (a) Maize god ‘dancing in earth turtle with water god, detail of West Wall mural, Pinturas Sub-1A, San Bartolo (detal of drawing ‘courtesy of Heather Hurst, (b) Olmec serpentine plaque portraying head of infant Olmee maize god atop turle ‘carapace, Middle Formative period (from Taube 1996; Fig. 22c). (c) Tepehua infant maize god on back of turtle (after Willams Garcia, back cover) 1973: 73; Miinch 1983: 167). According. 10 ‘accounts of southern Veracruz, a turtle carries the maize god across the water, a theme sitikingly similar to the Maya portrayals of te maize god emerging out of turtle earth (Elson 1947: 205-207), For the Sierra Totonae, Nahva and Tepehua, the infant maize god is killed soon after his birth, and the ground com of hs body is cast into a pool of water. From com specks falling atop the turtle’s back, the maize god rises newly reborn (Williams Garcia 1972 88; Ichon 1973: 74-5; Olguin 1993: 122). In his publication conceming Tepehua myths, Williams Garcia illustrates the infant maize god lying prone atop the turtle (Fig. 6c). Moreover, according to a Popoluca version of this myth (See Elson 1947: 205), the maize deity beats a turtle carapace, the same drum pounded by the dancing maize god at San Bartolo over two thousand years before. References Ate Primitivo 2006 Fine Pre-Columbian and Tribal drt, Auction 39. New York: Howard S. Rose Gallery Inc Bardawil, Laurence W. 1916 ‘The Priacipal Bird Deity in Maya Ar — An Tconographic Study of Form and Meaning. In: The Art, Ieonography and Dynasti« History of Palenque, Part Ii The Proceedings of the Segunda Mesa Redonda de Palenque, edited by Merle Greene Roberton: 195-210, Pebble each: The Robert Louls Stevenson School. Benson, Elizabeth P, and Beatriz de l Fuente (eds) 1996" Olmec art of ancient Mexico. Washington, D.C. National Gallery of Ar. ‘Braakhuls, Edwin M, 1990 The Bitter Flour: Birth Scenes ofthe Tonsured Maize God. In: Mesoamerican Duism / Dualismo Mesoamericano, edited by Rudolf van. Zantwijk, Rob de Ridder and Edwin Breaknuis: 125-47, Utrecht ISOR. (Carrasco Vargas, Ramén, and Marinés Coléa Gonzsler 2005 El reino de Kaun y la antigua ciudad maya de Calakmul. Argueologia Mexicana 13(75): 40- a,Maize God and the Mythic Origins of Dance Culbert, 7. Paik 1993. The Ceramics of Tikal: Vessels from tue Burts, Caches and Problematcal’Deposts ‘Tikal Report No. 25, Pa A. Philadelphia: Te University Muscum, University f Pennsylvania, Cann, Jeremiah nd ELN.B, Heit 1918.” Seneca Fletons, Legends ond Moth, Part 1 Thirty-Second Amal Report ofthe Bureau 9f American Ethology. Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Istiution. Cyphers, Amn 2008 Ereultra Olneca de San Lorenzo Tenockiln Menico City" Museo Nacional Auténoma de México. Dati, Diego W911" Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient CCalendor, translated by Fernando Horeasins tnd. Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Pres. son, Ben 1947" The Homsbuk: A Siera Popoluca Test alocan 2G): 193-214. Field, Virginia and Davie Reens-Budet (eds) 2005" The Lords of Creation: The Origins of Sacred Maye Kinghip London: Scala Publishes, Ltd rede, Davi, Linda Scele,and Joy Paker 1993." Maya Cosmos: 3000 Years on the Shams Path. ‘New York: William” Morow "and ‘Company. Garbay, Angel Maia 1979" Teogonia « Historia de lag Mexicanos: Tres ‘placuls del siglo XVI, 3" ef, Mexico Cit: Eitri Pama Girard, Rafael 1962." Los Mayas Blernos. Mexico Cit: Libro Mex Graham, fan 1967" drchasological Explorations inl Peter, Guatemala Middle American Research Insite, Pub. 33. Now Orleans: Tule Universi. Grove, David C 1910" The Olmee Paintings of Oxcotlan Care. Guerra. Mexico. Seaies in Pre-Columbinn Ad and. Archaeology 6. Washington, D.C Dumbarton Oaks Research Library aid Colleton Hellmuth, Nicholas M. 1987" Monster und Menschen tn der Maya-Kurt (raz: Akagomische Drocicund Veragsansat Hil Jane, 1993 "The Flower World of Old Uto-Aztcan.Joural of Anthropological Research 48: 117-44. Houston, Stephen, David Star and Keel A. Teube 1992. Image and Text onthe “Jauney Vas" In: The Mager Vare Book, edited by Justin Kerr: 458- S12. New York: Ker Associates. Houston, Stephen, and Karl A. Taube 2008" Meaning in Early May Imagery. To sppeae n Teonograpy Without Tex, eated by PC “Taylor London: The Warburg Insti Ichon, Alia 1973 La religion de fos Totonacos de ta siera Mexico Cit: Insitute Nacional ndgenista Ishihara, Reiko, Kat A. Taube, and Jaime J Awe 2006" The Water Lily Stucco Masks at Cars, Belize, Research" Reports in Beliess Archaeology, Volume 313-2, 51 Joralemon, Peter David 1971 A Siudy of Olmse Iconography. Studies in Pre- Columbian Art and Archaeology 7. ‘Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Kerr, Justin (ed) 1997 The Maya Vase Book, vol. 5. New York: Ker ‘Associates, 2000 The Maya Vase Book, vol. 6. New York: Kerr Associates Kidder, Alffed V., Jesse D. Jes Shook 1945 Excavations at Kaminaljion Guatemala Camegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 361. Washington, D.C: Camegie Institution of ‘Washington Miller, Mary Elen 1992.’ The Image of People and Nature in Classic Maya Art and Architecture, In: The Ancient Americas: Art from Sacred Landscapes, edited by Richard F. Townsend: 158-69. Chicago: The ‘Ar Institute of Chicago, Munch, Guido 1983 | Einologia det Itmo Veracruzano. Mexico City ‘Universidad Nacional Auténoma de México, Olguin, Enriqueta 1993 Cémo nacié Chicomexéchitl. In: Practicas cagricolasy medicina tadicional, arte y sociedad: Seleceidn de trabajos pertenccientes fal Vy Il encueniros de investigadares de la Hiuasieca, edited by esis Ruvaleabe. and Graciela Aleli: 115-139, Mexico City: Ciesas, Parsons, Lee Allen 1986" The Origins of Maya Art: Monumental Stone Sculpture of Kemnay, Guatemala, and the ‘Southern Pacific Coast. Studies in Pre- Columbian Art and Archaeology — 28 ‘Washington, D.C: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Proskouriakof, Tatiana 1962 Civic and Religious Stuctues of Mayapan. In: Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, contributors HED. Pollok, Ralph L:_ Roys, 7 roskourikoff and A. Ledyard Smith: 87-163 Washington, D.C: Camegie Tnstttion of Washington. Quenoa, Michel, and Genevidve Le Fort 1997 Rebirth and Resurection in Maize God Teonography. In: The Maya Vase Boot, vo. 5, ‘edited by Justin Ker: 884-902. New Yark: Kerr ‘Associates, Ruz Lhuillier, Alberto 1973 El Tamplo de tas Inscripciones, Palenque. Mexico" City: Instituto Nacional de ‘Antropologia¢ Historia, Sandstrom, Alan R. 1991 Corn is Our Blood: Culture and Eiic Kdemiy in a Contemporary Aztec Vilage. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, Satumo, William 2006” The Dawn of Maya Gods and Kings. National Geographic, January: 68-77 Saturo, William, Karl A. Taube, and David Stuart 2008a” La idenificacin de as figuras del Muro Oeste de Pinturas Sub-I, San Bartolo, Petéa. In: XVII Simposio de Investigaciones “Arqueotégicas en Guatemala, 2004, edited by Suan Pedro Laporte, Bérbara Arroyo, and Héctor Mejia: 616-655. Guatemala City Instituto de Antopologia e Historia and Edwin M.82. 2005 The Murals of San Bartolo, EI Petén Guatemala, Part 1; The North Wall, Ancient ‘Ameria 7, Baradsville and Washington, D.C. ‘Center for Ancient American Studies. Schmidt, Peter 2007" Birds, Ceramics and Cacao: New Excavations ‘a Chichén Ties, Yueatan, In; Twin Tollars: (Chiehén Id, Tul, and the Epclassic to Early Postelasic. Mesoamerican World, edited Jef Karl Kowalski, and Cynthia Krista Graham: 151-203.” Washington, D.C: Dumbarion Oaks Research Library and Collection Sotheby's I981 The Bogousslavsky Collection of Pre- Columbian drt. New York: Sotheby Parce Beret Ine. ‘Stuart, Davi, and Stephen Houston 1994 Classic Maya Place Names. Studies in Pae- Columbian” Art and Archacology 33. ‘Washington, D.C. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. A. 1985 " The Classic Maya Maize God: A Reappaist In: Fifth Palengue Round Table, 1983, editd by Merle Greene Robertson: 171-81. Sin Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Insti 1993 stec and Maya Myths. London: British ‘Museum Press 1996 The Olmec Maize God: The Face of Com in Formative Mesoamerica. RES: Anthropology and destheres 9/30: 39-81 1998 The Jade Hearth: Centrality, Rolership, and the Classic Maya Temple. in: Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Stephen D. Houston: 427-78. Washington, D.C:: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library aad Collection, 2000 Lightning Celts and Com Fetishes: The Formative Olmec and the Development of Maize Symbolism in Mesoamerica and the ‘American Southwest. In: Olmec Art ard Archacology: Social Complexity in tae Formative Period, edited by John E. Clark, aad Mary E, Pye: 296-337. Washington, D.C. ‘National Gallery of Art 20014 Dance. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, edited by David Carrasco: 305-308. Oxford: Oxford University Pres. 20016 ‘The Breath of Life: The Symbolism of Wind in “Mesoamerica and the American Southwest, The Road to Aztlan: Art From a Mythic ‘Homeland, edted by Virginia M. Fields, and Vietor Zamucio-Taylor: 102-23. Los Angeles: [Los Angeles County Museum of Ar 2004a Flower Mountain: Concepts of Life, Beauty and Paradise among. the Classic Maya RES! Anthropology an Aesthties 45: 69-98, 2004 Olmec Art at Dumbarton Oaks. Washington, D.C: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection 2005 The Symbolism of Jade in Classic Maya Religion. Ancient Mesoamerica 16: 23-50 Karl A. Taube ‘Thompson, 1 Ere, 1970" Maya History and Religion. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ‘rik, Helen, and Michael E. Kampen 1983 The Grafiti of Tikal. Tikal Report No. 31 Philadelphia: ‘The University Museum, ‘University of Pennsylvania, Williams Garcia, Roberto 1972 Mitas Tepehuas. Mexico City: Sectrtaria de Educacin Pablica Zing, Rober W. 1938" The Hhichols: Primitive Artists. Contibutions to Ethnography, University of Denver, . New ‘York: GLE. Stechert and Company.