Atomic number 14

Density, 20 C (68 F) 2.34 g/cm3

Atomic weight 28.09
Melting point 1412 C (2573 F)
Boiling point 2355 C (4270 F)

GENERAL

Silicon, the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (25.7%), is present in
virtually all steels, either as a residual from ore, scrap or deoxidants, or as an
intentional addition.

Silicon products used in steelmaking are produced from quartzite, silica sand or by a
variety of processes, almost all of which currently use submerged arc electric
furnaces as reaction vessels. Low grade ferrosilicon was once made in blast
furnaces, but the practice has now been completely discontinued in the U.S.
Ultrahigh purity silicon, not intended for steelmaking, may be produced by reducing
intermediate silicon compounds with hydrogen.

AVAILABLE FORMS

Because of its many uses, silicon is contained in a wide variety of addition agents.
Some of these are simply used to add silicon and have general application; in others,
the silicon serves as a carrier for other elements.

Ferrosilicon is by far the most common addition agent. It is available in several

standard grades containing from 15 to 95% Si. Of these, the 75% grade is the most
widely used. The 75% FeSi grade is exothermic while 50% FeSi is endothermic.
Significant impurities in ferrosilicon include carbon (up to 0.25%, but generally less
than 0.10%) and aluminum (generally 1-1.5%, but lower, 0.10%, or higher, to 2%, in
certain grades). Manganese will usually be present as well, but not over 0.40%
unless specified. In all cases, phosphorus and sulfur contents are restricted to low
residual levels: in general they will not exceed 0.025 and 0.040%, respectively.

Standard foundry grades of ferrosilicon specify aluminum and calcium (0.50-1.50%).

Silicon contents parallel those for steelmaking ferrosilicon. Ductile iron foundries also
use magnesium ferrosilicon in both 5 and 9% magnesium grade with or without
cerium, calcium and/or aluminum.

Silicon-bearing deoxidizers on the market include: calcium silicon, calcium barium

silicon, calcium barium silicon aluminum (Hypercal), calcium manganese silicon,
silicon carbide and ferrosilicon zirconium. Silicon metal (97.5%) is used for
superalloys, silicones, and nonferrous applications.

Ferrosilicon and related alloys are generally sold in lump or granular form. Standard
sizes range from 8 in. x D to as fine as 8 mesh x D. Coarser lumps are used for
better slag penetration during deoxidation; finer sizes insure rapid dissolution when
used as an alloying addition. Ferrosilicon is fairly friable and excessive handling will
generate unwanted fines. Calcium silicon is exceedingly friable and must be handled
carefully.

Silicon carbide (SiC) is usually in a granular form. Sizing is 3/8 in. x D, 3/8 in. x 100
mesh, or 3/8 in. x 65 mesh depending on the need to control fines. Larger sizes are
available up to 3 in. x 1 in., but only from producers using "big furnace" technology.
Inerts are primarily silica and alumina. Petroleum coke and charcoal based silicon
carbide usually runs 4-6% SiO2 and less than 1% Al2O3. Coal based SiC has 2-4%
SiO2 and 2-5% Al2O3. The higher alumina in coal based SiC has proven to be a
problem in continuous cast silicon killed steels.

ADDITION PRACTICE

The way in which silicon is used in steelmaking depends on the intended purpose of
the addition, the practice involved, the condition of the steel, the aim residual silicon
level, and the experience and preference of the individual operator. All these factors
are implicitly related to the strong deoxidizing power of silicon which, at 1600 C
(2910 F), ranks between manganese and titanium, but well below calcium. The
deoxidizing power of silicon relative to that of carbon depends on pressure, i.e., on
the partial pressure of CO above the melt. At one atmosphere, as in the furnace or
an open ladle, silicon is slightly stronger than carbon; at low pressures (0.10 atm or
less), as in a vacuum degasser, the deoxidizing power of carbon is greater than
silicon, especially at higher carbon concentrations.

Silicon is the first major element removed from hot metal during melt down and is a
major source of heat. If the silicon from the blast furnace iron is too low, the
steelmaker may add ferrosilicon or silicon carbide for additional heat. Residual
silicon levels will not exceed about 0.02% after melt down. In stainless steel melting,
silicon additions may be made to the furnace to maintain silicon levels above 0.3% to
maximize chromium recovery. Two points should be emphasized here:

(1) Although silicon is a stronger deoxidizer than manganese, when the two
elements are used together (either separately or as silicomanganese) they leave a
much lower oxygen level in the steel. This is because their joint deoxidation product
will be a manganese silicate, in which the activity of silicon is considerably less than
it would be if silica were the only product formed. It should be noted that the
effectiveness of manganese in increasing silicon's deoxidizing power decreases with
increasing silicon content: the increase caused by 0.8% Mn is about ten times
greater at 0.05% Si than at 0.2% Si.

(2) Preliminary furnace deoxidation with ferrosilicon should be done with care since
silicon has the power to reduce P2O5 in the slag. Thus, if slag phosphorus content is
high and the slag is not flushed, it may remain insufficiently basic after the
ferrosilicon addition. These conditions can lead to phosphorus reversion in the heat,
especially if the slag is hot, and the bath analysis after block exceeds about 0.10% Si
and 0.40% Mn at carbon levels over 0.15%.

Modern practice aims to keep expensive furnace time as short as possible, tapping
the heat "open" and relying mostly on ladle deoxidation. Ferrosilicon and
silicomanganese become the primary deoxidizers. The amount of silicon added will
depend on tap temperature and oxygen content and the residual silicon level needed
after solidification.

Fully killed steels usually contain silicon in the range 0.15-0.30% Si. Exceptions are
steels in which silicon is also an alloying agent, in which case silicon content will be
somewhat higher, or aluminum killed steels such as AKDQ, where it is not needed at
all. As a general rule, alloy steels and most medium carbon steels will be fully killed
with ferrosilicon, even if only as a protection against reoxidation.

Steels to which the elements titanium, zirconium, and rare earth metals are added
(for inclusion shape control, or as nitrogen scavengers to protect subsequent or
concurrent boron additions) will be deoxidized first with ferrosilicon for reasons of
economy. These elements combine readily with oxygen and will be lost to the slag or
remain trapped as oxide inclusions if the steel has been inadequately deoxidized. An
inexpensive prior deoxidation therefore raises their ultimate recovery or improves
their efficiency as nitrogen scavengers, as the case may be.

Silicon carbide is added in three areas. As a ladle addition for silicon killed steel,
granular SiC is added to the stream or directly into the ladle after at least 10% filled.
Silicon recovery will be similar to that of 75% FeSi, while carbon recovery will be
near 100%. In furnace applications (slag reduction), SiC is injected into the slag at
the end of the oxygen blow. Moderate foaming occurs, which aids arc energy
transfer to final temperature. One pound SiC will reduce 5.8 lbs. of FeO, 5.6 lbs.
MnO, or 3.8 lbs. Cr2O3. It will react first with whichever of these oxides is present in
the highest concentration. As a BOF fuel, SiC is added as briquettes or 96% Lump
product into the BOF after scrap melt down and preliminary oxygen blow. SiC fuel
component may be added into the stream during the blow as the need for additional
temperature becomes apparent or is predetermined for the computer program.
Additional lime is not required when using cement based SiC briquettes, but may be
needed to offset the SiO2 produced when using the 96% Lump material. SiC can be
used for chemical heating in the BOF, where hot metal is short or where there is an
economic advantage to using a higher percentage of scrap.

SiC is added to the foundry cupola charge as cement bonded bricks typically
containing 36% SiC with 20 - 30% free carbon, to 75% SiC with almost no free
carbon. Si recovery is usually 70 - 85%. In induction melting, 90% metallurgical grain
is added for Si and C pickup and to deoxidize the bath. In heel melt applications, SiC
is added before the charge metal. In batch melt furnaces, SiC is added after,
between 1/4 and 1/2 the charge is in. Sprue is added first when batch melting and
steel added first in heel melt operations.

ROLLING/FORGING
Silicon strengthens ferrite and, to a lesser degree, austenite by solid solution
hardening. Mill loads will therefore increase nominally with increasing silicon content.
Strengthening is accompanied by a reduction in ductility, although this has little effect
on workability at the silicon levels found in ordinary alloy steels. High silicon steels
such as the electrical grades (see below) are quite brittle and require special care
during cold rolling to the extent that hand mills are still sometimes used on special
high-quality grades.

Silicon steels have a reduced tendency to scale at elevated temperatures, but such
scale as does form will be more difficult to remove during pickling.

Silicon has a mild hardenability effect. Its multiplying factor is between that of
chromium (higher) and nickel (lower). Silicon is therefore not added to steels for
deep hardening, its function in heat treated steels being primarily to strengthen the
ferrite in which carbides appear. Silicon is a graphitizer and, like nickel, has limited
application in tool steels. It is used, however, in a class of oil hardening graphitic tool
steels, AISI 06, as well as an air hardening graphitic tool steel, AISI A10, and two
shock resisting tool steels, AISI S2 and S5.

Silicon lowers the eutectoid carbon content but raises the eutectoid temperature. It is
a ferrite former and when present in sufficient concentration, closes the g-loop
completely. The effect is strongly dependent on carbon content: 2.25% Si will close
the g-loop at <0.02% C, but some austenite will remain when carbon increases
beyond 0.05%. Silicon may increase the tendency to 260 C (500 F) embrittlement
and will have a slight, though detrimental, effect on temper embrittlement. It raises
the impact transition temperature (ITT) but does contribute to solid solution
strengthening.

APPLICATIONS

The solid solution strengthening properties of silicon are exploited in several classes
of steels including HSLA grades and such ultrahigh strength steels as 300-M (1.6%
Si). Silicon is present in AISI/SAE heat treatable alloy steels because these products
are always produced in the fully killed condition. Additionally, however, silicon
confers a modest resistance to tempering (it does not produce secondary
hardening).

Silicon improves high temperature oxidation resistance and is therefore intentionally

added to heat resisting Cr-Mo and Cr-Mo-V steels. It is also present in high
temperature valve and spring steels for automotive engine applications. Both ferritic
and austenitic stainless steels will contain about 1% silicon for oxidation resistance:
Type 314 contains 2% silicon for this purpose.

Silicon is the principal alloying element in a unique class of electrical steels used in
transformers, electric motor laminations, generators and relays. Silicon confers a
relatively high permeability, raises electrical resistivity and lowers hysteresis (core)
loss, all beneficial trends in these materials. Generally, core losses decrease (quality
is raised) as silicon level increases. Electrical steels will contain between 0.5 and
5.0% silicon, but there are two overlapping classifications: oriented sheet is heat
treated to produce a particularly favorable crystallographic texture for ease of
magnetization: non-oriented sheet has a random texture but may contain as much or
more silicon. Electrical steels must be very clean (free from inclusions) and often
require such special processing as pack rolling, frequent intermediate anneals plus,
in the case of oriented grades, a final recrystallization anneal in dry hydrogen.