12/21/2017 Literal and figurative language - Wikipedia

Literal and figurative
language
Literal  and  figurative  language is a distinction within some fields of
language analysis, in particular stylistics, rhetoric, and semantics.

Literal language uses words exactly according to their conventionally

proper meanings or denotation.
Figurative (or non-literal) language uses words deviating from their
proper definitions in order to achieve a more complicated understanding or
heightened effect.[1] Figurative language is often achieved by presenting
words in order for them to be equated, compared, or associated with other
normally unrelated words or meanings.
Literal usage confers meaning to words, in the sense of the meaning they have
by themselves, outside any figure of speech.[2] It maintains a consistent
meaning regardless of the context,[3] with the  intended  meaning
corresponding  exactly  to  the  meaning of the individual words.[4] Figurative
use of language is the use of words or phrases that implies  a  non­literal
meaning which does make sense or that could [also] be true.[5]

Aristotle and later the Roman Quintilian were among the early analysts of
rhetoric who expounded on the differences between literal and figurative
language.[6]

In 1769, Frances Brooke's novel The History of Emily Montague was used in

the earliest Oxford  English  Dictionary citation for the figurative sense of
literally; the sentence from the novel used was, "He is a fortunate man to be
introduced to such a party of fine women at his arrival; it is literally to  feed
among the lilies."[7] This citation was also used in the OED's 2011 revision.[7]

Within literary analysis, such terms are still used; but within the fields of
cognition and linguistics, the basis for identifying such a distinction is no
longer used.[8]

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Contents
Figurative language in literary analysis
Standard pragmatic model of comprehension
Reddy and contemporary views
See also
References
External links

Figurative language in literary
analysis
Figurative language can take multiple forms, such as simile or metaphor.[9]
Merriam­Webster's  Encyclopedia  Of  Literature says that figurative language
can be classified in five categories: resemblance or relationship, emphasis or
understatement, figures of sound, verbal games, and errors.[10]

A simile[11] is a comparison of two things, indicated by some connective,

usually "like", "as", "than", or a verb such as "resembles" to show how they are
similar.[12]

Example: "His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a

cherry.../And the beard on his chin was as white as the
snow." (emph added)—Clement Clark Moore[13]

A metaphor[14] is a figure of speech in which two "essentially unlike things" are

shown to have a type of resemblance or create a new image.[15] The similarities
between the objects being compared may be implied rather than directly
stated.[15]

Example: "Fog comes on little cat feet"—Carl Sandburg[16]

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An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is continued over multiple

sentences.[17][18]

Example: "The sky steps out of her daywear/Slips into her

shot-silk evening dress./An entourage of bats whirr and
swing at her hem, ...She's tried on every item in her
wardrobe." Dilys Rose[19]

Onomatopoeia is a word designed to be an imitation of a sound.[20]

Example: “Bark! Bark!” went the dog as he chased the car

that vroomed past.

Personification[21] is the attribution of a personal nature or character to

inanimate objects or abstract notions,[22] especially as a rhetorical figure.

Example: "Because I could not stop for Death,/He kindly

stopped for me;/The carriage held but just ourselves/And
Immortality."—Emily Dickinson. Dickinson portrays death as
a carriage driver.[22]

An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which a pair of opposite or contradictory

terms is used together for emphasis.[23]

Examples: Organized chaos, Same difference, Bittersweet.

A paradox is a statement or proposition which is self-contradictory,

unreasonable, or illogical.[24]

Example: This statement is a lie.

Hyperbole is a figure of speech which uses an extravagant or exaggerated

statement to express strong feelings.[25]

Example: They had been walking so long that John thought

he might drink the entire lake when they came upon it.

Allusion is a reference to a famous character or event.

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Example: A single step can take you through the looking

glass if you're not careful.

An idiom is an expression that has a figurative meaning unrelated to the literal

meaning of the phrase.

Example: You should keep your eye out for him.

To keep an eye out for someone means to watch out for
them.

A pun is an expression intended for a humorous or rhetorical effect by

exploiting different meanings of words.

Example: I wondered why the ball was getting bigger. Then

it hit me.
"Then it hit me." has two different meanings

Standard pragmatic model of
comprehension
Prior to the 1980s, the "standard pragmatic" model of comprehension was
widely believed. In that model, it was thought the recipient would first attempt
to comprehend the meaning as if literal, but when an appropriate literal
inference could not be made, the recipient would shift to look for a figurative
interpretation that would allow comprehension.[26] Since then, research has
cast doubt on the model. In tests, figurative language was found to be
comprehended at the same speed as literal language; and so the premise that
the recipient was first attempting to process a literal meaning and discarding it
before attempting to process a figurative meaning appears to be false.[27]

Reddy and contemporary views
Beginning with the work of Michael Reddy in his 1979 work "The Conduit
Metaphor", many linguists now reject that there is a valid way to distinguish
between a "literal" and "figurative" mode of language.[28]

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See also
Metaphor Imagery
Metonymy Linguistics
Connotation (semiotics) Philosophy of language
Denotation Rhetoric
Denotation (semiotics) Semantics
Signified and signifier Semiotics
Biblical literalism Trope (literature)
Figures of speech Asperger syndrome
Frances Brooke

References
1. "Figure of speech (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/figure%20o
f%20speech)." Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2015.
2. Jaszczolt, Katarzyna M..; Turner, Ken (2003-03-01). Meaning Through
Language Contrast. Volume 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ToPN1
kTaBMUC&pg=PA141). John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 141–.
ISBN 9781588112071. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
3. Glucksberg, Sam (2001-07-26). Understanding Figurative Language:From
Metaphor to Idioms: From Metaphor to Idioms (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=rKX7qcQerLcC). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195111095.
Retrieved 20 December 2012.
4. Harley, Trevor A. (2001). The Psychology of Language: From Data to
Theory (https://books.google.com/books?id=yKbAhoSFcbwC&pg=PA293).
Taylor & Francis. pp. 293–. ISBN 978-0-863-77867-4. Retrieved
20 December 2012.
5. Montgomery, Mar; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Tom Furniss; Sara Mills
(2007). Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of
English Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=BhrYfYdHuN8C&p
g=PA117). Taylor & Francis. pp. 117–. ISBN 9780415346337. Retrieved
23 December 2012.
6. M.H. Abrams; Geoffrey Harpham (2011). A Glossary of Literary Terms (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=SUEtEa9nUWQC&pg=PA129) (10 ed.).
Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495898023.
7. [1] (http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=5914)

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8. Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert J (2009-11-20). Concise Encyclopedia of

Philosophy of Language and Linguistics (https://books.google.com/books?
id=2boGE2NKtpsC&pg=PA230). Elsevier. pp. 230–.
ISBN 9780080965000. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
9. Montgomery, Martin; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Tom Furniss; Sara Mills
(2007-01-09). Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of
English Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=BhrYfYdHuN8C&p
g=PA117). Routledge. pp. 117–. ISBN 9780203597118. Retrieved 3 April
2013.
10. Merriam-Webster, inc. (1995). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia Of
Literature (https://books.google.com/books?id=eKNK1YwHcQ4C).
Merriam-Webster. p. 415 (https://books.google.com/books?id=eKNK1YwH
cQ4C&pg=PA415). ISBN 9780877790426. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
11. Origin: 1350–1400; Middle English < Latin: image, likeness, comparison,
noun use of neuter of similis similar. "Simile" (http://www.oed.com.nuncio.c
ofc.edu/Entry/179881). simile, n. Oxford English Dictionary.
12. Kennedy, X. J., and Dana Gioia. An Introduction To Poetry. 13th ed.
Longman Pub Group, 2007. Pg 594.
13. Terban, Marvin; joi, Giulio Maestro, (1993). It Figures!: Fun Figures of
Speech (https://books.google.com/books?id=Gk_Le0B46BEC&pg=PT12).
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 12–. ISBN 9780395665916. Retrieved
23 December 2012.
14. Origin: 1525–35; < Latin metaphora < Greek metaphorá a transfer, akin to
metaphérein to transfer. See meta-, -phore"Metaphor" (http://www.oed.co
m.nuncio.cofc.edu/Entry/117328). metaphor, n. Oxford English Dictionary.
15. Miller, Carol Rawlings (2001-03-01). Irresistible Shakespeare: 6
Sensational Scenes from Favorite Plays and Dozens of Fun Ideas That
Introduce Students to the Wonderful Works of Shakespeare (https://books.
google.com/books?id=qT3BC2CH1LoC&pg=PA25). Scholastic Inc.
pp. 25–. ISBN 9780439098441. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
16. Fandel, Jennifer (2005-07-30). Metaphors, Similes, And Other Word
Pictures (https://books.google.com/books?id=bfWu6bCwRLcC&pg=PA30).
The Creative Company. pp. 30–. ISBN 9781583413401. Retrieved 3 April
2013.
17. "Extended Metaphor" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/extended-m
etaphor). extended metaphor. Dictionary.com.

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18. Oliver, Mary (1994). Poetry Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id

=fuBHMccJx6UC&pg=PA103). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 103–.
ISBN 9780156724005. Retrieved 6 March 2013.
19. Liddell, Gordon F.; Gifford, Anne (2001-07-26). New Scottish poetry (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=eQRs8Uz6480C&pg=PA131).
Heinemann. pp. 131–. ISBN 9780435150983. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
20. Origin: 1570–80; < Late Latin < Greek onomatopoiía making of words =
onomato- (combining form of ónoma name) + poi- (stem of poieîn to
make; see poet) + -ia -ia"Onomatopoeia" (http://www.oed.com.nuncio.cof
c.edu/Entry/131486). onomatopoeia, n. Oxford English Dictionary.
21. Origin: 1745–55; personi(fy) + -fication"Personification" (http://www.oed.co
m.nuncio.cofc.edu/Entry/141506). personification, n. Oxford English
Dictionary.
22. Moustaki, Nikki (2001-04-01). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Writing
Poetry (https://books.google.com/books?id=RdH3hvXEIB8C&pg=PT146).
Penguin. pp. 146–. ISBN 9781440695636. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
23. Origin: < post-classical Latin oxymoron, figure of speech in which a pair of
opposed or markedly contradictory terms are placed in conjunction for
emphasis (5th cent.; also oxymorum) < ancient Greek ὀξυ-oxy- comb.
form1+ μωρόςdull, stupid, foolish (see moron n.2)."Oxymoron" (http://ww
w.oed.com.nuncio.cofc.edu/Entry/135679). oxymoron. Oxford English
Dictionary.
24. Origin: < Middle French, French paradoxe (1495 as noun; 1372–4 in plural
paradoxesas the title of a work by Cicero; paradoxon (noun) philosophical
paradox in post-classical Latin also a figure of speech < ancient Greek
παράδοξον, especially in plural παράδοξαStoical paradoxes, use as noun
of neuter singular of παράδοξος (adjective) contrary to received opinion
or expectation < παρα-para- prefix1+ δόξαopinion (see doxology n.), after
ancient Greek παρὰ δόξανcontrary to expectation"Paradox" (http://www.o
ed.com.nuncio.cofc.edu/Entry/137353). paradox, n. Oxford English
Dictionary.
25. Origin: < Greek ὑπερβολήexcess (compare hyperbola n.), exaggeration;
the latter sense is first found in Isocrates and Aristotle. Compare French
hyperbole(earlier yperbole)."Hyperbole" (http://www.oed.com.nuncio.cofc.
edu/Entry/90286). hyperbol e, n. Oxford English Dictionary.

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26. Katz, Albert N. (1998). Figurative Language and Thought (https://books.go

ogle.com/books?id=lSxhb_fZLx0C&pg=PA166). Oxford University Press.
pp. 166–. ISBN 9780195109634. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
27. Eysenck, Michael William; Keane, Mark T. (2005). Cognitive Psychology:
A Student's Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=22ZWi-LVLDc
C&pg=PA369). Taylor & Francis. pp. 369–. ISBN 9781841693590.
Retrieved 20 December 2012.
28. Ortony, Andrew (1993-11-26). Metaphor and Thought (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=QiJRvuXA_VcC&pg=PA204). Cambridge University
Press. pp. 204–. ISBN 9780521405614. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

External links
The Word We Love To Hate. Literally. (http://www.slate.com/id/2129105/)
from Slate Magazine
Figures of Speech (http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/Figures/Figures-Ove
rview.htm) from Silva Rhetoricae

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