SRI cynores EPRI TR-109900 Reactive power Project 3155-02 Distribution system Final Report VAR (volt-ampere-reactive) control June 1994 Power electronics Harmonics Power factor Effective October 1, 2008, this report has been made publicly available in accordance with Section 734.3(b)(3) and published in accordance with Section 734.7 of the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, As a result of this Publication, this report is subject to only copyright protection and does not require any license agreement from EPRI. This notice supersedes the export control restrictions and any proprietary licensed material notices embedded in the document prior to publication. Static VAR Compensation by Energy Flow Routing Prepared by UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY, Lexington, Kentucky E MATERIAL SINGLE USER LICENSE AGREEMENT THIS IS A LEGALLY BINDING AGREEMENT BETWEEN YOU AND THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE (EPR). PLEASE READ IT CAREFULLY BEFORE REMOVING THE WRAPPING MATERIAL. 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Except as spectied above, is agreement does not grant you any rghit to patents, copyrights, trade secrets, trade names, trademarks or any other intelectual property, rights Oricenses in respect of his report. (Continued on back cover)EPRI soe INTEREST CATEGORIES Advanced delivery system technology Distribution Instrumentation and control KEYWORDS Reactive power Distribution system VAR (volt-ampere~ reactive) control Power electronics Harmonics Power factor REPORT SUMMARY Static VAR Compensation by Energy Flow Routing Static VAR compensators (SVCs) have been applied for continuously variable regulation of voltage and reactive power for several years to maintain power system operation during varying load conditions, However, SVCs introduce harmonics into the power system that could be reduced by providing filters. In this report, a novel concept called energy flow routing is studied for use as a series SVC, which will provide automatic harmonic compensation with a greater application potential than conventional SVCs. BACKGROUND The two more common SVC arrangements in commercial service are the thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) bank and the fixed-capacitor thyristor- controlled reactor (FCTCR) bank. In addition, both current source type ard voltage source type VAR compensators can be implemented. The TSC, FCTCR, and current source VAR compensators tend to introduce low-frequency current harmonies (signif- icant third through seventh harmonies). In addition to the harmonic pollution under steady-state operation, the existence of such harmonics can he detrimental to power system stabilty. Although providing fiers to eliminate the harmonies is being prac- ticed at present, new concepts providing harmonic compensation within the circuit may be beneficial for VAR compensation, —————————————— OBJECTIVES To examine the control requirements of the single-phase energy flow routing (EFR) circuit as a seres; to determine the performance of the EFA circuit and to identify any practical limits of operation. OO APPROACH | The project team reviewed the literature in the areas of conventional ‘SVCs, current source type VAR compensators, and voltage source type VAR com- Pensators. They developed a novel circuit based on the EFR concept that provided harmonic compensation. A methodology was developed to analyze the EFA circuit arrangement beginning with the simplest possible functional configuration and pro- gressing to the final required level of complexity. Numerical integration of the network describing differential equations was carried out using a fourth-order fixed-increment Runge Kutta method. A sinusoidal pulse with modulation (PWM) algorithm with fit- teen pulses per haif cycle was used to generate the control waveforms for the EFR Circuit to give an ideal elimination of all harmonics less than the twenty-ninth, The concepts were extended to three-phase applications, — RESULTS Three different configurations of the EFR circuit were presented: total current processing with two inductors, total current processing with a single inductor, and quadrature current processing. In the VAR compensation application, the quasi- parallel mode of operation (quadrature current processing) for the EFA circuit leads to the lowest losses and, thus, the best efficiency. The efficienoy improves for electric utlty distribution leve! voltage (around 95%) over the case for industrial distribution voltage (around 81.6%). However, in both cases the efficiencies are less than the desired values of around 98-99% for VAR compensation application due fo the Switching losses associated with the forced commutated power semiconductor EPRI TR-103903s Electric Power Research Institute‘switches. It is recommended to develop an EFR circuit designed around resonant converter principles to eliminate the switching losses and yield desirable efficiency levels. EPRI PERSPECTIVE The interest in and application of VAR compensa- tion continues to grow in the electric power industry because the loading ‘on power systems is increasing. EPA is pioneering several advanced con- cepts under two strategies—flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS) and ‘custom power. This report introduced a novel VAR compensator based on. the EFR principle. The concepts developed will be useful in other FACTS/ custom power device model development. Although the EFR concept is feasible and controltable, the switching losses lead to a less than desirable efficiency. Future work may be directed toward study and development of the EFR principle using the resonant converter principles to eliminate the switching losses and improve the efficiency. PROJECT RP3185-02 Project Manager: Rambabu Adapa Power Delivery Group Contractor: University of Kentucky For further information on EPRI research programs, call EPRI Technical information Specialists (415) 855-2411Static VAR Compensation by Energy Flow Routing ‘TR-103903 Research Project 3155-02 Final Report, June 1994 Prepared by UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY Research Foundation 201 Kinkead Hall Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0057 Principal Investigator J.J. Cathey Prepared for Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Avenue Palo Alto, California 94304 EPRI Project Manager R. 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Al rghts reserved,EPRI Licensed Material ABSTRACT This is a study of @ novel two-port circuit suitable for use as a series static VAR compensator (SVC). The network has the short-term ability to allow zero or bidirectional current flow at each ort independent of conditions at the other port. Consequently, at any instant in time, energy may be only fio i into, only flowing out of, maintained in storage, or passing through the network. Thus, the descriptive name energy flow routing (EFR) has been attached to the circuit concept. The study investigates single-phase realizations of the EFR circuit in SVC application using both single coil and two coil realizations. Numerical solutions of the system describing equations are utilized to present instantaneous current and voltage waveforms for steady-state operation at various load Conditions. Harmonic contents of the resulting waveforms are examined, Efficiency predictions for the EFR circuit are also made. tively discussed. inally, three-phase circuit topologies are suggested and qualita- iitEPRI Licensed MaterialEPRI Licensed Material CONTENTS Section 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND ENERGY FLOW ROUTING CONCEPT Total Current Processing with Two Inductors ‘Total Current Processing with Single Inductor Quadrature Current Processing OBJECTIVES REFERENCES 2 COMPONENT MODELING SWITCHING ELEMENTS ‘TRANSFORMER ‘TOTAL CURRENT PROCESSING WITH TWO INDUCTORS DESCRIBING EQUATIONS OPERATING CONDITIONS PERFORMANCE RESULTS SUMMARY 4 TOTAL CURRENT PROCESSING WITH SINGLE INDUCTOR DESCRIBING EQUATIONS OPERATING CONDITIONS PERFORMANCE RESULTS SUMMARY 5 QUADRATURE CURRENT PROCESSING DESCRIBING EQUATIONS OPERATING CONDITIONS PERFORMANCE RESULTS 2.5 KVA, 480/¥3 V 10 KVA, 480/73 V 10 KVA, 12.5/¥3 KV SUMMARY 6 _ EXTENSION TO THREE-PHASE TOPOLOGY FORWARD CONVERTER EFR CIRCUIT RESONANT LINK EFR CIRCUIT REFERENCES 1-10 31 3-10 41 42 42 49 Sl SI 52 53 53 59 5-15 515 61 6-1 65 67EPRI Licensed Material Section 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS, LIMITATIONS FUTURE WORK Page iT mA TAEPRI Licensed Material ILLUSTRATIONS 1-1 PWM Current Waveforms 12 1-2 Total Current Processing with Two Inductors 13 1-3. Input Filter Ls 1-4 Output Filter 16 1-5 Total Current Processing with Single Inductor 1-7 1-6 Quadrature Current Processing 18 21 Nonideal Model for Switching Elements 2 2-2 Nonideal Transformer Model 22 3-1 Input Voltage vz 34 3-2 Input Current i, 34 3-3. Load Voltage vy a 3-4 Load Current i, 35 3-5 Frequency Spectrum of vi 3-6 3-6 Frequency Spectrum of i, 36 3-7 Frequency Spectrum of vi 37 3-8 Frequency Spectrum of i, 37 3-9 — Switching Circuit Input Current i; 38 3-10 Switching Circuit Output Current ij, 39 3-1L Current for Loy 3.9 3-12 Current for Loz 3-10 4-1 Input Voltage vi 43, 42 Input Current i, 43 43 Load Voltage v,_ 44 44 — Load Current i 44 45 Frequency Spectrum of vi 45 4-6 Frequency Spectrum of i, 45 4-7 Frequency Spectrum of vy, 46 4-8 Frequency Spectrum of i, 46 4-9 — Switching Circuit Input Current i; 47 410 Switching Circuit Output Curren 48 4-11 Current for Ly 48 5-1 Input Voltage v; 54 52 Input Current i, 54 53 Load Voltage vy 58 5-4 Load Current iy, ts55 56 ST 58 39 5-10 Sl S12 S13 Sd S15 5-16 S17 5-18 5:19 5-20 521 5-22 5:23 524 5.25 5-26 6-1 63 64 65 66 67 68 EPRI Licensed Material Frequency Spectrum of v; Frequency Spectrum of i, Frequency Spectrum of vi, Frequency Spectrum of i Switching Circuit Input Curent if Switching Circuit Output Current if, Input Voltage vs Input Current i, Load Voltage v1, Load Current iy, Frequency Spectrum of vj Frequency Spectrum of iy Frequency Spectrom of vi, Frequency Spectrum of i, Switching Circuit Input Current i; Switching Circuit Output Current if, Input Voltage vs Input Cusrent i, Load Voltage vp, Load Current iy, Switching Cireuit Input Current i; Switching Circuit Output Current if, ‘Single-Phase Forward Converter EFR Circuit ‘Three-Phase Forward Converter EFR Circuit Input Current iy Output Current ip Source Current ig Load Current iy, Single-Phase Resonant Link EPR Circuit ‘Three-Phase Resonant Link EFR Circuit E 5-6 56 57 $7 58 58 5-10 5-10 Si Sl 5-12 5-12 513 513 S14 5-14 S15 5-16 5-16 $7 S17 S18 61 6-2 63 63 64 64 65 6-6EPRI Licensed Material EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION ‘The two common static VAR compensators (SVC) in commervial service are the thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) bank and the fixed-capacitor thyristor-controlled reactor (FCTCR) bank. In the development stage are current source VAR compensators that are realized by use of an inductively loaded phase-controlled converter and voltage source VAR compensators implemented by voltage ‘control of a static inverter connected in parallel with the utility grid, A common disadvantage of the statie VAR compensators for which performances are documented in the technical literature is that, due to the nature of the switching process, harmonics are intro- duced into the power system, ‘The TSC, FCTCR, and the current source VAR compensators tend to produce low-frequency current harmonics that require significant filter hardware to remove, The hharmonic content of the voltage source inverter principle VAR compensator can be reduced to an acceptable level by use of multiple units connected and controlled for harmonic reduction through phase shift cancellation; however, the cost per VAR is significantly increased. ENERGY FLOW ROUTING CONCEPT This study introduces a novel two-port circuit suitable for use as a series static VAR compensator. ‘The network has the short-term ability to allow zero or bidirectional current flow at each port independent of conditions at the other port. Consequently, at a particular instant in time, energy may be only flowing into, only fowing out of, maintained in storage, or passing through the net- work. Thus, the descriptive name energy flow routing (EFR) has been coined for the circuit con- cept Control Strategy ‘The EFR circuit is controlled to yield sinusoidal PWM currents at both the input and output ports. ‘These currents will generally have an arbitrary phase difference as illustrated by the angle 6 on the sketch of normalized input current (i) and output current (i) of Figure 1. Magnitudes of the input and output currents are varied by adjustment of the PWM modulation indices to adjust angles o and B. In order for the arbitrary set of currents of Figure | to exist, the EFR circuit must be able to operate in each of the nine conduction states of Table 1. EER Circuit Arrangement ‘The BFR circuit can be utilized to process the total load current; however, the EFR circuit embodi- ment of Figure 2 shows the preferred arrangement. Therein the EFR circuit processes only the reactive or quadrature component of the load current (izg). The in-phase portion of the load current S-iEPRI Licensed Material Table 1 CONDUCTION STATES Conduction | Input } Output State | Cumrent | Current 1 0 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 4 1 1 5 0 ot 6 1 a 7 al 1 8 “1 0 9 “1 “Al a a) 7 OO pe Figure 1. PWM Current Waveforms 4 |: ol elk Figure 2, EFR Circuit Embodiment 82EPRI Licensed Material (ip) is then drawn directly from the source. Consequently, the magnitude of iyq is less than i, allowing reduction in inductor and switch sizes in the EFR circuit over the case of total current pro- cessing. For this preferred arrangement, angle ¢ of Figure 1 is 90°, and only power to supply losses in the EFR circuit flows into the input port. In this mode of operation, the EFR circuit can be con- sidered a quasi-paralel SVC. EFR Circuit Realization Although a two-inductor EFR circuit is examined in the report, the single-inductor realization de- picted in Figure 3 displayed the smaller losses and, thus, it is the network of choice. Inspection of the circuit shows that the buildup requires eight forced commutated power semiconductor switches to route current through the energy storage inductor Ly. More detailed thought leads to the cenclu- sion that each of the conduction states of Table 1 requires that at any instant in time, three of the switches are conducting while the remaining five switches are in the blocking state. Figure 3. Single-Inductor EFR Circuit OBJECTIVES ‘The primary objectives of the research project were the following: * Examine theoretically the control requirements of the single-phase EFR circuit as a series SVC. * Determine the performance nature as a quasi-parallel SVC in single-phase opera- tion * Identify any practical limits of operation. ‘Secondary objectives were to develop any necessary filter arrangement for management of harmon- ics and to qualitatively extend the EFR circuit to three-phase topology. 83EPRI Licensed Material Methodology In order to meet these objectives, methodology was developed to analyze the EFR circuit arrange- ment beginning with the most simple possible functional configuration and progressing to the final required level of complexity. Initial analyses used ideal descriptions of switching elemen's, induc- tors, and transformers in order to establish practical switching limits and performance with regard to harmonics. Then the model was extended to include source impedance, nonideal inductors, filter networks, nonideal transformers, and nonideal switching elements. Nomerical integration of the network describing differential equations was carried out using a fourth-order fixed-inerement Runge Kutta routine. A sinusoidal PWM algorithm with fifteen pulses per half cycle was used to generate the control waveforms of Figure 1 to give an ideal elimination of all harmonies less than the twenty-ninth, RESULTS, In SVC application, the quasi-parallel mode of operation for the EFR circuit leads to the lowest losses and, thus, the best efficiency. The single-phase configuration forms one-third of a three- phase instalation. Performance results are tabulated in Table 2 for a 10 KVA design operating at full load and at one-fourth load in an industrial distribution system (480 V), and for full load in an electric utility distribution system (12.5 KV). Table 2 QUASI-PARALLEL OPERATION OF EFR CIRCUIT Load | Power | Voltage | Efficiency Loss Distribution Factor | Conduction | Switching 1oKva | o8tag | as0/v3 | 91.6% 30.1% 69.9% | J2sKva | 08tag | 480/V3 | 72.4% 31.2% 62.8% 10KVA | 08 lag | 12500/¥3 | _ 95.0% 14.8% 85.2% Examination of the results shows that efficiency improves for electric utility distribution level vol- tage over the case for industrial distribution voltage. However, in both cases the efficiencies are less than desired for a SVC application. In defense of the 2.5 KVA load case, the method of con- ‘tol used leads to an extremely low efficiency, The energy storage inductor current was maintained 84EPRI Licensed Material at the value for full load operation by choice of modulation index. The efficiency could be increased significantly by change of the modulation index if response time from 25% to 100% lead ‘were not important. ‘The low efficiencies of all three cases are a direct result of switching losses associated with the forced commutated power semiconductor switches. Of interest is the 12.5 KV case in which ‘he efficiency projects to 98.4% if the switching losses were eliminated Although the study has shown that the concept of the energy flow routing circuit is well suited for SVC application, the switching losses lead to a less than desirable efficiency. Consequently, it is recommended that future work be directed to develop an EFR circuit designed around resonant con- verter principles to eliminate the switching losses and yield desirable efficiency levels. ssEPRI Licensed MaterialEPRI Licensed Material Section 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Static VAR compensators (SVC) have been applied for continuously variable regulation of voltage and reactive power flow for several years. The two more common static VAR compensator arrangements in commercial service are the thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) bank and the fixed- capacitor thyristor-controlled reactor (FCTCR) bank (). In addition, current source type VAR Compensators can be realized by use of an inductively loaded phase-controlled converter (L, Commercialization activity for this concept is under way. Voltage source VAR compensators can be implemented by voltage control of a static inverter connected in parallel with the utility gr fone such VAR compensator is known to be in field service (3). Recently, a growing interest in application of fast-acting static VAR compensators for enhancement of power system stability has emerged. ‘A common disadvantage of the static VAR compensators for which performances are reported in the literature is that, due to the nature of the switching process, harmonics are introduced into the Power system. The TSC, FCTCR, and the current source VAR compensators tend to introduce low-frequency current harmonics (significant third through seventh harmonies). In addition to the harmonic pollution under steady-state operation, the existence of such harmonics can be detrimental to power system stability, The harmonic content of the voltage source inverter principle VAR Compensator can be reduced to an acceptable level by use of multiple units connected and con- trolled for harmonic reduction through phase shift cancellation (3). However, the cost per VAR is significantly increased. ENERGY FLOW ROUTING CONCEPT ‘The energy flow routing (BFR) concept is a novel circuit that forms a series or two-port network that is suitable for use as a SVC. However, its application potential is greater than simple VAR compensation and includes the following additional functions: © Harmonic compensation, + Steady-state contingency enhancement through capability to control power flow routing. * Transient stability enhancement by damping oscillatory power flow. + Frequency changer. + Single-phase to three-phase conversion, + Power conditioning unit for a variable-frequency current-fed induction motor drive. 1EPRI Licensed Material The EFR circuit has the ability to allow zero or bidirectional current flow at each port independent of the other port, Consequently, at any instant in time, energy may be only flowing into, only flowing ovt of, maintained in storage, or passing through the circuit. PWM control can thus lead to arbitrary input and output current waveforms, such as the normalized set of Figure 1-1 where the angle 6 can range from —w/2 to m2. If current if is maintained in phase with the input voltage, then the EFR exhibits a unity input power factor regardless of the output current phase angle. Reni re —4 Figure 1-1, PWM Current Waveforms Total Current Processing with Two Inductors One realization of the EFR circuit is illustrated by Figure 1-2. The two inductors labelled 1, and La awe large and carry near constant currents 14, and ka, respectively. In order for the arbitrary set of currents i; and if, of Figure 1-1 to exist, the EFR circuit of Figure 1-2 must be able to operate in cach of the nine conducting states described by Table 1-1, The switching times indicated by Figure 1 are documented in Table 1-2, In general, the circuit must be capable of entering any one of the conducting states from any one of the other eight conducting states; however, when operation is limited to the PWM waveforms of Figure 1-1, certain state transitions are not permitted, For exam- ple, a transition from state 3 to state 8 can never occur since nowhere over the waveform of Figure 1-1 does the input current ever change immediately from 1 to -1. Consequently, either two or three switching operations can take place during a state transition, The change from state 7 to state 1 illustrates one of the three switching event transitions where two devices (Qo and Qy) are forced commutated and one device (Qs) is fired. Change from state 1 to state 2 requires a two switching ‘event transition where one device (Qs) is forced commutated while one device (Q2) is fired, 12EPRI Licensed Material Oupet Filer Figure 1-2, Total Current Processing with Two Inductors Table 1-1 CONDUCTION STATES - TWO INDUCTOR EFR Normalized | Normalized Conduction Input Output | Conducting State Current Current Devices 1 0 0 Di QD. 0 2 0 1 DiQ2D2Q5, 3} 1 0 2,226 oo 1 QD, 5 | 0 Pl D1QsD20s 6} 2 a 2123205, 7 1 7 QQ6D1Q_ 8 “1 0 QWWwDiG = = -l Di QsQ1QsEPRI Licensed Material Table 1-2 SWITCHING ANGLES FOR if Switching | Degrees | Switching | Degrees Angle Angle Gy 0.000 as = | 90.562 a 11.146 er — | 100.697 oy 11.365 ae | 101.801 os 22.290 ay | 111.978 oy 22.720 em | 113.017 os 33.442 | om | 123.279 6 34.067 | an 124.215, ee 44.606 | cas | 134.598 os 45402 | oy, | (135.394 oy 55.785 | aus | 145.933 a | 56.721 om | 146.558 on 66982 | oy | 157.280 an | 68.022 | om | 157.710 as 78.199 ty — | 168.635 | cus 79.303 9 168.854 tus 89.437 on 0.000 Note 1: Switching angles for range 180° to 360° are apparent from symmetry. Note 2: Switching angles for i, are given by B, =; +6. Note 3: Switching angles apply for 0.95 modulation index.EPRI Licensed Material Input and output filters for the EFR circuit of Figure 1-2 are depicted by Figures 1-3 and 1-4, ‘These filters provide continuity paths for load currents, source currents, and EFR inductor (Ly: or Laz) currents, while shunting harmonic currents of frequencies above the PWM elimination band from the source and load. For clarification, consider the output filter of Figure 1-4, Capacitor C, clearly provides @ current continuity path for either Ly oF Ip to yield the short rise and fall times of current if, as depicted in Figure 1-1, Upon interruption of current if, continuity of load current i, is maintained around the path C,~Liss—R,—L,. However, the characteristic nature of sinusoidal PWM is that the power spectral density shows significant energy at harmonic frequencies immedi- ately above the highest eliminated harmonic. In order to assure that the load does not beceme a path for those harmonic currents, the high pass filter LiCip is tuned for a harmonic frequency slightly above the PWM elimination band (thirty-second harmonic for this study). Consequzntly, the principal path for harmonic current flow is C,—Ligs~Lup—Cys. This harmonic current path is 4 resonant circuit with undamped natural frequency determined by (Luss +LsXCL1Cis). Ampli- tude of the resonant current can be successfully controlled by detuning the resonant frequency to a value slightly below the upper bound of the PWM elimination band (twenty-eighth for this study). ists. x14. Yio Figure 1-3. Input Filter 1sEPRI Licensed Material inps. yp %y3 Figure 1-4. Output Filter Total Current Processing with Single Inductor Another realization of the BFR circuit using a single inductor is depicted by Figure 1-5. To yield the currents of Figure 1-1, the circuit must be able to operate in cach of the nine conducting states listed in Table 1-3, Table 1-3, CONDUCTION STATES - SINGLE INDUCTOR EFR Nomatized | Normalized Conduction | Input Output | Conducting |__ State Current | Current | Devices [4 0 ° 1205 2 ° 1 100s 3 1 ° 20:04 4 1 1 50405 5 o “1 2040 6 1 a 2040 7 i a 1 0:0 8 | ol 9 22506, 9 1 -l 10206 1-6EPRI Licensed Material Oupet Filer = ag Figure 1-5. Total Current Processing with Single Inductor ‘When PWM operation is considered, either two or four switching operations can take place during 4 state transition. The change from state 1 to state 7 requires one of the four switching event tran- sitions where two devices (Q2 and Qs) are forced commutated while two devices (Qs and Q;) are fired. Movement from state 1 to state 2 illustrates two switching event transition where one device (Qs) is forced commutated while one device (Qs) is fired. ‘The single inductor EFR circuit utilizes two more forced commutated switches than does the two inductor circuit. Further, the number of switching events is greater per cycle of the output current waveform since certain state transitions require four rather than three switching operations. How- ever, the reduction from two to one inductor is likely to more than offset the cost of two switches and their associated gating circuitry. Also, the losses of the removed inductor are no longer resent. On the other hand, a potential reduction in switching losses exists for the two-inductor EFR circuit. Quadrature Current Processing ‘The BFR circuits of Figures 1-2 and 1-5 process the total load current; however, the circuit arrange- rent of Figure 1-6 uses the principle of the circuits of Figures 1-2 of 1-5 to produce the reactive or quadrature component of the load current (iyq). The in-phase portion of the load current (in) is then drawn directly from the source. Consequently, the magnitude of ipg is less than i, allowing reduction in inductor and switch sizes. In the quadrature current processing mode, the EFR circuit functions as a quasi-parallel SVC where only power to supply losses flows into the input port 17EPRI Licensed Material i yn [a Tigie* * ep BR owe |, © Pa a Cresit Fier af aa Figure 1-6. Quadrature Current Processing OBJECTIVES ‘The primary objectives of this research project were fourfold: + Theoretically examine the performance nature and control requirements of the single-phase EFR circuit acting as a series SVC. ‘+ Determine the performance nature as a quasi-parallel SVC in single-phase operation. © Identify any practical limits of operation. © Qualitatively extend the EFR circuit to three-phase topology. In order to meet these objectives, methodology was developed to analyze each circuit beginning with the most simple possible functional arrangement and progressing to the final required level of complexity. Initial analyses used ideal desctiptions of switching elements, inductors, and transformers in order to establish practical switching limits and performance with regard to har- monic content of both source and load currents. Having functional models of each EFR configuration with idealized switches, inductors, and transformers, each model was extended to include source inductance, nonideal inductors, filter networks, nonideal transformers, and ronideal characteristics of the switching elements, Addition of the ideal properties one step at a time allowed assessment of the effect of each on the harmonic content of currents and efficiency. Ls.EPRI Licensed Material Numerical integration of the describing differential equations was carried out using a fourth-order fixed: increment Runge Kutta routine. Solution interval for the differential equations was 0.25 x 10 seconds. Harmonic current spectrums were determined by fast Fourier transform methods using 1024 data points per cycle of the fundamental frequency waveform. A sinusoidal PWM algorithm With fifteen pulses per half cycle was used to generate the control waveforms of Figure 1-1 to give ideal elimination of all harmonics less than the twenty-ninth, The tasks required to fulfill the objectives in accordance with the above discussed methodology ‘were the following: Total Current Processing with Two Inductors 1 Develop numerical analysis techniques with ideal elements. 2. Study effects of source inductance and filter sizing. 3. Extend analysis to include nonideal switches. 4, Evaluate effects of nonideal transformer. 5. Generate efficiency predictions. Total Current Processing with Single Inductor 6. Develop numerical analysis techniques with ideal elements. 7. Study effects of source inductance and filter sizing. 8. Extend analysis to include nonideal switches. 9, Bvaluate effects of nonideal transformer. 10. Generate efficiency predictions. Quadrature Current Processing 11. Develop numerical analysis techniques with ideal elements. 12, Study effects of source inductance and filter sizing. 13, Extend analysis to include nonideal switches. 14, Evaluate effects of nonideal transformer, 19EPRI Licensed Material 15, Generate efficiency predictions. 16. Formulate circuit topologies for three-phase case. REFERENCES 1. L, Gyugyi, "Reactive Power Generation and Control by Thyristor Circuits’, JEEE Trans., vol. IA-15, no. 5, Sept/Oct. 1979, pp. 521-532. 2. F, Harashima et al, "A Closed-Loop Control System for the Reduction of Reactive Power Required by Electronic Converters", IEEE Trans., vol. 1CI-23, no. 2, May 1976, pp. 162-166. 3. Y. Sumi et al, "New Static VAR Control Using Force-Commutated Inverters", IEEE Trans., vol. PAS-100, no. 9, Sept. 1981, pp. 4216-4224, 1-10EPRI Licensed Material Section 2 (COMPONENT MODELING Based on agreement with the co-sponsor, the components were sized and study carried out for application in a 480 V industrial power distribution system. Thus, the single-phase EFR circuit input voltage was 480/13 V. Since the higher ohmic losses for industrial power distribution vol- tages result in atypically lower efficiency values than would be the case if the SVC were applied at utility distribution voltage levels, one short study was made for a 10 KVA load at 1250/13 V to indicate the efficiency values expected for application in a utility distribution system. SWITCHING ELEMENTS The nonideal switches were modeled during tum-on and tum-off by time-varying resistances characterized as indicated by the plots of Figure 2-1. Switching times and resistance values typify 2.600 V, SOA GTO. switen Resistance Re Rehoy Tine tyr 20 ps tee 70m fr s25p8 lo ys Figure 2-1. Nonideal Model for Switching Elements 24EPRI Licensed Material ‘TRANSFORMER The Tee-equivalent circuit utilized for the nonideal transformer is shown by Figure 2-2. In all cases, a 1:1 tums ratio was used. The equivalent circuit parameters were selected for a 10 KVA transformer with a full load efficiency of 98%. Figure 2-2. Nonideal Transformer Model 22EPRI Licensed Material Section 3 TOTAL CURRENT PROCESSING WITH TWO INDUCTORS ‘The analys techniques were built in accordance with Tasks 1-5. Systematically introducing degrees of freedom is an efficient research procedure to minimize troubleshooting while developing analysis of a complex system, However, itis the performance predictions of the complete, oF prac- tical, system that are of interest for final reporting. DESCRIBING EQUATIONS State variables (x1, xq,~", x14) for the two inductor network are defined in Figures 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, and 2-2, If each switching element is characterized by the time-varying resistance model of Figure 2-1 where specific resistor symbols (Ry,~,Rs) are defined on Figure 1-2, then application of Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws allow writing of the set of simultaneous equations that follow: . Ry (Ror #RDIR: +Ry HR) + Lor ki — ERIS + Rte = 0 on aa PREIRSERSIRO + Laie + GAs ~ Ean ° 62) (5 —va)/ Ro + xy + (5-V5)IRs + Ce = 0 G3) Ry +h hy = 0 G4) Lins Re + Lies +Lip) 9 ~ Xo + Rie xs + X10 + Rips x1 = 0 6S) Rixs — Rup ~ X10 + Luky + Lip = 0 G6) (Xs v2 )/Ry + (xs—v6)/Ra X14 + Co ks = 0 G1) fg — his ~ hag G8) (Lyla? +L yy +Lin ip + (Le fa? +Lyy)kg + (Ry /a+ aR xg +Raxy = Vela G9)EPRI Licensed Material Linky ~ Looky ~ Usps + RmX7 — RaaXe ~ X12 — Rep xis = 0 Lop its ~ Lors 1g — 5 +12 + Rep xis —RspsXia = 0 iy fy/a~ gla = 0 Ho % = 0 Cepia - m3 = 0 us Ry IR, Y= Ry IRDA: Ry a rR ** " (RyIR3)x1 + Re By+Re © 5 = Rs IRs) x2 i is ReIRs a+ ERS ve @-10) @-11) 12) G13) (3-14) @-15) (3-16) G17) @-18) ‘Simultaneous solution of equations (3-1) - (3-18) yields a set of fourteen first-order differential equations commonly called the state vatiable form: Ar (Ox+Ddi Vs G-19) The coefficient matrix Ay () contains time-varying resistances; thus, equation (3-19) is nonstation- ary. Since the time variations of the elements of Ay (t) do mot occur at discrete points in time, a piecewise stationary system of equations cannot be formed. Consequently, numerical integration of equation (3-19) is the only avenue available for solution. 32EPRI Licensed Material Average values of input power (P;_) and output power (P...) can be calculated from the numerically obtained solutions of equation (3-19) at each discrete point in time t, when operating a cyclic fre- quency f under steady-state conditions: Pig = £3 Yes (ta) is (ty) ty (3-20) = FX vat (tadib (ta) Ate @-21) ‘The associated efficiency (n) of the EFR circuit follows as, Pout n= = oom) (3-22) Pa OPERATING CONDITIONS For initial study to compare with the single inductor EFR circuit, the values of Rand L, were arbitrarily selected for 12 KVA at 0.8 PF lagging with an input voltage of 480/V3 V. Both Ly, and Loo Were characterized by an inductance of 0.25 H and a resistance of 0.05 ©, Numerical solution of the fourteen describing equations was cartied out until the circuit was in the cyclic steady-state. Conduction states were controlled according to Table 1-1 with the switching times of Table 1-2. PERFORMANCE RESULTS ‘The input voltage vg, the source current i,, the load voltage vz, and the load current i are of interest. The instantaneous waveforms for each resulting from numerical integration of the describ- ing equations are presented by Figures 3-1 through 3-4. The associated Fourier spectrums are displayed by Figures 3-5 through 3-8 to allow assessment of the harmonic content present in the current and voltage waveforms. Recalling that the filter loop is detuned to approximately the twenty-eighth harmonic to provide a path for the harmonic currents above the PWM elimination band, it is not surprising to see the small twenty-seventh and twenty-ninth harmonics appearing in the Fourier spectrums. If these har- monies were objectionable, they could be moved up the frequency spectrum by detuning the filter loop to the thirty-fifth harmonic. ‘The reasonably small third harmonic appearing in the load voltage and current spectrum is trace- able to a resonant loop formed by the current continuity capacitor Cy, and the particular value of load inductance Ly. Consequently, the amplitude of the third harmonic is load sensitive. For the particular set of values used in this study, the resonant loop becomes more detuned at lighter load and the third harmonic amplitude is reduced. ‘This claim is verified in subsequent study. Furher, if 33Vortage (volte) 1 (amps) 500 400 200 100 =400 EPRI Licensed Material plot of vin with eraneformar on input side, full load and ¢Liters 0.002 plot of 15 with eranstorner on input side, full toad and fitters o a00 Li 00 9.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 Tine seconds) Figure 3-1. Input Voltage v 9-004 0,008 9,008 0,0 0.012 Tike seconde) Figure 3-2. Input Current i, svin.det —Voutage (volts) ccursent camps) 300 200 10 60 EPRI Licensed Material plot of vi vith transformer on Soput side, ful} load and tliters 0.002 8.00 0.006 0.008 0.02 0.082 0.014 0.01 0.04 ‘aw teeconds) Figure 3-3. Load Voltage v 9.002 0.004 0.008 0.008 0.01 0,012 0.014 0,018 @.018 Figure 3-4. Load Current iy, 35agnicude (8) EPRI Licensed Material teequency spectran of vin with input transformer, full Load and ¢Liters 7 9 ow 2 30 so no ao) Figure 3-5. Frequency Spectrum of vs Exequency epectevm of {9 with input txanstorser full load and filters Ti Le OD Tfaenonte nonbor Figure 3-6. Frequency Spectrum of i, 36Megnstude (8) a0 *0 70 20 20 2 EPRI Licensed Material wo 2030S Figure 3-7. Frequency Spectrum of vi, rn of 2 with input eranstomee, nese Figure 3-8. Frequency Spectrum of i 37 09EPRI Licensed Material 4 three-phase connection scheme were developed with no neutral, then the triplen harmonics could not flow in the line current, and the third harmonic loop would be of no concern, Figures 3.9 through 3-12 show, respectively, switching circuit input current, switching circuit out- put current, and the currents for each inductor. Currents if and if, clearly show the fifteen pulses per half eycle of the control PWM scheme. There is approximately a 10% variation of the ampli- tude of each current waveform over a half eycle, This is a direct consequence of the energy loss of ‘each inductor over its idle half cycle, leading to an approximate 6% fluctuation in inductor current. ‘The efficiency as calculated by equation (3-22) is 85.1%. The approximate apportionment of the losses at this load condition is as follows: + 17% ~ inductor ohmic losses + 20% - switching element conduction losses © 63% - switching losses If the switching losses could be eliminated, the predicted efficiency would increase to 93.8%. Although such an efficiency is not acceptable in a utility distribution system, it would be on the lower end of acceptable in an industrial distribution system. plot of xin with teansforner on snput side, full load ond fi2ters saionae® 0 err are oe Tse aecoge) aoe 5.08 0-038 Figure 3-9. Switching Circuit Input Current i; 38EPRI Licensed Material O09? 0.014 0.026 0.018 Figure 3-11. Current for La, 39EPRI Licensed Material plot of io2 vith trensfomes on input sige, full 8 ssh i 4 | Ly Gudea o.oo brane 9,008 vy Ona o1eia boas Pete Figure 3-12. Current for Loz SUMMARY ‘The EFR circuit using total current processing with two inductors has been shown to function as a series SVC with acceptable level of harmonic content in both input and output currents, However, the exhibited efficiency is less than desired. It is speculated, and verified in later study, that an improvement in efficiency can be obtained if operated at utility distribution level voltages where conduction losses are reduced. 3-10EPRI Licensed Material Section 4 ‘TOTAL CURRENT PROCESSING WITH SINGLE INDUCTOR Systematic development of analysis techniques was carried out through execution of Tasks 6-10, ‘The description and performance reported, however, pertains to the refined practical system. DESCRIBING EQUATIONS ‘A set of state variables (y;, y2,-~, y1s) for the total current processing with single inductor circuit are defined in Figures 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, and 2-2. Each switching element is assigned a resistor symbol con Figure 1-9 and then described by the time-varying resistance values of Figure 2-1. Use of Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws leads to the following set of simultaneous equations: Lyi +Roy — vt v3 = 0 @) Coa + Gavia + (¥2 V4) Re + (2 V2 )/Ry ~ yr = 0 42) aby —Yo~ hn = 0 a3 Liye + Rive ~ Lipa ~Ruevi2 yu = 0 44) CLYs + Ya ~ Vo/R3 + (v3 V2 )/Ra + (y2-V2)/Ry = 0 (4-5) (Lyte Lu)is + Ret@ Ry) ys + alwys + ARaKs = Ve 4-6) ji~ sino = 0 an ¥e-Yo/Csp = 0 (4-8) Lande + Rays — Rea¥7 — Laai7 — Rees ~ Lseio -¥s = 0 4-9) Rersyio + Lspsio + y2 — Ys — Lope - Reryo = 0 (4-10) Ju~yalCp = 0 @iy Lephia + Ruryi2 + yu +Lueshis + Ruesyis —¥s 12) Ja -Sa-J = 0 13) 41EPRI Licensed Material we Ree RR @-14) Va = [ys +21 (ReIRy) —ys/(Ro URg)] (Rs Rg ARy Rg) (415) vs = [yi /(RoIRs IRS IRGIRy Rg + yp /(Ry URS )(Re ERs) + ys /Rs (Rp ERs Ry) — ¥5/Rz (Rs Rg IRg)]/(Rz IRs )(R3 URg Ry Rg) (416) Va = [yi + ¥2/(RgIRy) + ys / (Rs IRy)]/ (Rs IRe Ry ERs) “In Equations (4-1) - (4-17) can be rearranged and solved simultaneously to give the state variable form: Aa Wy +bov, (4-18) Since equation set (4-18) is nonstationary, numerical integration must be performed to yield a solu- tion for y. OPERATING CONDITIONS In order to generate performance values for comparison with the two inductor EFR circuit, the values of Rand Ly were selected for 12 KVA at 0.8 PF lagging with an input voltage of 480/V3 V. Inductor L, was described by an inductance of 0.25 H and a resistance of 0.05 Q. Numerical integration of the thirteen describing differential equations was executed until eyclic steady-state was reached. Conduction states for the switching elements were controlled acccrding to Table 1-3 using the switching times of Table 1-2. PERFORMANCE RESULTS. ‘The input voltage vj, the source current i,, the load voltage vz, and the load current iy, are of interest for comparison with the same variables in the two inductor EFR circuit at this identical Joad condition. ‘The instantaneous waveforms of each, found by numerical integration of the describing equations, are shown by Figures 4-1 through 4-4. For harmonic content assessment, the associated Fourier spectrums are presented by Figures 4-5 through 4-8. Comparing the instantene- ous waveforms and frequency spectrums with the corresponding results for the two-inductor circuit presented in PERFORMANCE RESULTS of Section 3, no significant difference is seen in the nature of the waveforms worthy of mention. Currents in the latter case are approximately 4% larger in amplitudes; however, this is due to a decrease in losses allowing an increase in throughput power. 42‘eurcent(ampa EPRI Licensed Material plot of vin with one inductor, input transforner, filters and full load 400 200 -100 -200 4 = vw" | | | i ~s00 L 00,002 0.004 0,006 0.008 0.01 0.017 0,014.06 0,018 Figure 4-1. Input Voltage vi plot of Le vith one inductor, input transformer; ftiters and funl load 0.002 0.008 0.006 0,008 0.010.012 0.014 0.016 0,018 ine teceanas) Figure 4-2. Input Current i, 43Vortage (volts! curcent Campa) EPRI Licensed Material plot of vi with on inductor, Input transformer, filtece and fo1l toad 200 -300 -+00 002 6.004 9.005 9.008 0.01 0-012 0.014 0.016 o.018 Figure 4-3, Load Voltage vi, plot of 12 vith one inductor, input erenstoumes, fitters end full Load 20 se 9 0.002 0.004 0.006 9.008 9.01 0,0i2 @.014 0.016 0,018 Figure 4-4. Load Current ig, 44Magnitude ($9 Magnivude (*) EPRI Licensed Material ceequency spectrin of vin with input transformer, full load and f42ters ° s a as 20 25 30 35 atmonse nonbee Figure 4-5. Frequency Spectrum of vs quency spectiun of $e with input teanetormer, ful? load and fLltere 100 sap." — 0 te | « “T | tf | hasmonic nonbes Figure 4-6. Frequency Spectrum of i 45EPRI Licensed Material Evequency spectrun of vl with snput transformer, fuli load and fiers stops” » 6 so obey c 5 10 18 20 3s 30 38 haznonte mune Figure 4-7. Frequency Spectrum of vy, $ 20 is 20 25 30 3 narmonte number Figure 4.8. Frequency Spectrum of i, 46EPRI Licensed Material As discussed in Section 3, the filter loop being detuned to the twenty-eighth harmonic leads to small twenty-seventh and twenty-ninth harmonic content source and load waveforms. Also, the small third harmonic resulting from the resonant loop formed by C, and Ly, and appearing in the Toad voltage and current waveforms is of the same amplitude as in the two-inductor EFR circuit case. Figures 4-9 through 4-11 display the input and output currents for the switching circuit and the inductor current. For this single-inductor circuit, there is no idle half cycle; hence, current variation in the inductor is reduced to approximately 3% over a cycle. As a result, the magnitudes of i, and it, are more nearly constant over each half cycle (approximately 4% variation) than was the cxse for the two-inductor EFR circuit. ‘The efficiency as calculated by equation (3-22) is 89.1%. The approximate apportionment of the losses is as follows: . 14% - inductor losses + 24% ~ switching clement conduction losses © 62% - switching losses cq ,E1OH of Hin with one inductor, input transformer, ters and felt toad aes corcent (onpst 0 @.002 0.008 0.006 9,008 8.08 ‘Hine seconds) o016 0,018 Figure 4-9, Switching Circuit Input Current i aqEPRI Licensed MaterialEPRI Licensed Material Again, the switching losses are significant although they are reduced over the two-inductor case. It has not been specifically verified; however, the reduction in switching losses is believed to be a result of fewer forced commutations of the inductor from the freewheeling mode that results from the use of one rather than two inductors. It is pointed out that if the switching losses were elim- inated, the predicted efficiency would crease to 95.5% for this particular load. SUMMARY ‘The EFR circuit using total current processing with a single inductor functions equally well as the two-inductor case as a series SVC. No significant difference in harmonic content of input and out- put waveforms is observed in comparison of the single-inductor and two-inductor circuits, How- ever, decrease in inductor ohmic losses (one device), switching element conduction losses (three devices instead of four conducting at a time), and switching losses has led to a 4.1% improvement in efficiency at the load point of comparison.EPRI Licensed MaterialEPRI Licensed Material Section 5 QUADRATURE CURRENT PROCESSING ‘The BFR circuit using a single inductor has been demonstrated equivalent to the two-inductor EFR circuit from a harmonic point of view and shown to display a better efficiency. Consequently it is the circuit of choice for implementation of the quadrature current processing circuit of Figure 1-6. Again, systematic development of analysis techniques was carried out by following Tasks 11-15 to attain the final system in an orderly mannes. The circuit description and performance of interest are those of the refined practical circuit. DESCRIBING EQUATIONS Addition of parallel conducting paths from the source to the load to the circuit of Figure 1-5 leads to the quadrature current processing EFR circuit of Figure 1-6. As a result, two more degrees of freedom are added, requiring two new state variables (j14.y1s) as indicated in Figure 1-6. These ‘ew state variables along with the previously defined variables of Figures 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, and 2-2 form a sufficient set of state variables (ys, yo,“ ys) for analysis of the quadrature current process- ing EFR circuit with one inductor. Using the resistor symbols assigned to each switching element in Figure 1-5, and described by the time-varying resistance values of Figure 2-1, application of Kirchhof's voltage and current laws yield the following set of simultaneous equations for the ‘quadrature custent processing cireuit: Loja + Roy ~ v1 +3 GD CaS + Wa —Vi)/ Rg + (92-V4) Re + Ya~Va)/ Ry ~ yr = 0 (6-2) aya-Yo~jn = 0 (53) Ly Ya + Ri y4~ Live - Rip vie Yn = 0 G4) CL Ys + ys ~ val Ra + (ava)! Re + (Y2—va)/Ry = 0 (55) # Lins +2 Ruiys + Lsiis + Royis talais + aRaxs = Ve 66) Sr-Jo- ino = 0 1 Ys~yolCsp = 0 (5-8) SlEPRI Licensed Material Lalis + Rays ~ Raay7 ~ Laat ~ Ror yo ~Lse jo ~ye = 0 6-9) Reps yio + Lsrs jio + y2 — ye — Lee jo — Rep ys = 0 6-10) Ju ~Y2/Cie = 0 1) Lap iia + Rur via + Yin + Liss is + Riss Yis ~ ys = 0 (5-12) jas +a Je-tin = 0 (5-13) Sum ths ti = 0 14) Lsiis + Reyis + Lp jis + Ruryi2 + Lushia + 9u1 = ve 6-15) Equations (5-1) - (5-15) can be solved simultaneously along with equations (4-14) - (4-17) to yield the state variable form: y= Asytbsy 16) Equation set (5-16) is nonstationary, and numerical integration must be performed to yield a solu- tion for y. OPERATING CONDITIONS, Performance values for the quadrature current processing EFR circuit were calculated for three different load conditions: © 1OKVA at 0.8 PF lagging, 480/13 V. © .2.5KVA at 0.8 PF lagging, 480/13 V. © 10 VA at 0.8 PF lagging, 12500/¥3 V. In the first two load cases, inductor L, was described by an inductance of 0.25 H and a resistance of 0.05.9. Values for filter elements for the frst two load cases were those of Figures 1-3 end 1-4. However, for the third load case, all capacitances were reduced by a factor of 30, and all induc~ tances were increased by a factor of 30 in order to increase the impedance at fundamertal fre- quency to accommodate the increased source voltage without excessive fundamental frequency 52EPRI Licensed Material current flow through filter branches. ‘Transformer parameters were also adjusted to give typical values for a 12.5/¥3 KV, 10 KVA transformer with 98% efficiency. ‘The energy storage inductor Le description was changed to 200 H and 1.15 © to maintain a large time constant during charging. In all load cases, numerical integration of the fifteen describing differential equations was carried out until cyclic steady-state was attained. Control of the switching elements was according to Table 1-3, The switching times of Table 1-2 were recalculated for appropriate modulation indices as indicated by Table 5-1 Table 5-1 MODULATION INDICES [toas | Vonage | 1; Modulation | 3, Modulation | | | Index| |2sKva | 480/V3 0.080 9.24 | 1OKVA | 480/¥3 0.095 oso | 1OKVA | 480/38 | 0.095 0.950 1OKVA | 1250003 | 0.040 0.950 PERFORMANCE RESULTS 2.5 KVA, 480/13 V ‘The instantaneous waveforms for vs, ig, vis and i, ate found by numerical integration of the describing equations and are shown by Figures 5-1 through 5-4. The corresponding Fourier spec- trums are displayed by Figures 5-6 through 5-8. ; and if) are presented by Figures 5-9 and 5-10, respectively. ‘The switching circuit input and output currents Since the switching circuit supplies only current 90° out of phase with the source voltage, 2 KW of power flows through the parallel path around the switching circuit and 1.5 KVAR flows from the switching circuit, Since the model is open-loop controlled at this stage of development, trial-and- error work is necessary to determine modulation indices for the input and output PWM currents. Steady-state condition for the inductor current (i) was found with a modulation index of 0.08 for the input PWM current and a modulation index of 0.124 for the output PWM current. These small modulation indices are apparent from inspection of Figures 5-9 and 5-10. Examination of the frequency spectra for i and i, in Figures 5-9 and 5-10 shows that 2-5% values of the eleventh, fifteenth, and seventeenth harmonics have appeared. Explanation for this harmonic 33Voltage (volte) current (anes) EPRI Licensed Material vinof one inductor ctreult with quadrature compensa 400 2 and 2.580% Load wetndad™ — 300 -100 -200 -300 0 eee © 0,002 0,004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0,012 0.014 0.016 0.038 tine (aecande Figure 5-1. Input Voltage v; Asrof one inductor otzeult with quadrature compensation and 2.5KVA load 4° "Se.daa"” — © 0,002 0,004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0,014 0.016 0.018, Tine (seconds) Figure 5-2. Input Current i, 34voltage (volte) corrent (amps) 420 200 200 200 -300 400 EPRI Licensed Material vi of one inductor elzcule vith quadrature cospensation end 2.5KVA lotd wend” — 0.002 (0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01, 0.032 0.014 0.016 9,018 Tike teecoads) Figure 5-3. Load Voltage vi compensation a id 2.5KVA lost ° 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.03, 0,012 0.014 time (eeconda) Figure 5-4. Load Current ip 55 0.018 0.018Magnizude (4) Mognitude (8) 100 %0 10 60 so 20 20 10 200 50 40 6 40 30 20 10 EPRI Licensed Material Frequency spectrus of {3 of one inductor ofxcuit with 2.SRVA load nets Poy ee Yparmonte number Figure 5-5. Frequency Spectrum of vj Ecoquency spectrum of vin of one inductor oireu! 70 20 with 24 30 SVK ead, ow nr er Taemonle number Figure 5-6. Frequency Spectrum of i, 56 70 a0 es 30 ] Hi 100Magnitude (4) frequency spectrum of {vi of one inductor EPRILi icensed Material elzoutt with 2.5KVA losd 90 80 70 60 20 20 0 aaa 120 10 Exequency spectrum of £1 of one Inductor elzeutt with 2,5KVA load a rr ae) Tparronie nusber 70 Figure 5-7. Frequency Spectrum of vi, 90 «00 90 80 6 40 10 1 no a0 230080 Tharnonie munbe Figure 5-8. Frequency Spectrum of i, 70 eo 90 «00curcene (amps) corrent (amps) EPRI Licensed Material ain of one inductor cireult with quadrature compensation and 2.SKVA load l so 0 30 20 20 out of one inductor eiveutt with quadrature so 40 30 1. ° -10 xdn.des” — ul 0.002 0.008 0.006 Figure 5-9. Switching Circuit Input Current i; 0.008 0.01 0.012 Tine (aeeanaes conpensation snd 2.5HVA load 0.014 0.026 0.038 | | 0.002 0.004 0.006 9.008 0.0 0,012, Tike (seconds) O.014 0.016 0.028 Figure 5-10. Switching Circuit Output Current if, 58EPRI Licensed Material content change over the previous higher load points is believed to be a direct result of effective pulse removal by the small modulation index of current i;. Notice in Figure 5-9 that only thirteen pulses per half cycle appear in the i; waveform, The logic provides for fifteen pulses per half cycle; however, due to the short duration of the first and last pulse per half cycle at an extremely small modulation index, the practical switching model does not allow turn-on. Consequently, the resulting PWM waveform can contain harmonics less than the twenty-ninth. Calculated efficiency for the described load condition is 72.4%. A modified method of control that allows improvement in this efficiency value will be discussed later. 10 KVA, 480/V3 V ‘The instantaneous waveforms for vj, i,, v,, and i, are determined by numerical integration. Plots of the results are shown by Figures 5-11 through 5-14. The associated frequency spectra are de- Picted by Figures 5-15 through 5-18. Figures 5-19 and 5-20 display the input and output cu:rents for the switching circuit, For this 10 KVA load condition, 8 KW flows through the path parallel to the switching cirevit and 6 KVAR flows from the switching circuit, Trial-and-error determined modulation indices for this ccase are 0.095 and 0.5 for the PWM input and output currents, respectively. The slightly larger modulation index for the input PWM current of this case, when compared to the 2.5 KVA load ‘case, apparently allows sufficient duration of the first and last pulse per half cycle of the input PWM current waveform to eliminate the pulse dropping phenomenon. Consequently, the frequency spectrum of i, is quite similar to that of earlier higher load cases. Caloulated efficiency for the described load is 89%. At first this value is puzzling since it is 0.1% less than observed for the case of total current processing. However, the reason is explainable based on the control method. The output current modulation index was lowered to 0.5. As a result, the inductor current is maintained at approximately the same valve as for the total current processing case, and the resulting conduction losses of the inductor and switches are basically unchanged. Such an approach would allow a rapid increase in output current without regerd to inductor time constants if the EFR circuit were to be utilized for transient stability enhancement, However, efficiency can be improved by simply raising the output modulation index so that the inductor current decreases for condition of reduced output current requirement. In order to illus- ‘rate this claim, the performance was re-calculated for the output modulation index changed to 0.95. ‘The resulting efficiency increased to 91.6%.voltage (volts current (amps 400 400 60 ‘0 20 EPRI Licensed Material vin Of one inductor circuit vith quadrature coapensation and LOKVA Load wvtneas — © 0.002 0.008 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 Tine “(eecoaes) Figure 5-11. Input Voltage vj is of one inductor cizeutt with quadrature conpensation and LOKVA lose vis.ae" — \ / 00.002 0,008 0.008 G.008 0.01 0,012 0.04 0,016 0,018 ine (eecones) Figure 5-12. Input Current i, 5-10voltage (volts) curcent (amps) EPRI Licensed Material vif one inductor circuit with quadrature compensation and OKUA load 400 -100 -200 300 tog Ls = 0 0,002 0,004 0,008 0.008 0.0 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 Hine (seconds) Figure 5-13. Load Voltage vy 12 of one inductor elzeult with quadrature compensation and LOKVA lose © 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0,018 0.016 0.018, Mine (seconds) Figure 5-14. Load Current in, SuMagnitude (4) Magnitude (4) 90 0 » 6 so “0 20 20 10 90 @ 60 «0 30 20 10 EPRI Licensed Material Exequency spectrun of vin of one Anductor elrcuit with 1OKVA tose Figure 5-16. Frequency Spectrum of i 5-12 hharsonte number oo eeee—E——E—EeEEEe seven — 30 2 30 40 80 60 708090 Tharnonte nunber Figure 5-15. Frequency Spectrum of vj Ezequency spectrum of Ss of one Anductor circuit with 10KVA load “te — i I oi 2302 aO | SOSaSCSSC«RSC«SCnMagnitude (#) Magnitude (t 200 90 80 0 6 50 “0 20 20 20 200 90 a0 6 50 “0 30 20 a0 EPRI Licensed Material frequency spectrum of v1 of one inductor circuit with 1OKVA load 1 10 2030 Tene) harnoate nunber Figure 5-17. Frequency Spectrum of vz requency spectrum of {i of one inductor circuit with 10KVA load 78090 «aD pas | 2030 rr Harmonie number Figure 5-18. Frequency Spectrum of i, 5-13 708080 ~=«Ocurrent (anes) current (amps) 6 “0 20 xin of one inductor etrouit with EPRI Licensed Material 9.002 0.008 0.006 0.008 0.03. 0.012 0.024 0.016 0.028 sine (seconds) Figure 5-19. Switching Circuit Input Current i; ‘gai St Of one {nduetor cixcult with quadrature compensation and LOHVA toad 40 20 wi | 0.002 0.004 0.006 9.008 0.01 0.012 0.024 2.016 0,018 Tine (eeconas) Figure 5-20. Switching Circuit Output Current if, S14EPRI Licensed Material 10 KVA, 12.5/3 KV The work to this point has pertained to industrial distribution level voltage (480/3). In order to examine the potential improvement in efficiency at electric utility distribution level voltage (12,5/3 KV), the describing equations were solved with appropriate adjustment of parameters. Graphs of the resulting instantaneous waveforms of Vi, ig, Vis it» If, and if, are shown by Figures 5-21 through 5-26. The resulting calculated efficiency is 95.0%, bearing out the speculated improvement for increased voltage operation. If switching losses were eliminated, the efficiency Drojects to 98.4%. SUMMARY ‘The EFR circuit with quadrature current processing and using a large output current modalation index shows an efficiency improvement of 2.5% over the total current processing arrangement for 4480/3 V operation. Increase in level of voltage offers an additional significant increase in efficiency. If only switching losses were eliminated, the quadrature current processing EFR circuit performance projects to an efficiency that is acceptable for static VAR compensators in electric util- ity application. wt =] ~s000 | ~10000 -15000 @ 0.002 e.00% 0,008 9,008.0 ovaie ov0ia 0.018 0.018 (seconds) Figure 5-21. Input Voltage v, S15cerrent (anes) voutage (volte) 15000 20000 so00 ~s000 20000 ~15000 EPRI Licensed Material “ie.a" bo © 0.002 0.00 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 nike (seconds) Figure 5-22. Input Current i, oS wena © 0.002 0,00 0.006 0.008 0.03, 0.012 0.014 0.018 0,028 Tike (seconds Figure 5-23. Load Voltage v1 5-16Current (amps) cucrent (amps) EPRI Licensed Material a > 0,002 0,004 0.006 0.008 0.010.012, ‘ike (eecosda) Figure 5-24. Load Current iy, 0.014 0,016 6.018 © 0,002 0.004 0.005 9.008 0.01 0,012 Tine (eecoads) Figure 5-25. Switching Circuit Input Current i, 5:17 0.04 0.016 0.018current (amps) EPRI Licensed Material —— tI 0.002 0.008 9.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 ike (seconds) Figure 5.26. Switching Circuit Output Current ifEPRI Licensed Material Section 6 EXTENSION TO THREE-PHASE TOPOLOGY ‘The work described by Sections 3 through 5 has theoretically demonstrated that the energy flow routing circuit concept is realizable and controllable for the single-phase case when operated as a static VAR compensator. Since the EFR circuit can offer operational features to enhance steady- state and transient performance of a power system that are not available from static VAR compen sators of competing technology, some increase in switch count over that required for a simple static VAR compensator can be justified, However, simple extension of the EFR circuit to three-phase realization by use of three single-phase circuits is not desirable as the resulting three-phase configuration would require twenty-four power semiconductor switches. Further, implementation would require either three single-phase transformers or a three-phase transformer with isolated secondaries. Two circuit arrangements for three-phase realization of the EFR concept while main- taining an acceptable switch count are qualitatively examined. Limited analyses using simple ‘models are presented for the single-phase case to substantiate the claimed principle of operation. FORWARD CONVERTER EFR CIRCUIT ‘The forward converter concept from the switch-mode power supply technology can be extended to form the single-phase EFR circuit of Figure 6-1. The transformer is of special design and operates with unidirectional fux. ‘The magnetic circuit includes an airgap to maintain magnetic linearity For the EFR application, the coefficient of coupling between primary and secondary windings is intentionally reduced to yield larger than normal leakage inductances that act to store and transmit a Figure 6-1. Single-Phase Forward Converter EFR Circuit 1EPRI Licensed Material significant portion of the managed energy, ‘The combination of an air gap in the magnetic circuit and a reduced coefficient of coupling results in a smaller than normal magnetizing inductance that is approximately the same order of magnitude as the leakage inductances. In single-phase realization, the forward converter EFR circuit requires eight power semiconductor switches. Thus, the switch count is identical to the previously studied single-phase circuit of Fig- ure 1-5. However, Figure 6-2 presents a three-phase forward converter EFR circuit wherzin only ‘twelve power semiconductor switches are utilized, Further, only a single-phase transformer of the special design described above is required. Figure 6-2, Three-Phase Forward Converter EFR Circuit In order to see the performance nature of the EFR forward converter, numerical study of the single-phase circuit of Figure 6-1 was carried out for an ideal voltage source (v,) and a pure resis tive load (R.). For this simplified circuit with energy storage in the fields of the primary and secondary leakage inductances and the magnetizing inductance, solution of three simultaneous equations was required. Sinusoidal PWM control with fifteen pulses per half cycle was imple- mented to theoretically eliminate harmonics less than the twenty-ninth. Figures 6-3 through 6-6, respectively, show iy, iz, ig, and i, for a load of approximately 8 KW with 277 V. The values of leakage inductance are approximately fifty times typical values for a 10 KVA transformer, while the magnetizing inductance is approximately one-half a typical velue, No attempt has been made to optimize the leakage and magnetizing inductance choice since the intent 62EPRI Licensed Material 63 Vine (See) Time (880) Figure 6-4. Output Current ip Figure 6-3. Input Current iyEPRI Licensed Material 64 Time (800) Figure 6-6. Load Current ir, Figure 6-5. Source Current i,EPRI Licensed Material is only to illustrate the basic performance nature of the forward converter EFR circuit. Nonethe- less, comparing Figures 6-3 and 6-4 with Figure 4-11, itis seen that unidirectional current is main- tained in the forward converter circuit similar to the current present in the total current processing with single inductor circuit. Further, currents i, and iy. of Figures 6-5 and 6-6 compare favorably in form with currents i; and if, of Figures 4-9 and 4-10. ‘The simple model only accounted for con- duction losses of the switches; however, without switching losses, the approximate calculated efficiency is 96.4%. It is projected that the efficiency would increase by at least 2% for application at utility distribution level voltages. RESONANT LINK EFR CIRCUIT The above described forward converter EFR circuit gives a three-phase configuration with acoept- able switch count. However, forced commutated switches are still required. Study of the one and two inductor EFR circuits has shown the switching losses of the forced commutated switch to be significant. Figure 6-7 presents a single-phase EFR circuit that utilizes a resonant link between input and output converters. The resonant link current can be controlled to be of the form 1-cos(e,0), giving zero current at turn-on of the switches (J). Also, natural commutation of the switches occurs, allowing use of thyristors rather than forced commutated switches. Consequently, switching losses can be practically eliminated. Figure 6-7. Single-Phase Resonant Link EFR Circuit 65EPRI Licensed Material Figure 6-8 shows the three-phase resonant ink EFR circuit where the switch count is nine. Opera- tion of the de link (single-phase or three-phase cases) so as to obtain a totally different performance from the biased sinusoidal current excursions described by Reference | is anticipated, The specific intent is to generate a set of sinusoidal PWM current waveforms like unto those of Figure I-1. ‘The resonant current excursion is to be used only to implement commutation at the end of pulse dura- tion, ‘The resulting pulse train has a lower RMS value of current than that of Reference 1 for an ‘identical amp-second content, Theoretically, conduction losses can be reduced, The added thyristors Qy and Q; of Figure 6-8 are the first step in realization of the proposed true sinusoidal PWM waveform. At the desired point of pulse termination, Q, is fired. A resonant current flows around the loop formed by Q,—L,~C,. Current flowing from Ly to the Toad bridge is relieved sufficiently long to commutate the conduction thyristors in both the input and output bridge circuits. Since reverse current cannot flow through Q,, it experiences natural commutation and the near constant, large current of L, begins to flow through C,. As the voltage across C, approaches zero, Qy is fired to pick up continuity of the L, current around the freewheeling path LQ. As long as input current is maintained in phase with input voltage, conduction can be re- established by firing appropriate thyristors in the input and output bridges; the resulting positive voltage impressed upon the input of the de link assures a reverse bias of Qe. Hence, Q, is commu- tated and the current of L, once again flows through the source and load. If the source input power factor is other than unity, then a positive source voltage is not always available to reverse bias Qp However, itis speculated that with some thought, a second resonant loop can be added to the cir- cuit to assure commutation of Q, even with an instantaneously negative de link input voltage. Figure 6-8. Three-Phase Resonant Link EFR Circuit 66EPRI Licensed Material REFERENCES, 1. Y, Murai and T. A. Lipo, "High Frequency Series Resonant DC Link Power Conver sion’, IEEE-IAS Conf. Rec., pp. 772-179. 67EPRI Licensed MaterialEPRI Licensed Material Section 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ‘The interest and application of static VAR compensators continues to grow in the electric power industry, Of keen interest are the voltage source and current source based static VAR compensa tors that are fast acting and infinitely variable in adjustment. These are largely one-port devices referred to as parallel VAR compensators. This work has introduced a novel static VAR compen- sator based on the principle coined as energy flow routing (EFR). Physically the circuit arrange- ‘ment forms a two-port network; hence, it is classified as a series VAR compensator. The theoretical study of this work has examined the EFR circuit in the static VAR compensator application and established the following results: + The EFR concept is feasible and controllable. * Harmonic contents of the input and output voltages and currents are manageable using only a single unit. ‘© Input and output power factors can be arbitrarily set to any desired value. ‘© Switching losses can significantly reduce the efficiency of the circuit. LIMITATIONS Use of forced commutated power semiconductor devices leads to switching losses. These switch- ing losses can be reduced by introduction of additional circuitry for current trajectory shaping. At this initial stage of study, no such snubber networks were included in the modeling of the EFR cir- cuits. Consequently, calculated efficiencies at full load operation ranged from 91.6% for low vol- tage application to 95% for electric utility distribution level voltage when studying the one-inductor EFR circuit with quadrature current processing. Although improvements in efficiency values are potentially possible with introduction of current trajectory control, it is unlikely that the desired lev- ls of 98-99% for static VAR compensators can be reached with a count of eight forced commu- tated switches per phase, FUTURE WORK ‘The de link converter with resonant commutation appears to offer the same desireable performance characteristics as the EFR circuits examined in this study. However, with the potential to practi- cally eliminate switching, the circuit should be capable of operating with efficiency above 98%, Tt is recommended that future activity be directed toward study and development of the EFR prirciple vusing the de link converter with resonant commutation, TeEPRI Licensed MaterialABOUT EPRI The mission of the Electric Power Research institute is to discover, develop, and deliver high value technological advances through networking and partnership with the electricity industry. Funded through annual membership dues from some 700 member utilities, EPRI's work ‘covers a wide range of technologies related to the generation, delivery, and use of electricity, with special attention paid to cost-effectiveness and environmental concerns. At EPRI's headquarters in Palo Alto, California, more than 350 scientists and engineers ‘manage some 1600 ongoing projects throughout the world. 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