COAGULATION OF TURBID WATER

USING NATURAL MATERIAL: CACTUS

YEOH KAR CHUAN

SABAH
1i1NEfiSfiiMAIAYSiA

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH HONOURS

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY PROGRAMME

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

APRIL, 2007
 UNIVER.3IT1 MALAYSIA SABAfi

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© Tesis dimaksudkan sebagaitesis bagi Ijayah Doktor Falsa.'ah dan Sarjana sot:an penyelidikan, atau
disertasi bagi pcngajian tac=ra kcrja kvrsus dan Ixsyelidikan, atau Laporan Projck Sarjana Muds
(LPSM).
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is basedon my original work, except for quotations

and summaries each of which have been fully acknowledged.

ellý

APRIL 2007
ý
YEOH KAR CHUAN
HS2004-2395
 VERIFICATION

NAME: YEOH KAR CHUAN

TITLE: COAGULATION OF TURBID WATER USING

NATURAL MATERIAL: CACTUS

I
Y_ý
r,

(PROF.MADYA DR. MARCUS JOPONY)

()o
(DR. MD. LUTFOR RAHMAN)

574'007

(PFOF MADYA DR SHARIFF A. K.OMANG)

APRIL, 2007
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude especially to my project supervisor, Prof. Madya Dr.
Marcus Jopony for his guidance, supervisions, advises and patiences along the period of

this research. 1 am grateful to Mr Sani for his kindness and willingness to lend a helping
hand especially towards the lab equipment to make my project a successful one.

I am very thankful for the support given by my family. To all my fellow friends
information and ideas in the joint effort to
who are there to help and willing to share
complete the dissertation, thank you all so much!
 ABSTRACT

The ability of cactus (Opunnu frcus indica) as natural coagulant for treatment of turbid

water was tested according to jar test. Kaolin was used to produce the synthetic turbid

water. The experiment variables were coagulant dosage, initial turbidity value and pH.
For comparison, a similar study was carried out using a conventional coagulant,

aluminium sulphate. Coagulation using cactus attained a maximum of turbidity removal

60.5 NTU compared to 73.1% by alum. The
efficiency of 74.9% for initial turbidity of
optimum dosage for cactus and alum was 0.03g and 0.2g respectively. As the cactus
dosage increased, turbidity removal efficiency dropped until 58.2% compared to alum

which remained constant at about 72.2°/ö. As the initial turbidity increased, turbidity
but increased for alum. The optimum initial
removal efficiency for cactus decreased
turbidity for both cactus and alum was 41 NTU and 81.5 NTU, respectively. Effect of pH
The optimum pH for cactus was 2 at 0.015g and 0.03g
varies for both alum and cactus.
dosage while for alum is 6 at 0.2g dosage. As the pH increased, turbidity removal
but remained uncertain for alum.
efficiency for cactus decreased
 PROSESPENGGUMPALAN PADA AIR NERUN DF'11GA,1' MF'.N000'; 1:4AAN
BAIIAN SEMULAJADI: KAKTUS

A BSTRA k

Keupuvuun kuktu.c (Opuntia /icuc tndre"u)untuk hertinduk cehugur culuh cutu huhun
. . .
pengguntpul cemululadr Jtu/t dengan menggunukun 'Iur test' untuk ruwutun air keruh.
.
Kaolin ditamhah sehugat kekeruhan. Proses penggumpulun kuktuc drku/t dengan

menggunakun Jar tester : Antara juktor yang dikaji termusuk umuun huhun penggumpal,
kekeruhan awal dun pH. Alum digunakan .cehugui contoh huhun pe ngguntpul yang hiu.cu
digunakan untuk tujuan perhundingan. Prosespengt,ºumpulun kaktuc mencupur sehanvuk
kekeruhan hag, kekeruhun uwul 60.5 N7'l / Jr mama
, 4.9% keherkesununpenvtngkrran iu
humptr cerupu dengan alum cehunvak 73.1% bagi mengu. /i jaktor umuun penggumpal.
. .
Hunvu (1.03g kaktuc digunakan jika dthandrng dengun 0.2g alum di munu tu uduluh
Apuhilu amaun hahan
amaun yang optimum bagi penggumpal "Id.cmg-ma.cing.
kekeruhan menurun cehinggu 58.2%
penggumpul hertamhah, keherke.canunpenvrngkiran .
kekal 72.2%. Apuhila kekeruhan awal hertumhuh,
manukula hagi alum, ia sebanvak
keherke.cununpenvrngkrran kekeruhan herkurang bagi kuktuc tetupr hertumhah hug, ulu'M
Kekeruhan uwa/ optimum bagi kakluc ta/ah a/ N77/ manukalu hagi alum la/uh 81.5 NT( I.
2 hagi amaun huhun penggumpul .cehanvak 0-015g Jan
pH optimum hugi kuktuc ia/ah
0.03g manakala pH optimum bagi alum ialah 6 bagi amaun huhun penggumpal .cehunvak
0.2g. ApahNapH herlamhuh, keherke.canunpenvmgkirun kekeruhun menurun bagi kuktuc

tetupi tidak tentu hagi alum.

 vi l

CONTENTS

Page
TITLE OF THESIS i
DECLARATION ii
VERIFICATION
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV
ABSTRACT
V
ABSTRAK
vi
CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES X
LIST OF FIGURES XI
LIST OF PHOTOS X11
LIST OF APPENDIX X111

LIST OF SYMBOL & ABBREVIATIONS XIV

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION I
1.1 Overview I
1.2 Cactus 2
1.3 Objectives of study 3
1.4 Scopeof study 3

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Water Turbidity 4
2.2 SedimentationProcess 5
2.3 Chemistry of Coagulation Process 6
2.3.1 General Mechanism 8
2.3.2 Double Layer CompressionMechanism lI
2.3.3 EnmeshmentMechanism lI
2.3.4 Adsorption and Charge Neutralization Mehcanism I1
2.3.5 Adsorption and Interparticle Bridging 12
 viii

2.4 Type of Coagulants

12
2.4.1 Inorganic Coagulants
13
2.4.2 Synthetic Organic Polymer Coagulants
16
2.4.3 Natural Occurring Coagulants 17
2.5 Characteristicof Coagulation Process 18
2.5.1 Jar Test
19
2.5.2 Effect of Dosage
19
2.5.3 Effect of pH 20
2.5.4 Effect of alkalinity 22
2.5.5 Effect of temperature 23

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 25
3.1 Turbid Water Samples 25
3.1.1 Kaolin Suspension 25
3.1.2 River Water Samples 26
3.2 Natural Coagulant-Sampleand Its Preparation 27
3.3 Coagulation Experiments 28
3.3.1 Effect of Coagulant Dose 28
3.3.2 Effect of Initial Turbidities 29
3.3.3 Effect of pH 30
3.4 Measurementof Turbidity 32

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 34

4.1 Effect of Coagulant Dosage 34
4.2 Effectof Initial Turbidity 37
4.3 Effectof pH 40

CHAPTERS CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS 44

5.1 Conclusions 44
5.2 Future Works 45
RF:FF:RF:1('FS
APPENDIX
 x

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1 Summaryof the experiment design to test the effect of coagulant dose 29
Table 3.2 Summary of the experiment design to test the effect of initial turbidities 30
Table 3.3 Summaryof the experiment design to testthe effect of pH 32
 XI

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.1 Electrochemical propertiesof a colloidal particle

9
Figure 2.2 Different dosagesto treat synthetic water with different initial turbidity 20
Figure 2.3 Effect of pH on removal of turbidity in Periyar River water 21
Figure 2.4 The effect of alkalinity on the final turbidity using dosesof 23
Prosopisjuliflora
Figure 2.5 Different coagulantdosagesto treat synthetic water in different
24
temperature
Figure 4.1 Effect of altering the dosageof cactus(initial turbidity=60.5 NTU) 34
Figure 4.2 Turbidity removal efficiency at different cactusdosage 35
(Initial Turbidity=60.5NTU)
Figure 4.3 Effect of altering the dosageof alum (Initial turbidity=85 NTU) 36
Figure 4.4 Turbidity removal efficiency at different alum dosage 36
(Initial Turbidity-- 85NTU)
Figure 4.5 Effect of altering the initial turbidity using cactuscoagulant 37
Figure 4.6 Turbidity removal efficiency of cactusat different initial turbidity 38
Figure 4.7 Effect of altering the initial turbidities using alum coagulant 39
Figure 4.8 Turbidity removal efficiency of cactusat different initial turbidity 39
Figure 4.9 Effect of altering the pH using 0.015g and 0.030g cactus 40
(Initial turbidity=59NTU)
Figure 4.10 Turbidity removal efficiency of cactus at different pH 41
Figure 4.11 Effect of altering the pH using 0.2g alum (Initial turbidity=85NTU) 42
Figure 4.12 Turbidity removal efficiency of alum at different pH 43
 J(ii

LIST OF PHOTOS

Page

Photo 3.1 Kaolin suspension 26

Photo 3.2 Water sample 26
Photo3.3Opuntrajicus indica 27
Photo 3.4 Dried Grinded Cactus 27
Photo 3.5 Jar tester apparatus(Phipps and Birds Model 300) 28
Photo 3.6 pH meter 31
Photo 3.7 Turbidity meter 33
 KI11

LIST OF APPENDIX

Page

Appendix A The raw data of coagulation using cactus and alum 48

Appendix B Calculation methodology for turbidity removal efficiency 50
Appendix C Calculation methodology for preparing acid 51
Appendix D Calculation methodology for preparing alkali 52
Appendix E List of contaminantsin its different level, potential health effects 53
and the sourceof the contaminants.
 XIV

LIST OF SYMBOL AND ABBREVIATIONS

NTU NephelometricTurbidity Unit

FTU JacksonTurbidity Unit
JTU Formazin Turbidity Unit

rpm Round per minute

g Gram

mg Milligram

m Metre

mm Milimetre

AM Micrometer
L Litre
Zetapotential
mg/1 Concentration in milligram per litre

mV milivolt
°C Degreecelcius

N Electrophoretic velocity, cm/s

q Viscosity of the medium

E Dielectric constant on the medium

x applied potential per unit length of cell

 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

The presenceof suspensionssolids pollutant can causethe raw water to have h gh

turbidity. In order to achieve such water standard,water treatment plants carry out a series

of processes.The process specifically is to remove suspendedsolids or to reduce the

water turbidity which is also known as sedimentation (Bryant et al., 1992). According to

WHO guidelines and standard, treated water for human consumption should have a

turbidity value that is less than 5NTU (WHO, 1984).

Typically, coagulant is used to speed up the sedimentation. The effect of a

These factors include type of coagulant, dosage

coagulant dependson several factors. of
1997) and initial turbidity (Zhang et al., 2005).
coagulant (Diaz et al., 1999),pH (Droste,

Conventionally, inorganic coagulants such as aluminium sulfate, aluminium chloride and

ferric chloride are used. Under certain conditions, synthetic organic polymer coagulants

are used.
 2

Due to health and economic reasons,there is a growing interest for the use of

natural coagulants.Examplesof natural coagulantsare starch, starchderivatives, proteins,

algae, chitosan, tannins, strychnos polatorum, moringa olifeira and tamarindis indica

seeds (Droste, 1997). Natural coagulants are preferred in some aspects because of its

abundance source, low price, innocuity, multifunction and biodegradation (Zhang et al.,

2006).

1.2 Cactus

This plant belongs to the Cactaceaefamily. Cactus is normally found in North America,

South America and West Indies and it is able to adapt to the extreme and environment

featureswhich conserve water.

and display a wide range of anatomical and physiological

Cactus can be a source of food in the form of pear-shapedberries which can be process

into jam and jellies (Anderson, 2001). The speciesof cactus that is used for this research

is known as opuntiaficus indica or cactus latifaria (Diaz et al., 1999). Previous studiesby

Zhang et al., 2005 statedthat the potential of cactusas a coagulantis due to its contents in

terms of nutrition and medicinal componentssuch as proteins, amylase, malic acid, resin,

It is shown that cactus has the similar properties of Moringa

vitamins and cellulose.

oleifera (Zhang et al., 2005).

 3

1.3 Objectives of study

Theobjectivesof this studyare:

a) To determinethe effect of dosageof coagulanttowards cactuscoagulation of

turbid water

b) To determinethe effect of initial turbidity towards cactuscoagulation

c) To determinethe effect of pH towards cactuscoagulation

d) To comparecactuswith conventionalcoagulantnamely alum

1.4 Scope of study

The main focus of the researchis the potential of the natural coagulants namely cactus to

function like any other conventional coagulantssuch as alum and iron derivatives that are

be carried out to investigate

available. In this study, jar test experiments will the
dosage,initial turbidity and pH conditions. The
coagulant ability of cactus under varying

test water to be used is kaolinite suspension.

 ('HAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Water Turbidity

Impurities in water often cause the water to appear turbid or be coloured. Impurities

include suspendedand colloidal materials and soluble substances(Culp et al., 1986).

Turbidity is a result of the scatteringand absorption of light by suspendedsolids (Droste,

1997).

Turbidity is determined by the optical property that causeslight to be scattered,

in a straight line through or into a liquid. In
adsorbedor reflected rather than transmitted
light in a sample is compared
the nephelometric method, the intensity of scattered with

the intensity of light scatteredby a standardreference solution under the samecondition.

The higher the intensity of scatteredlight, the higher the turbidity. Light dispersing units

are used for low turbidity water such as potable water and light scattering units are used

for water containing more turbidity (Alley , 2000).According to the Rayleigh's law, it is

observed that size and concentrationof particles are able to influence the measurementof

the turbidity (Droste, 1997).

 5

The units in measuringthe turbidity include Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU),

Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU) and Formazin Turbidity Unit (FTU). A turbidity meter is

used to measurethe turbidity. Turbidity level which is above 1.0 NTU is associatedwith

significant increasesin total coliform densities (Droste, 1997). According to the Surface

Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), the maximum allowable treated drinking water turbidity

is establishedat 5.0 NTU (Bryant et al., 1992).

2.2 Sedimentation Process

Sedimentation is used to remove settleable solids from liquids (Alley, 2000). It is a

processthat involves exposing the water to relatively quiescentconditions that will allow

the removal of solids from water by gravity settling (Droste, 1997). The rate of

sedimentationcan be determined by using Stokes'law (Eckenfelder, 2000).

2
Vs= (P, -Pz) (2.1)
18N

where,

v,= rate of sedimentation in cm/s

g=accelerationdue to gravity

d= particle diameter in cm

p, =density of the particle in g/cm3

p2=densityof the fluid in g/cm3

p=viscosity of fluid in poises

 6

According to the equation, the rate of sedimentation, v, will increase with the

increase of the particle or aggregatesize,d. The rate of sedimentation can be enhanced

using coagulants. Coagulants will gather the suspended particles to form a bigger

aggregateto easethe processof sedimentation.

2.3 Chemistry of Coagulation Process

Coagulation is defined as an irreversible combination or aggregation of semi solid

form a clot or mass(Sax &Lewis, 1987). In another

particles, such as fats or proteins, to

word, coagulation is a process of gathering the suspendedmatter in untreated water for

the purposeof settling and preparedthe water for filtration process.

Coagulation processis employed for the removal of waste materials in suspended

or colloidal form. Conventional physical treatment processcannot remove theseparticles

due to its size range of I nm to 0. I nm (E:ckenfelder,
as it does not settle out on standing

2000). In this finely dispersedcondition, the colloidal particles are able to remain stable

becausethe particles are so small that the Brownian movements,caused by the collision

of the water molecules with the colloids, dominate over the influence of the gravity.

Besides that, the electric repulsive forces results from the surface charge of colloids are

able to preventthe coagulation of the particles (Henze et al., 1995).

 7

By adding the coagulant, the particles will aggregate which results the

destabilization of the colloids. This happensin 2 separateand distinct phases. First, in

order for the particles to be destabilized, repulsion force between the particles must be
between the destabilized particles that must be
overcome. This is follow by the contact

induced to ensurethat the aggregationcan occur. The destabilization step can be achieves

further by blending in rapid mix tanks (Culp et al., 1986).

Colloids presentin the wastewaterconsist of 2 types which is the hydrophobic and

hydrophilic. Hydrophilic colloids such as proteins have a strong tendency to bind or

absorb water with the functional groups such as the amino group (-Ntl2), hydroxyl group

(-OH) and also organic acid group (-COON) serves as the hydrophilic property of the

organic colloids. The binding or absorption of water occurs through the production of so

called hydrogen bindings. It will cause the hydrophilic particles remain enclosed by a

waterjacket which follows the particles in their movements.The water jacket is termed as

bound water (Henze et at., 1995). The absorbed water will retard the flocculation and

normally requires special treatment to achieve effective coagulation (Eckenfelder, 2000).

The hydrophobic colloids such as clays have no affinity at all for the liquid medium and

also lack the stability in the presence of electrolytes. It is readily susceptible to

coagulation (Eckenfelder, 2000). The hydrophobic particles do not have the waterjacket.
 8

2.3.1 General Mechanism

The theory to explain the coagulation process of colloidal systems is based on the

presenceof physical factors such as electrical double layers that surrounds the colloidal

particles in the solution and counterion adsorption. A reduction in the electric potential

(zeta potential) between the fixed layer of counterions and the bulk of the liquid is

required in the destabilization (Culp et al., 1986).

Colloids with its electrical properties are able to prevents agglomeration and

settling by create a repelling force. Stabilizing ions are strongly absorbedto an inner fixed

layer that provides a particle charge that varies with the valence and number of adsorbed

ions (Eckenfelder, 2000). The chargeson the colloids must be counterbalancedby ions of

opposite charge in the solution that are arrangedin an electrical double layer in order for

electroneutrality to exist. The effective thickness of the double layer is influenced greatly

by the ionic concentration and slightly affected by the size of the colloid. The electrical

potential created by the surface charges will attract counterions toward the colloidal

particles. The center of the closest counterions is separatedfrom the surface charge by a

layer of thickness which representsthe Stem layer. The electrical potential drops linerarly

along this layer. Beyond the Stern layer, the electrical potential decreasesexponentially

with distance from the particle in the diffuse layer (Culp et al., 1986). Figure 2.1 shows

the electrochemical propertiesof a colloidal particle (Eckenfelder, 2000).

 9

compact layer diffuse layer

0)
0
-7v G
.rý a
ý
EH

-am. X
Outer Helmholtz Plane
Inner Helmholtz Plane

Figure 2.1 Electrochemical propertiesof a colloidal particle

Although the magnitude of the charge on the colloid can't be measureddirectly,

the value of the potential at some distancefrom the colloid can be computed (Culp et al.,

1886).The zeta potential, ý is defined as the potential drop between the slipping plane and

the body of solution and is related to the particle charge and thickness of the double layer
double layer is also inversely proportional to the
where else the thickness of the

concentration and valence of nonspecific electrolytes (Eckenfelder, 2000). Normally, the

electrophoretic mobility of the colloidal particles is used by observing the particle

mobility through the microscope in order to compute the zeta potential (Culp et al., 1986).

The following equation is the common form of zeta potential equation, where zeta

potential, ý can be obtained:

 46

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