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IGCSE Physics Notes
IGCSE Physics Notes
Moment of a force:
Law of moments:
When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments
about any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments
about the same point.
Centre of mass:
I. Centre of mass is the point where whole mass of the body
assumes to be concentrated.
II. If the vertical line through the centre of mass is outside the
base it will be a topples but if it’s passed through the base it will be
stable.
Efficiency:
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒
Pressure:
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 𝑝𝑎
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑝𝑎
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠
Speed
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Velocity
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Acceleration
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Uniform acceleration
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 Vsecond speed
Ufirst speed
(𝑢 + 𝑣) Sdistance
𝑠= 𝑡
2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
The heat equation
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
× 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Thermal capacity:
It’s the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of the
whole body by1℃.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝑙𝑣
Speed of wave
Circular motion:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑟
The Ampere and the Coulomb
The unit of current is the Ampere (A) which is defined using the
magnetic effect.
The unit of charge, the Coulomb (C)
The Coulomb is the charge passing any point in a circuit when a
steady current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second,
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠(𝑄) = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠(𝐼) × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
Series and parallel circuit
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit
The current is different in the branches of a parallel circuit
Direct and alternating current
In a Direct current (d.c) the electrons flow in one direction only.
In an Alternating current (a.c) the direction of flow reverses
regularly.
Voltages round a circuit
In series: The voltages at the terminals of a battery equal the sum of
the voltages across the devices in the external circuit from one
battery terminal to the other.
In parallel: the voltages across devices in parallel in a circuit are
equals.
𝐸
𝑉=
𝑄
𝐸 =𝐼×𝑡×𝑉
Resistance
The opposition if a conductor to a current is called its resistance.
The resistance of a wire of a certain material:
i) Increases as its length increases
ii) Increases as its cross-section area decreases
iii) Depends on the material
The Ohm
The ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which the current is 1
ampere when a voltage of 1 volt is applied across it.
𝐼×𝑅
Resistors in series:
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 , 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 . Also, if R is the combined resistance,
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑅 and so 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 +𝐼𝑅3
Dividing both sides by I, 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Resistors in parallel
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 = , 𝐼3 = .Also, if R is the combined resistance,
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 and so = + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
Dividing both sides by V, = + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
For simpler case of two resistors in parallel
1 1 1 𝑅2 𝑅1
= + = +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1
=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
Inverting both sides,
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅= =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠
Capacitor
It stores electric charge and is useful in many electronic circuits.
Effects of capacitors in d.c and a.c circuits
The capacitor block d.c
The capacitor passes a.c
Electric power
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝐸 =𝐼×𝑡×𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
Electronic system
Any electronic system consists of three parts:
i) An input sensor or transducer
ii) A processor
iii) An output transducer
A transducer is a device to convert a non-electrical input into an
electrical signal or vice versa.
The processor decides on what action to take on the electrical
signal receives from the input sensor;
The output transducer converts the electrical energy supplied by
the processor into another form.
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
It’s a type if variable resistor where resistance depends in the
amount of light falling on it. It is used in circuits to detect the level
of light
Dark high resistance less current
Light low resistance more current
Thermistor
It’s a type of variable resistor where resistance depends on the
temperature.
Cold high resistance less current
Hot low resistance more current
Relays
It’s a type of switch that works using an electromagnet.
Diode
It’s a component that allows the electric current to flow in one
direction only. It’s also known as Rectifier. It changes alternative
current to direct current.
Lenz’s law
An induced current is always in such a direction as to oppose the
motion or change causing it
Sensitivity of a thermometer
Weight
The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it.
Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object and is measured in Kg.
Hooke’s law:
Within elastic limit, the force is directly proportional to the
extension produced.
Plastic
If a force is applied to an abject, the object changes its shape, and
it stays the same shape when the force if removed.
Elastic
If you put a force on an object making the object change shape and
it returns to its original shape after removing the force. We say the
object is Elastic.
Conditions of equilibrium:
I. The sum of the forced in one direction equals the sum of the
forces in the opposite direction
II. The law of moments must apply.
Stable equilibrium
The body is in stable equilibrium when it slightly displaced and
then released, it returns to its previous position.
Unstable equilibrium
A body is in unstable equilibrium if moves farther away from its
previous position when slightly displaced and then released.
Neutral equilibrium
A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new position when
displayed.