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Ugmath2012 Solutions PDF
Ugmath2012 Solutions PDF
ln(12)
A3. Show that ln(18) is irrational.
ln(12)
ln(18)= log18 (12). Suppose this is rational, say = ab where a, b are integers with b 6= 0.
a
Then 18 b = 12, so 18a = 12b . By factoring into primes this gives 32a 2a = 3b 22b , which
by unique factorization can happen only if 2a = b and a = 2b. But this gives a = b = 0,
ln(2)
a contradiction. (Alternatively and similarly, prove that r = ln(3) is irrational and show
ln(12) ln 3+2 ln 2 1+2r
that rationality of ln(18) = 2 ln 3+ln a = 2+r would force r to be rational as well.)
There is a positive constant c such that tan1 ( 3 +sin x) > c for any x, e.g. c = tan1 (0.04)
will work since > 3.12, sin(x) 1 and tan1 is an increasing function. Moreover
ln(x) < x for x > 0. So the given ratio is sandwiched between 0 and x101 /cex . Now use
LHospitals rule repeatedly.
1
A5. a) n identical chocolates are to be distributed among the k students in Tinkus class.
Find the probability that Tinku gets at least one chocolate, assuming that the n chocolates
are handed out one by one in n independent steps. At each step, one chocolate is given to
a randomly chosen student, with each student having equal chance to receive it.
b) Solve the same problem assuming instead that all distributions are equally likely. You
are given that the number of such distributions is n+k1
k1 . (Here all chocolates are con-
sidered interchangeable but students are considered different.)
B1. a) Find a polynomial p(x) with real coefficients such that p( 2 + i) = 0.
Non-real
roots of a polynomial with
real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs. p(x) =
2
(x ( 2 + i))(x ( 2 i)) = x 2 2x + 3 works.
b) Find a polynomial
q(x) with rational coefficients and having the smallest possible degree
such that
q( 2 + i) = 0. Show that any other polynomial with rational coefficients and
having 2 + i as a root has q(x) as a factor.
2 + i satisfies x2 2 2x + 3 = 0, i.e., x2 + 3 = 2 2x and so satisfies (x2 + 3)2 =
8x2 . So q(x) = (x2 + 3)2 8x2 works. A cubic with rational coefficients will not work
because, after
dividing by the necessarily rational leading coefficient, it must be of the
2
form (x 2 2x + 3)(x r). This forces the coefficients 3r and 2 2 r to be both
rational, which is impossible.
Let f (x) be a polynomial with rational coefficients such that f ( 2 + i) = 0. Divide f (x)
by q(x) using long division to get quotient a(x) andremainder b(x), both polynomials
with rational coefficients.
Using f ( 2 + i) = 0 and q( 2 + i) = 0 in the equation f (x) =
q(x)a(x) + b(x) gives b( 2 + i) = 0. Now if the remainder b(x)is a nonzero polynomial,
then it would have rational coefficients, degree less than 4 and 2 + i as a root. But we
just proved that this is impossible. Hence b(x) = 0, i.e., f (x) is a multiple of q(x).
B2. a) Let E, F, G and H respectively be the midpoints of the sides AB, BC, CD and
DA of a convex quadrilateral ABCD. Show that EFGH is a parallelogram whose area is
half that of ABCD.
2
Consider the diagonals AC and BD. By the basic proportionality theorem in triangle ABC,
we get that EF and AC are parallel and AC = 2 EF. Moreover, ABC and EBF are similar.
Using triangles ADC and HDG, we similarly get that AC is parallel to HG, AC = 2 HG.
Thus EF and HG are parallel. Likewise FG and EH are parallel (both parallel to BD), so
EFGH is a parallelogram. Also by similarity, Area(ABC) = 4 Area(EBF), Area(ADC) =
4 Area(HDG), Area(BAD) = 4 Area(EAH) and Area(BCD) = 4 Area(FCG). (Note. So
far convexity of ABCD is unnecessary. But the next steps need it, draw pictures and see.)
Area(EFGH) = Area(ABCD) [Area(EBF) + Area(FCG) + Area(GDH) + Area(HAE)]
= Area(ABCD) 41 [Area(ABC)+ Area(BCD) + Area(CDA) + Area(DAB)]
= Area(ABCD) 12 Area(ABCD) = 12 Area(ABCD).
b) Let E = (0, 0), F = (0, 1), G = (1, 1), H = (1, 0). Find all points A = (p, q) in the
first quadrant such that E, F, G and H respectively are the midpoints of the sides AB,
BC, CD and DA of a convex quadrilateral ABCD.
B3. a) We want to choose subsets A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak of {1, 2, . . . , n} such that any two of the
chosen subsets have nonempty intersection. Show that the size k of any such collection of
subsets is at most 2n1 .
b) For n > 2 show that we can always find a collection of 2n1 subsets A1 , A2 , . . . of
{1, 2, . . . , n} such that any two of the Ai intersect, but the intersection of all Ai is empty.
There are many ways to build such a collection, e.g., take all 2n1 subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n}
containing 1, remove the singleton set {1} and instead include its complement. OR
Note that for n = 3, the four sets {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3} give a (unique) solution.
For n > 3 take the union of each of these 4 sets with all 2n3 subsets of {4, . . . , n}. OR
For n = 2k + 1, takeall subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n} of size > k. Any two of these will intersect.
Now use ni = ni n
. For n = 2k, take all subsets of size > k along with half the subsets
of size k, namely those containing a fixed number. (Check the details.)
3
B4. Define
10 9
X 1 1 X 1 1
x= and y= .
i=1
10 3 1 + ( 10i3 )2 i=0
10 3 1 + ( 10i3 )2
x+y
Show that a) x < 6 < y and b) 2 < 6 . (Hint: Relate these sums to an integral.)
a) Let f (t) = 1/(1 + t2 ). Then y and x are respectively the left and right hand
Riemann
1
sums for f over the interval [0, 3 ] using 10 equal parts, each of width 1/10 3. Since f is
a positive decreasing function, y overestimates the area under f over the given interval and
1
R 1/3 1
1/ 3
x underestimates it. The area under f over [0, 3 ] is 0 f (t)dt = tan (t)|0 = 6 , so
x < 6 < y. Note. Different normalizations are possible for f , e.g., the more simpleminded
choice f (t) = 1013 1+( 1t )2 considered over the interval [0,10] will work too.
10 3
the graph of f .
B5. Using the steps below, find the value of x2012 + x2012 , where x + x1 = 5+1
2 .
a) For any real r, show that |r + r1 | 2. What does this tell you about the given x?
Because of the absolute value we may assume that rp> 0 by replacing r with r if
necessary.
1
Now use AM-GM inequality or the fact that ( r 1/r) 0. Since x+x = 5+1
2
2 < 2,
given x must be a non-real (complex) number.
b) Show that cos( 5 ) = 5+1
4 , e.g. compare sin( 2 3
5 ) and sin( 5 ).
Let = 5 . Then sin(2) = sin( 2) = sin(3). Using the formulas for sin(2) and
sin(3), canceling sin (it is nonzero) and substituting sin2 = 1 cos2, gives the
quadratic equation 4 cos2 2 cos 1 = 0. Since cos > 0, we get cos = 5+1
4 .
c) Combine conclusions of parts a and b to express x and therefore the desired quantity
in a suitable form.
4
B6. For n > 1, a configuration consists of 2n distinct points in a plane, n of them red, the
remaining n blue, with no three points collinear. A pairing consists of n line segments, each
with one blue and one red endpoint, such that each of the given 2n points is an endpoint
of exactly one segment. Prove the following.
a) For any configuration, there is a pairing in which no two of the n segments intersect.
(Hint: consider total length of segments.)
For any configuration, there are only finitely many pairings. Choose one with least possible
total length of segments. Here no two of the n segments can interest, because if RB and
R0 B 0 intersect in point X then we get a contradiction as follows. Using triangle inequality
in triangles RXB 0 and R0 XB, we get RB 0 + R0 B < RB + R0 B 0 (draw a picture). So
replacing RB and R0 B 0 with R0 B and RB 0 would give a pairing with smaller total length.
b) Given n red points (no three collinear), we can place n blue points such that any pairing
in the resulting configuration will have two segments that do not intersect. (Hint: First
consider the case n = 2.)
For n = 2, place the two blue points on opposite sides of the line passing through the given
two red points. There are two possible pairings and the two segments in either one do not
intersect. We use a similar idea in general. Given n red points, find a triangle ABC such
that A is a red point and all other red points are inside triangle ABC. (This is always
possible. Why?) Place one blue point at B and all other blue points in the region opposite
to triangle ABC at vertex C. (More precisely, let C be between A and A0 and also between
B and B 0 . Place the remaining blue points inside triangle A0 CB 0 .) Now in any pairing, if
A and B are connected, then AB will not intersect any other segment. Otherwise the two
segments having A and B as vertices will not intersect. Draw a picture to see this.
B7. A sequence of integers cn starts with c0 = 0 and satisfies cn+2 = acn+1 + bcn for
n 0, where a and b are integers. For any positive integer k with gcd(k, b) = 1, show that
cn is divisible by k for infinitely many n.
Consider pairs of consecutive entries of the sequence modulo k, i.e., (cn , cn+1 ), where a
denotes a modulo k. Since there are only finitely many possibilities (namely k 2 ), some pair
of consecutive residues will repeat. Suppose (ci , ci+1 ) = (ci+p , ci+p+1 ) for some i. We will
show that in fact the previous equation holds for all i, i.e., whole sequence of consecutive
pairs is periodic. This will prove in particular that (c0 , c1 ) = (cp , cp+1 ) = (c2p , c2p+1 ) = .
Since c0 = 0 is divisible by k, so is cip for all i.
The equation cn+2 = acn+1 + bcn shows that bcn = cn+2 acn+1 . Now gcd(k, b) = 1 means
b is invertible modulo k, i.e., there is a b0 with bb0 = 1. Therefore cn = b0 (cn+2 acn+1 ).
Thus knowing a pair of consecutive residues uniquely determines the previous residue
(this is why we considered pairs of residues). Therefore (ci , ci+1 ) = (ci+p , ci+p+1 ) implies
(ci1 , ci ) = (ci+p1 , ci+p ) and (by the given recurrence) (ci+1 , ci+2 ) = (ci+p+1 , ci+p+2 ).
Thus the whole sequence (cn , cn+1 ) becomes periodic as soon as a single such pair repeats.
5
B8. Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients such that for each nonnegative
integer n, f (n) = a perfect power of a prime number, i.e., of the form pk , where p is prime
and k a positive integer. (p and k can vary with n.) Show that f must be a constant
polynomial using the following steps or otherwise.
a) If such a polynomial f (x) exists, then there is a polynomial g(x) with integer coefficients
such that for each nonnegative integer n, g(n) = a perfect power of a fixed prime number.
B9. Let N be the set of non-negative integers. Suppose f : N N is a function such that
f (f (f (n))) < f (n + 1) for every n N . Prove that f (n) = n for all n using the following
steps or otherwise.
a) If f (n) = 0, then n = 0.
Let f (n) = 0. If n > 0, then n 1 is in the domain of f and f (f (f (n 1))) < f (n) = 0,
which is a contradiction, since 0 is the smallest possible value of f . (Note that this does
NOT prove that f (0) = 0, only that if f (some n) = 0, then that n = 0. In fact proving
f (0) = 0 along with part a would essentially solve the problem, see below.)
6
f (f (m)) < f (m + 1). Apply part b to this with x = f (m) and n = f (m + 1) to get
f (m) < f (m + 1). Again apply part b to get m < f (m + 1).
By part c, f is increasing and f (n) n. If f (n) > n, then f (f (n)) > f (n) (since f
is increasing) and so f (f (n)) > n, i.e., f (f (n)) n + 1. Again, since f is increasing,
f (f (f (n))) f (n + 1), a contradiction.
Alternative solution after part a. Let us prove f (0) = 0. We know that f (n) = 0
implies n = 0, so n > 0 implies f (n) > 0. Applying this to any positive f (k), we get
f (f (k)) > 0. Denoting f (f (k)) = x, we therefore get f (f (f (x 1))) < f (x) = f (f (f (k))).
This means that for k such that f (f (f (k))) is the smallest number in {f (f (f (n)))|n 0},
we must have f (k) = 0. In particular 0 is in the range of f , so by part a f (0) = 0.
Since f (n) = 0 for no other n, we may restrict the function f by deleting 0 from the
domain and the range. The resulting function would satisfy f (f (f (n))) < f (n + 1) for
every n > 0. Repeat the reasoning substituting 1 (the new lowest element of the domain
and the range) for 0 and conclude f (1) = 1. Then restrict to n > 1 and show f (2) = 2
and so on.